Accepted Manuscript

Degradation of a cationic dye (Rhodamine 6G) using hydrodynamic cavitation

coupled with other oxidative agents: reaction mechanism and pathway

Sunil Rajoriya, Swapnil Bargole, Virendra Kumar Saharan

PII: S1350-4177(16)30170-5
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.05.028
Reference: ULTSON 3238

To appear in: Ultrasonics Sonochemistry

Received Date: 1 April 2016

Revised Date: 15 May 2016
Accepted Date: 18 May 2016

Please cite this article as: S. Rajoriya, S. Bargole, V.K. Saharan, Degradation of a cationic dye (Rhodamine 6G)
using hydrodynamic cavitation coupled with other oxidative agents: reaction mechanism and pathway, Ultrasonics
Sonochemistry (2016), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.05.028

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Degradation of a cationic dye (Rhodamine 6G) using hydrodynamic cavitation

coupled with other oxidative agents: reaction mechanism and pathway

Sunil Rajoriya, Swapnil Bargole, Virendra Kumar Saharan*

Chemical Engineering Department, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur-302017,

India

*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Email: [email protected]; Tel: +91-141-2713244

1
Abstract

In the present study, decolorization and mineralization of a cationic dye, Rhodamine 6G (Rh6G),

has been carried out using hydrodynamic cavitation (HC). Two cavitating devices such as slit

and circular venturi were used to generate cavitation in HC reactor. The process parameters such

as initial dye concentration, solution pH, operating inlet pressure, and cavitation number were

investigated in detail to evaluate their effects on the decolorization efficiency of Rh6G.

Decolorization of Rh6G was marginally higher in the case of slit venturi as compared to circular

venturi. The kinetic study showed that decolorization and mineralization of the dye fitted first-

order kinetics. The loadings of H2O2 and ozone have been optimized to intensify the

decolorization and mineralization efficiency of Rh6G using HC. Nearly 54% decolorization of

Rh6G was obtained using a combination of HC and H2O2 at a dye to H2O2 molar ratio of 1:30.

The combination of HC with ozone resulted in 100% decolorization in almost 5 to 10 min of

processing time depending upon the initial dye concentration. To quantify the extent of

mineralization, total organic carbon (TOC) analysis was also performed using various processes

and almost 84% TOC removal was obtained using HC coupled with 3g/h of ozone. The

degradation by-products formed during the complete degradation process were qualitatively

identified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and a detailed degradation

pathway has been proposed.

Keywords: Rhodamine 6G; Hydrodynamic Cavitation; Circular and Slit venturi; Intensification;

Ozonation; Hydrogen peroxide

2
1. Introduction

In recent years, the discharge of wastewater coming from various textile industries is becoming a

major environmental problem due to loading of the enormous quantity of different toxic dyes. It

is estimated that nearly 18-20% of the total production of dyes is discharged into the

environment during dyeing process [1-4]. Among most of the toxic dyes, Rhodamine 6G dye is

mostly used as a colorant in the textile industries. It is a non-volatile compound, highly water

soluble, and dark reddish purple in color. It has some other applications in the biochemistry

research laboratories where this dye is used as a diagnostic tool to detect the antigen in a liquid

sample. Rh6G is also utilized for fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence correlation

spectroscopy in the area of biotechnology [5]. Water containing Rhodamine dyes causes

irritation of the skin, eyes and respiratory system of human beings. It has also medically verified

that drinking water contaminated with Rhodamine dyes is highly carcinogenic and poisonous to

living organisms [6-7]. Hence, these toxic pollutants must be treated before releasing them into

the environment. These pollutants contain larger complex molecules (i.e. aromatic compounds)

which cannot be treated efficiently by biological methods and other conventional methods such

as adsorption, coagulation by chemical agents and membrane filtration. These methods are very

costly and cannot mineralize these pollutants and rather separate them physically from the

wastewater which causes secondary load on the environment. But over the past years, advanced

oxidation processes (AOPs) such as Fenton, Photo-Fenton, photocatalytic process, and cavitation

have been employed successfully by many authors [8-15] for the treatment of such pollutant

molecules. In last decade, cavitation has also emerged as an effective oxidative process to

degrade the organic pollutants present in wastewater. The phenomena of cavitation may be

described in three sections as 1) nucleation: formation of cavities within the liquid; 2) growth of

bubbles/cavities under the fluctuating surrounding pressure field; (3) subsequent collapse of
3
cavities: violent implosion of vapor/gas filled cavities. In recent years, most of the researchers

have focused on the use of acoustic cavitation in the area of wastewater treatment. However, it

was observed that utilization of acoustic cavitation on an industrial scale creates the difficulties

due to the higher maintenance costs and low energy efficiency. In recent years, hydrodynamic

cavitation (HC) is found to be an alternative to replace acoustic cavitation as an efficient

technology for the mineralization of various organic pollutants from wastewater due to its ease of

operation on an industrial level. In HC, cavitation can be produced by pressure variation in a

flowing liquid through cavitating devices. The cavities are formed at the throat of a venturi or

orifice where pressure of the liquid falls below the vapor pressure of the liquid. In the

downstream side of the cavitating device, when pressure recovers these cavities implode

violently resulting high temperatures of 5000K and pressures of 1000atm [16-20]. Under such

extreme conditions, water molecules are thermally dissociated into •H and •OH radicals [14].

These generated •OH radicals (non-selective reactive species) inside the cavitating devices are

capable of oxidizing the organic substances and thus mineralize these compounds [17-19, 21].

There have been many studies reported in literature for the treatment of Rh6G using different

approaches mainly using photo-catalysis [5, 22-25]. In this regard, Bokhale et al. [22] studied

sono-catalytic and sono-photocatalytic degradation of Rh6G and reported that the maximum

degradation as 63.3% was achieved using sono-photocatalytic (US/UV) in the presence of TiO2

(4g/L). Lutic et al. [26] have investigated the photocatalytic degradation of Rh6G and reported

that the maximum removal of 94% was achieved using photoactive ZnO after 90min of

treatment. Asiri et al. [27] have studied the photo-degradation of Rh6G using nano-sized TiO2 in

the presence of irradiation sources. It was observed that nanoparticles of TiO2 with smaller size

were found to be more efficient in the photo-degradation of Rh6G due to their large surface area.

4
Though, the degradation of Rh6G was investigated in details using various processes at a

laboratory scale but still these technologies do not find any application on an industrial scale due

to their lower efficiency and higher cost for the treatment of real industrial effluent [25].

Moreover these studies have reported the degradation of Rh6G only which was evaluated by

observing a reduction in color intensity of the dye and complete mineralization was not studied

using these methods. The mineralization of Rh6G using HC has not been reported yet in the

literature. Hence, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the ability of HC to mineralize the

Rh6G in aqueous solution and to intensify the mineralization of Rh6G by combining HC with

other oxidizing agents to establish HC on an industrial scale for the treatment of real effluent.

The effects of operating parameters like solution pH, initial concentration of dye, inlet pressure,

and cavitation number on the decolorization of Rh6G were investigated. The effect of oxidation

additives such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and ozone has also been studied since these two

oxidizing agents are mostly used for the treatment of an industrial effluent. An attempt has been

made to identify the degradation by-products using LC-MS study and subsequently a possible

degradation pathway of Rh6G has been proposed. Furthermore the mechanism of degradation of

Rh6G using HC was also verified by observing the amount of H2O2 produced during HC.

2. Experimental details

2.1 Reagents

Rhodamine 6G dye (molecular weight: 479.02g/mol; chemical formula: C28H31N2O3Cl) was

procured from Central Drug House Pvt. Ltd (India). The chemical structure of Rh6G is shown

in Table 1. Double distilled water (prepared freshly in the laboratory via distillation unit) was

used to make the solution of Rh6G. Hydrogen Peroxide (30%, w/v) of AR grade was purchased

5
 from Lobachemie (India). Solution pH was adjusted using NaOH and H2SO4. All reagents as

received from suppliers were used for the experiments without any further purification.

2.2 Hydrodynamic cavitation reactor setup

Hydrodynamic cavitation reactor set-up used in the present work is shown in Fig. 1. HC reactor

set-up consists: (1) a storage tank with 20L capacity, (2) a high pressure piston pump driven by a

motor (power rating 2.2 kW) with a maximum discharge pressure of 30, (3) flow control valves

(V1–V4), and pressure gauges (P1, P2), (4) a flow meter, (5) cavitating device (slit or circular

venturi) accommodated with flanges. Pipes used in HC reactor have an internal diameter of 19

mm. The suction side of a pump is connected to the bottom of a storage tank. The discharge from

the pump branches into main line and bypass line. The main line consists of a cavitating device

and flow rate of water in the main line was controlled by regulating rpm of motor through

variable frequency drive (VFD) and additionally a bypass line is also provided to control the

flow in main line. Pressure gauges (P1 and P2) are provided in main line to check the fluid

pressure. The dimensions of circular and slit venturi used in this work are given in Table 2.

Schematic view of circular and slit venturi is shown in Fig.2. In this work, dimensions of the

cavitating device selected were recommended by Bashir et al. [28], and Kuldeep and Saharan

[29]. They have studied the effect of different geometrical parameters on the cavitation behavior

inside a cavitating devices using CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamic) study and offered the

optimized parameters of a cavitating device to achieve best cavitational activity.

2.3 Experimental Procedure

Decolorization of Rh6G has been carried out using HC at various conditions with a fixed

aqueous Rh6G solution volume of 6L. All the experiments were performed for 120min and

6
samples were taken from the storage tank at a fixed interval of time for further analysis. During

all the experiments, temperature of the solution (30 ± 2°C) was kept constant and was maintained

by circulating cooling water through the cooling jacket. Initially, effect of initial concentration of

dye on the decolorization rate was studied in the range of 10-50 ppm using slit venturi. Then,

experiments were conducted over the solution pH range of 2.0 to 12.0 to optimize solution pH.

To optimize the cavitating devices, the effect of inlet pressure and cavitation number on the

decolorization rate of Rh6G has been studied at an inlet pressure from 3 to 11 bar using slit and

circular venturi. Two additional experiments were carried out to validate the degradation

mechanism of Rh6G using HC. In the first experiment, effect of radical scavenger was studied

by adding tert-butanol (1g/L) in the system to investigate the scavenging action on •OH radicals.

In the second experiment, doubled distilled water was circulated through HC at an optimized

inlet pressure to determine the concentration of H2O2 produced in the system. During this

experiment, samples were taken at a regular time of interval (15min) and then concentration of

H2O2 was measured. In order to enhance the decolorization of Rh6G, effect of process

intensifying additives (H2O2 and ozone) in combination with HC were also investigated. Five

different molar ratios of concentration of Rh6G to H2O2 as1:10, 1:20, 1:30, 1:40 and 1:50 were

selected to study the combined effect. Effect of H2O2 on the decolorization rate of Rh6G was also

investigated individually i.e. without HC in the present work. The experiments were conducted

using a combination of HC and ozone at various feed rate of ozone from 1 to 7g/h. Ozone was

directly injected at the throat of a venturi thereby exposing ozone directly to the cavitational

effect. Ozone was generated by an ozone generator (maximum feed rate of ozone: 10g/h, make:

Eltech Engineers, India). Initially, Ozonator was calibrated in terms of feed rate of oxygen to

acquire the desired mass flow rate of ozone.

7
2.4 Analytical procedure

Concentration of Rh6G was measured by UV/Vis-Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu-1800) at the

maximum wavelength (λmax) of 540nm. Firstly, calibration chart was prepared for the known

concentrations of Rh6G in the range of 2-12ppm to calculate the concentration of unknown

sample during experiments. A pH meter (Hanna Instruments, USA) was used to determine the

pH of solution throughout the experiment. The degradation by-products of Rh6G during HC

process were confirmed by liquid chromatography–mass spectroscopy (LC-MS) (make: Xevo

G2-S Q-Tof, Waters, USA) using C18 column (4.6mm x 250mm). A mixture of Acetonitrile and

phosphate buffer (45:55) was used as a mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min for 10 min.

Total organic carbon (TOC) content of dye solution was measured using TOC analyzer (make:

GE InnovOx). The amount of H2O2 produced during HC was measured by titrating sample

against potassium permanganate (0.001M KMnO4). Double distilled water was circulated

through HC reactor and 100mL of water sample was collected at a regular interval of 15 min.

4mL of 4M sulfuric acid was added in the collected samples and titrated against 0.001M KMnO4

until the purple color appeared. The end point of titration is colorless to purple. In the present

work, all experiments were repeated at least twice to evaluate the repeatability of the observed

data and the experimental errors were found to be within ±3% of the reported average values.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Effect of initial Rh6G concentration

The effect of initial Rh6G concentration on the decolorization rate was investigated using HC.

The degradation of dye molecules using HC involve mainly two mechanisms i.e. first, the

oxidation of dye molecules by hydroxyl free radicals (•OH) and second, thermal pyrolysis

8
(combustion) of dye molecules which is entrapped inside the cavities [2, 30]. Both mechanisms

can occur at the multiple locations such as at the interface of cavity, in the bulk liquid medium,

and in the core of cavity. Experiments were conducted with various concentrations of dye (10,

20, 30, 40, 50ppm), at an inlet pressure of 5bar and solution pH of 10. The observed results are

shown in Fig. 3 and Table 3. Under the effect of HC, Rh6G gets dissociated into the

intermediates which further react with •OH radicals and ultimately degrade into final products

(CO2, H2O etc.). The following reaction takes place in HC:

Rh6G + •OH degradation products (1)

− = k Rh6G∙ OH


(2)

A pseudo first order kinetic was used as a means to evaluate and correlate the observed data. The

concentration of •OH radicals is found to be constant during the decolorization process under the

cavitation effect and also it is highly reactive and non-selective and therefore its concentration

effect can be neglected [31]. The degradation kinetics can be represented by Eq.(3).

Ln = k x t


(3)

Where, [Rh6G]0 and [Rh6G] are initial concentration and concentration of Rh6G (ppm) at time t

respectively, k is the decolorization rate constant (min-1), and t is the processing time (min). It

can be seen from Fig. 3a that percent decolorization of Rh6G decreases from 32.06% to 8.37%

with an increase in initial concentration from 10 to 50ppm. The kinetic analysis shows that

degradation of Rh6G using HC fitted proposed pseudo-first order kinetics (shown in Fig. 3b). It

is observed that pseudo first order rate constant decreases from 2.9 x 10-3 min-1 to 0.7 x 10-3 min-1

for an increase in the concentration from 10ppm to 50ppm as shown in Table 3. The obtained

lower decolorization rate at initial concentration of Rh6G higher than 10ppm can be attributed to

the insufficient generation of •OH radicals to degrade the dye, which shows that the relevant
9
proportion of total amount of •OH radicals and dye molecules is a significant factor [10]. Since,

decolorization rate constant was found to be maximum at 10ppm; therefore all the remaining

experiments were carried out at 10ppm concentration of Rh6G. In this study, the observed results

can be validated with some other similar literature reports [2, 15, 32-34]. Saharan et al. [2] have

investigated the degradation of reactive red 120 dye (RR120) using HC and reported that

degradation kinetics of RR120 using HC follows first order reaction kinetic. Patil et al. [32] have

studied the effects of initial concentration on the degradation of imidacloprid using HC and

reported a decrease in the degradation rate with an increase in the initial concentration. Wang et

al. [33] have investigated the degradation of reactive brilliant red K-2BP using HC. They have

observed that, % degradation decreased from 94.2% to 24.7% with an increase in the

concentration from 10 to 50mg/L.

3.2 Quantification of chemical effects (dosimetry study)

In order to validate the degradation mechanism which is driven by the attack of •OH radicals on

the pollutant molecules, an experiment was carried out using HC with the addition of tert-butanol

(a type of •OH scavenger). Tert-butanol is capable of neutralizing •OH radicals and it reacts with
•
OH and •H radicals and gives less reactive tert-butanol radical. It can be seen from Fig. 3 that

decolorization rate of Rh6G decreased from 3.0 x 10-3 to 2.1 x 10-3 min-1 with the addition of

tert-butanol and 22% decolorization was obtained after 120 min of treatment as against 32%

obtained without tert-butanol at the same experimental condition using HC. The obtained result

shows that •OH radicals were mainly responsible for the decolorization efficiency. Tert-butanol

produces tert-butanol radicals on reacting with •OH radicals (in Eq. 4) which is less reactive

species as compared to •OH radicals and therefore it reduces the degradation rate.

10
 C4H10O + •OH C4H9O•+ H2O (4)

Tert-butanol can also react with •H radicals and it gives n-butanol radical as shown in Eq. (5)

(CH3)3COH + •H CH3CH2CH2•CH2 + H2O (5)

Similar results have also been reported in literature by Yao et al. [35] for the degradation of

parathion using ultrasonic irradiation. They have observed that free radical reactions are

predominant reactions occurs during the degradation of parathion using ultrasonication.

•
Additionally, one more experiment was performed to check the occurrence of OH

radicals during HC by measuring the quantity of H2O2 produced at 5bar inlet pressure. It can be

seen from Fig. 4 that the amount of H2O2 formed with respect to time increases due to the

recombination of •OH radicals which are generated under cavitating conditions. This study

further proves that •OH radicals are formed during HC process.

3.3 Effect of solution pH

The solution pH is an important parameter for the decolorization rate of Rh6G using HC. The

effect of solution pH was studied by varying solution pH over the range of 2.0-12.0. Experiments

were carried out at an inlet pressure of 5bar for 120min of treatment time. The observed results

are shown in Fig. 5 and Table 4. It can be seen that extent of decolorization and first order rate

constant increases with an increase in the solution pH from 2.0 up to an optimum value of 10.0.

The decolorization rate decreases after pH 10. These results clearly show that decolorization rate

was higher at basic medium than that obtained under acidic conditions. It has been reported that

Rh6G molecule becomes hydrophobic under basic condition (i.e. at higher pH than its pKa value

of 6.13) as the free electron pair on the amine nitrogen (primary amine group) transfer charges

from amine nitrogen to aromatic rings. Under such condition Rh6G exists in its molecular state
11
and therefore Rh6G locate itself at the cavity-water interface due to its hydrophobic nature. The

concentration of •OH radicals is maximum at the cavity-water interface and therefore higher

decolorization rate was obtained under basic condition. On the other hand, Rh6G molecule

becomes hydrophilic in nature under acidic pH due to the protonation of nitrogen in the

secondary amine group of the xanthene ring. Due to its hydrophilic nature, it remains in bulk of

the solution where concentration of •OH radicals is minimum. Therefore, a lower decolorization

rate was achieved under acidic conditions. The pH of solution was kept 10.0 for all the remaining

sets of experiments. A few related results can be obtained in the literature where basic conditions

are found to be superior for the degradation of pollutant molecules using cavitation. Eslami and

Eslami [23] have investigated the degradation of Rh6G at different values of pH in the range 3.0-

9.0 using ultrasonic cavitation in presence of H2O2 and zinc oxide and reported that higher

degradation rate constant (2.8 x 10-2 min-1) was achieved at high pH of 9.0. Wang et al. [36] have

studied the degradation of alachlor over the range of pH from 2 to 12 using HC and reported that

the rate constant increases from 4.45 x 10-2 to 5.77 x 10-2 min-1 with an increase in pH value

from 2.0 to 12.0.

3.4 Effect of inlet pressure, cavitation number and geometrical parameters

In HC reactor, cavitation number is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the

cavitational intensity inside the cavitating device. It is defined as the ratio of pressure drop

between the throat and extreme downstream section of the cavitating device to the kinetic head at

the throat. It is given by the following Eq. (6):

P − P
C =  # (6)
1 
2 ρv"

12
Where, P2 is the fully recovered downstream pressure, Pv is the vapor pressure of the liquid, v0 is

the velocity at the throat of the cavitating device, and ρ is the density of the liquid. As the inlet

pressure increases, velocity at the throat increases which in turn reduces the cavitation number.

More number of cavities are generated under ideal condition (Cv ≤ 1), but in many cases cavities

can get generate at Cv>1 due to the existence of little-dissolved gases and suspended particles

[37]. It has been reported that the cavitation number in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 gives better

degradation efficiency [2, 15, 31].

In order to examine the effects of inlet pressure and cavitation number on the decolorization rate

of Rh6G, experiments were performed by varying inlet pressure in the range 3-11 at an optimum

solution pH of 10.0 using circular and slit venturi. The obtained results are shown in Table 5. It

has been observed that the decolorization rate increases with an increase in the inlet pressure up

to an optimum value of 5bar for both the venturies and then it decreases beyond an optimum. An

increase in decolorization rate with an increase in inlet pressure or decrease in cavitation number

may be attributed to the enhanced cavitational intensity due to more number of cavities are

formed at higher inlet pressure leading to the generation of more •OH radicals. At higher inlet

pressure beyond an optimum, it is estimated that choked cavitation takes place reducing the

cavitation intensity due to partial collapse of cavities leading to lower degradation rate [38-41].

Also, inactive (unstable) cavities are formed in the cavitating devices at higher inlet pressure

above an optimum value which reduce the degradation rate of pollutant molecules. An optimum

inlet pressure for circular and slit venturi was found to be 5bar with respective cavitation number

as 0.11 and 0.07. Almost 32% decolorization with first order rate constant of 3.0 x 10-3 min-1 was

observed in the case of slit venturi while about 29% decolorization with first order rate constant

of 2.5 x 10-3 min-1 was found using circular venturi in 120min at an optimum inlet pressure and

13
cavitation number. The possible reason behind the higher decolorization using slit venturi can be

attributed to the fact that velocity of liquid in case of slit venturi is higher as compared to circular

venturi at the same operating inlet pressure. Therefore, number of passes through slit venturi

would be higher as compared to circular venturi. Because of higher number of passes through the

cavitating device, pollutant molecules experience longer exposure of the cavitating conditions

resulting into higher decolorization rate of pollutant molecules [38]. In addition to this, there is

another parameter, known as α (throat perimeter to its cross-sectional area ratio) which also

affects the cavitational activity. A higher value of α provides better cavitational intensity. In the

present work, slit venturi has a higher value of α (2.63) as compared to circular venturi (2.00)

and therefore gives better degradation efficiency than circular venturi. It has been reported that

higher ratio of throat perimeter to throat cross sectional area maximizes the frequency of

turbulence which causes rapid oscillation of a cavity and thereby resulting into higher cavity

collapse pressure [16, 42-43]. Hence, optimized slit venturi has been used for all the remaining

sets of experiments. The cavitation number, velocity, and flow rate through the system with

respect to operating pressure are given in Table 5. Similar results have been reported by Saharan

et al. [15]. They have investigated degradation of Orange-G dye using three cavitating devices

such as circular, slit and orifice and reported that degradation of Orange-G was higher in the case

of slit venturi as compared to circular venturi and orifice.

3.5 Combination of hydrodynamic cavitation and H2O2

The main aim of this study is to generate the additional amount of •OH radicals by adding H2O2

in HC reactor. Hydrogen peroxide due to its high oxidation capacity (1.78eV) can be used as an

oxidizing agent to enhance the decolorization efficiency of dye and also it can easily be

dissociated into more reactive •OH radicals under the effect of HC. The effect of different molar

14
ratios of dye to H2O2 concentration (1:10, 1:20, 1:30, 1:40, and 1:50) on the decolorization rate

of Rh6G has been investigated using slit venturi at 5bar inlet pressure and pH 10.0. The obtained

results are depicted in Fig. 6 and Table 6. It has been observed that decolorization rate constant

of Rh6G was increased from 3.0 x 10-3 min-1 using HC alone to 21.6 x 10-3 min-1 when HC is

combined with H2O2 at an optimum molar ratio of dye to H2O2 (1:30). There was no further

increase in the decolorization rate of dye beyond the molar ratio of 1:30 (dye concentration:

H2O2). Hence, molar ratio of 1:30 has been selected as an optimum loading at which 53.72%

decolorization was achieved. The obtained higher decolorization rate is due to the continuous

dissociation of H2O2 into •OH radicals under HC effect. Beyond an optimal molar ratio of dye to

H2O2, reduction in the degradation rate is due to the recombination of •OH radicals and the

scavenging of •OH radicals by H2O2 itself [32-33, 38, 44-46]. The following reactions (Eqs 7-14)

can occur during the degradation of pollutant molecules using the combined HC and H2O2

process [39].

H2O2 2●OH (7)

H2O HC •
H + •OH (8)

•
OH + •OH H2O2 (9)

•
OH + H2O2 HO2• + H2O (10)

•
OH + HO2• H2O + O2 (11)

HO2• + H2O2 •
OH + H2O + O2 (12)

Rh6G + •OH CO2 + H2O + degradation products (13)

Rh6G + H2O2 CO2 + H2O + degradation products (14)

15
It can be concluded that H2O2 should be added at an optimal molar ratio to obtain best

degradation efficiency of pollutant molecules. Similar trends were reported in the literature for

the degradation of different organic pollutants [2, 21, 47-49]. Saharan et al. [2] have studied the

degradation of reactive red 120 using hydrodynamic cavitation in the presence of H2O2. They

have observed that nearly 60% decolorization was obtained using HC alone at a solution pH of

2.0 and an operating inlet pressure of 5bar. Whereas, decolorization has risen to about 100% by

adding hydrogen peroxide at an optimum molar ratio of reactive red 120 to H2O2 as 1:60. Gore at

al. [47] have observed almost complete decolorization of reactive orange 4 at 1:30 molar ratio of

Orange-G to H2O2 and no further enhancement in the degradation rate was achieved at higher

ratio because of the scavenging effect of H2O2.

The study of H2O2 alone was also conducted in a stirred tank mixer at an optimum molar ratio of

dye to H2O2 (1:30) for 2h of operation time. A 10 ppm solution of Rh6G was taken in a stirred

tank and solution pH was kept constant at 10.0. Normal stirring has been used to ensure complete

mixing of H2O2. It has been observed that almost 17% decolorization with a rate constant of 2.10

× 10−3 min−1 was obtained after 2h of treatment time and thus it can be concluded that normal

stirring is incapable to dissociate the H2O2 into •OH radicals and thereby reducing degradation

efficiency.

To compute the efficiency of hybrid technique (HC + H2O2) as compared to the individual

methods, synergetic coefficient has been determined. First order rate constant increased

significantly from 2.10 × 10−3 min−1 in the case of only H2O2 to 21.6 × 10−3 min−1 for the

combination of HC and H2O2. The synergetic coefficient based on decolorization rate constant

can be calculated for the hybrid technique by the following Eq. (15):

16
 0(1231454)
Synergetic coef/icient = 0
12 601454
(15)

= 21.6 x 10–3/ (3.0 x 10–3 + 2.1 x 10–3)

= 4.24

The obtained synergetic coefficient as 4.24 demonstrates that the synergetic effect of combined

method is better than the individual methods. This is due to enhanced generation of •OH radicals

by the dissociation of H2O2 in presence of HC leading to the higher decolorization efficiency of

Rh6G as compared to that obtained using only H2 O2.

3.6 Combination of Hydrodynamic cavitation and ozone

Ozone (O3) is a strong oxidizing agent which is capable in degrading the organic pollutants due

to its high oxidation capacity (2.08eV). The combination of HC and ozone can be used to

intensify the degradation efficiency due to enhanced mass transfer of ozone molecules from gas

phase to the bulk solution to react with organic pollutants under the cavitating conditions.

Moreover, under the cavitational effect, ozone is easily decomposed yielding molecular O2 and

atomic oxygen which reacts with water molecules to form •OH radicals. The following reactions

(Eqs. 16-21) can occur during the process of HC coupled with ozone [39, 47].

HC
O3 O2 + O (3P) (16)
HC
H2O ●
OH + •H (17)

O (3P) + H2O 2●OH (18)

●
OH + ●OH H2O2 (19)

17
●
OH + Rh6G CO2 + H2O + degradation products (20)

O3 + Rh6G CO2 + H2O + degradation products (21)

In order to study the effect of combination of HC with ozonation on the decolorization rate of

Rh6G, experiments were performed at various loadings of ozone (1 to 7g/h). A higher

concentration of Rh6G (50ppm) was taken to study the decolorization as well as mineralization

rate using HC combined with ozone, since at lower concentration i.e. 10ppm decolorization rate

was very fast and also, the corresponding initial TOC was only 5ppm. Hence, there may be

chances of higher experimental error. In order to avoid the experimental error and to observe the

distinguishable reduction in TOC using TOC analyzer, a higher concentration of Rh6G was

selected to analyze TOC with respect to time. The value of rate constant for mineralization and

decolorization of Rh6G are shown in Table 7. It can be observed that the decolorization of Rh6G

is 32.06% using HC alone after 120 min and further it is possible to achieve 100% decolorization

in just 10min by combining HC with ozone. As shown in Table 7, decolorization rate constant of

Rh6G increases with an increase in the feed rate of ozone. When ozone feed rate increases, more
•
OH radicals may exist for the degradation of organic pollutants due to the dissociation of ozone

under cavitating conditions. But mineralization study shows that reduction in TOC was found to

be maximum at the ozone feed rate of 3g/h. The mineralization rate constant increases with an

increase in ozone feed rate till 3g/h and further decreases. Maximum 73.19% reduction in TOC

with rate constant of 10.9 x 10-3 min-1 was obtained in 120min of operation at ozone feed rate of 3

g/h. Almost 10% reduction in TOC was obtained using only HC for the same treatment time.

Hence, it can be concluded that optimum loading of ozone flow rate is 3 g/h for the degradation

of Rh6G using hybrid method (HC + Ozone).

18
 At this optimum flow rate of ozone, an experiment was conducted using only ozonation to

evaluate the synergetic effect of combined process. During experimentation using only ozone,

desired volume of Rh6G solution (6L) was filled in the storage tank and ozone was directly

injected into the Rh6G solution. Then, samples were withdrawn at regular time of interval by

sampling valve which was connected at bottom of the storage tank. It can be seen from Table 7

that around 41% TOC reduction was achieved at the ozone flow rate of 3g/h in 120 min of

operation.

From Table 7, it can also be observed that mineralization rate constant (10.9 × 10−3 min−1) for the

HC combined with ozone was higher as compared to that obtained for the case of only ozone

(5.3 × 10−3 min−1) and only HC (1.6 x 10-3 min-1). Synergetic coefficient based on the

mineralization rate constant can be calculated for the combined method (HC + ozone) to examine

the efficiency of this method using following Eq. (22):

0(12357)
Synergetic coef/icient = 0
12 6057
(22)

= 10.9 x 10–3/ (1.6 x 10–3 + 5.3 x 10–3)

= 1.58

The combination of HC and ozone indicates synergetic effect over individual method and

observed value of the synergetic coefficient was 1.58. Similar results related to the effect of

ozonation coupled with HC on the degradation rate of organic pollutants such as reactive orange

4 [47] and Triazophos [50] are reported in literature. Gore et al. [47] have investigated the effect

of HC coupled with ozone for the mineralization of reactive orange 4 dye solution at various feed

rate of ozone from 1 to 8 g/h. They have observed that about 76.25 % reduction in TOC obtained

at optimal ozone feed rate of 3 g/h while only 14.67 % was obtained using HC alone in 60 min of

19
treatment time. They have also reported synergetic effect for the combined process (HC +

ozone).

3.7 Mineralization study

Total organic carbon (TOC) test is mostly used as an effective procedure to quantify the organic

strength of wastewater. It is well known that degradation by-products generate throughout the

oxidation of cationic dyes, and some of them could be more toxic and carcinogenic than their

parent molecules. Hence, it is necessary to investigate the extent of mineralization of Rh6G by

applying various processes such as HC alone, HC+H2O2, and HC+Ozone. Rh6G solution of

50ppm (corresponding TOC as 22ppm) was taken to study the effect of various processes on

mineralization. The kinetics of mineralization of Rh6G is depicted in Fig. 7. This figure clearly

shows that mineralization of dye fitted first order kinetic data for all the above mentioned

processes. The obtained results using various processes reveal that the combination of HC and

ozone was more efficient as compared to other processes. The rate constants of mineralization

process and reduction in TOC (%) using various processes are summarized in Table 7. First

experiment was conducted using only HC to mineralize the dye at an optimum inlet pressure of

5bar and pH of 10 using slit venturi. It has been observed that reduction in TOC was mostly

occurred in the initial 60 min and overall 10% reduction in TOC was obtained. After that, slower

mineralization rate was observed which indicates that the primary by-products were not

mineralized easily into CO2 and H2O. After that mineralization study of Rh6G was performed

using HC+H2O2 at an optimum molar ratio of dye to H2O2 (1:30µM). Almost 16% TOC was

reduced after 120min of operation. In another experiment, same amount of H2O2 was added after

every 15min in order to check the effect of higher dosage of H2O2 on the extent of

20
mineralization. It was observed that there was no significant change in TOC at the higher loading

of H2O2 due to the scavenging action of •OH radicals by the excess amount of H2O2. The

obtained results indicate that degradation byproducts are hardly degraded using these two

processes. Further experiments were carried out using combined HC and ozone at the optimized

feed rate of ozone (3g/h). It has been observed that TOC reduction was significantly increased to

73.19% within 120 min of treatment as compared to that obtained in HC and HC+H2O2. A high

mineralization rate constant of 10.9 x 10-3 min-1 was obtained using HC+Ozone. Thereafter,

further increase in the flow rate of ozone (5g/h) decreases rate of mineralization (10.3 x 10-3 min-
1
). At higher feed rate of ozone, scavenging action of un-dissociated ozone molecules under

cavitating conditions may decrease mineralization rate of organic pollutants. Hence, optimum

feed rate of ozone can be considered as 3g/h.

In order to check the extent of mineralization at higher inlet pressure (10, 15, and 20bar),

experiments were also carried out at higher pressure using HC, HC + H2O2, and HC + Ozone. It

was observed that in case of HC and HC + H2 O2, there was no significant change in rate of

mineralization at higher pressure. But in the case of HC combined with ozone, mineralization

rate constant of Rh6G increased from 10.9 x 10-3 min-1 at an inlet pressure of 5bar to

22.3 x 10-3 min-1 at 20bar (shown in Fig. 7). It may be due to the enhancement of mass transfer

rate between ozone molecules and bulk liquid solution due to high turbulent and shear created at

higher operating inlet pressure. It may also possible that ozone molecules get easily dissociated

into •OH radicals at higher operating inlet pressure of HC.

From obtained results, it is clear that the combination of HC with ozone contributes more in

mineralization as well as enhances degradation efficiency of Rh6G.

21
3.8 Degradation products and degradation pathway

In order to identify possible degradation by-products of Rh6G, liquid chromatography-mass

spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis was performed on the samples collected during the combined

process of HC and ozone at an optimum feed rate of 3g/h. Since, degradation mechanism of

Rh6G is the oxidation of Rh6G by the generated •OH radicals in all the three methods i.e. HC,

HC+H2O2, and HC+ Ozone and therefore samples treated through HC+Ozone were taken for the

LC-MS analysis. Moreover, similar mass spectra were observed for the samples treated using

these three different methods. Samples were taken at fixed time interval (after every 15min) and

then analyzed by LC-MS immediately. This is a method to understand the reaction mechanism of

Rh6G during HC. Rh6G was detected merely at m/z = 443 as shown in Fig. 8a. The degradation

by-products after 30min of treatment using HC+Ozone were detected at m/z = 415, 387, 359,

345, 312, 298, 286, 284, 272, and 258 as shown in Fig. 8b. Based on the m/z value of by-

products observed during the course of treatment, a possible degradation pathway of Rh6G has

been proposed in Fig. 9. It was found that the degradation of Rh6G follows oxidation mechanism

which is initiated by the attack of •OH radicals on the Rh6G and then subsequent reaction with

the intermediates under cavitating conditions. LC-MS analysis shows the formation of many

aromatic by-products. It should be noticed that in the N-de-ethylation process, the hypsochromic

shift of the absorption band is a characteristic phenomenon [50, 51]. In path 1 (Fig. 9), the

esterification reaction takes place to convert the ester group into carboxylic acid giving a

possible by-product (m/z = 415). In HC, the generated •OH radicals may prefer to attack the

central carbon atom with a high negative density charge to destruct the molecule structure of

Rh6G and further degraded by N-de-ethylation process. The two major by-products with m/z as

415 and 387 obtained from mass spectra can be known as N-ethyl, N´-ethyl Rhodamine, and N-

22
ethyl Rhodamine respectively. N-de-ethylated by-products such as N-ethyl Rhodamine (m/z =

387) was degraded into a possible by-products which has a m/z value of 359 and then it can be

break into some other by-products with m/z values of 345 and 286. These formed by-products

were further degraded into the m/z values of 272 and 258. In path 2, N-de-ethylation process as

well as carboxylation process occurs which gives possible degradation by-product corresponding

to the m/z value of 312. After carboxylation process, formed by-products further degraded into

the other possible degradation by-products with m/z values of 298 and 284 by the dealkylation

reactions. The obtained by-products were further oxidized into 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (m/z =

155), adipic acid (m/z = 146), glutaric acid (m/z = 132), benzoic acid (m/z = 122), butane-1,3-

diol (m/z = 90) and ethane 1,2-dioic acid (m/z = 90). Similar byproducts were also observed by

other authors [51, 52] for the photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B. The similarity

between the observed and reported data shows that degradation mechanism using HC is also

initiated and propagated by the attack of •OH radicals on the pollutant molecules.

4. Conclusions

The present study has shown the efficiency of HC for the decolorization and mineralization rate

of Rh6G. Hybrid methods were found to be more efficient as compared to an individual process.

At optimum parameters i.e. solution pH, inlet pressure and cavitation number, decolorization

efficiency of Rh6G can be intensified in the presence of different oxidizing agent. The main

conclusions drawn from present study can be summarized as follows:

23
1. The decolorization rate of Rh6G was influenced by the initial concentration of dye,

solution pH, inlet pressure, and cavitation number using HC. The decolorization of Rh6G

using HC process follows a first-order kinetic.

2. The concentration of H2O2 produced in the system confirms that the •OH radicals are

formed during cavitation. The addition of radical scavenger such as tert-butanol decreases

decolorization rate and thus indicating that decolorization of Rh6G using HC is

dominated by the attack of •OH radicals.

3. The obtained results revealed that decolorization rate of Rh6G increased with an increase

in inlet pressure till 5bar for both the circular and slit venturi.

4. Between the circular and slit venturi (used as cavitating devices in HC), slit venturi gives

higher decolorization rate due to higher perimeter.

5. The decolorization rate of dye was also found to be strongly dependent on the solution

pH. The maximum decolorization of Rh6G using HC alone was found to be 32.06% at

10.0 pH and pressure of 5bar.

6. It was observed that HC coupled with H2O2 enhances the decolorization efficiency of

Rh6G giving 53.72% decolorization at an optimum molar ratio of dye to H2O2 (1:30µM)

as compared 32.06% obtained using HC alone.

7. The combination of ozone with HC gives the complete decolorization of Rh6G in 10 min

of treatment time at 5bar inlet pressure. Almost 84% TOC was removed at higher inlet

pressure (20bar) using HC coupled with ozone (3g/h) in 120min.

8. LC-MS was employed for identification of the degradation intermediates. It was observed

that the degradation of Rh6G into the smaller intermediates and end products occurred

through carboxylation and dealkylation process and initiated by the attack of •OH

24
 radicals. A possible degradation pathway and reaction mechanism of Rh6G was

proposed.

Overall, the obtained results revealed that the combination of HC with ozone can be a better

technique to completely mineralize Rh6G and other similar dye effluents at large scale of operation.

Acknowledgements

Dr. Virendra Kumar Saharan would like to thank DST, GOI for providing financial support

under Inspire Faculty Fellowship (DST/INSPIRE Faculty Award/2013/IFA13-ENG49).

25
Appendix

Sample calculation of cavitation number for slit venturi at an optimum 5bar inlet pressure:

Downstream pressure (p2) = 101325 Pa

Vapor pressure of water at 300C (pv) = 4242.14 Pa

Volumetric flow rate at 5bar pressure (V) = 592 LPH = 1.64 x10-4 m3/s

Dimension of the throat of the venturi: W=3.14mm, H=1mm, L=1mm

Flow area: A0 = 3.14x10-6 m2

Velocity at the throat of venturi:

V0= V/A0 = 1.64 x 10-4/3.14 x 10-6 = 52.23 m/s

Cavitation number is calculated as:

P − P
C =  #
1 
ρv
2 "

= (101325 – 4242.14) / (0.5 x 1000 x (52.23)2)

= 0.07

26
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33
Figure captions:

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of venturi based HC reactor set-up

Fig.2. Schematic view of circular and slit venturi

Fig.3. Effect of initial Rh6G concentration on the decolorization rate of Rh6G (Experimental

Conditions: inlet pressure, 5bar; solution pH, 10.0; volume of solution, 6L)

Fig.4. The formation of H2O2 concentration during degradation in HC reactor

Fig.5. Effect of solution pH on the decolorization rate of Rh6G (Experimental Conditions: Initial

concentration, 10ppm; pressure, 5bar; volume of solution, 6L)

Fig.6. Effect of H2O2 addition on decolorization rate of Rh6G (Experimental Conditions: initial

concentration, 10ppm; solution pH, 10.0; volume of solution, 6L; pressure, 5bar)

Fig.7. Kinetics of mineralization process of Rh6G (Experimental conditions: slit venturi;

solution pH, 10.0; volume of solution, 6L; initial concentration, 50ppm)

Fig.8. LC-MS of (a) Rh6G solution before treatment (b) degradation by-products of Rh6G after

30min of treatment

Fig. 9. Proposed degradation pathway for the degradation of Rh6G

34
 P1 P2
Cavitation generating unit

V3

Bypass Line Cooling

Jacket
V2
Coolant in
Coolant
Main Line

out
Storage tank

V1 V2 V3 V4- Control valves

P1 P2- Pressure Gauges

V4

Pump V1 Sample collection

point

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of venturi based HC reactor set-up

Flow in Flow in

Convergent side Convergent side

Throat Throat
section
section

Flow out
Divergent H-height
side Flow out L- length
D
W-width Divergent
side

Fig.2. Schematic view of circular and slit venturi

35
 0.4

Ln [(Rh6G)o/Rh6G]
(b)
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150
time, min
35
10 ppm
Decolorization (%)

(a)
30
25 20 ppm

20 30 ppm
15
40 ppm
10
5 50 ppm

0 10ppm + tert-
0 30 60 90 120 butanol (1g/l)
time, min

Fig.3. Effect of initial Rh6G concentration on the decolorization rate of Rh6G (Experimental

Conditions: inlet pressure, 5bar; solution pH, 10.0; volume of solution, 6L)

36
 80

70

H2O2 produced, µM
60

50

40
at 5bar
30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time, min

Fig.4. The formation of H2O2 concentration during degradation in HC reactor

0.4

0.35
Ln [(Rh6G)o/Rh6G]

0.3

0.25 pH 2
pH 4
0.2
pH 6
0.15
pH 8
0.1
pH 10
0.05 pH 12
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time, min

Fig.5. Effect of solution pH on the decolorization rate of Rh6G (Experimental Conditions:

Initial concentration, 10ppm; pressure, 5bar; volume of solution, 6L)

37
 25

Rate Constant x 10^3 (1/min)

20

15

10

Molar Ratio of Rh6G:

Fig.6. Effect of H2O2 addition on decolorization rate of Rh6G (Experimental Conditions: initial

concentration, 10ppm; solution pH, 10.0; volume of solution, 6L; pressure, 5bar)

2.5
only HC
HC + H2O2 (1:30µM)
only Ozone (3g/h)
2
HC (5bar) + Ozone (3g/h)
HC (10bar) + Ozone (3g/h)
HC (15bar) + Ozone (3g/h)
ln (TOCo/TOC)

1.5 HC (20bar) + Ozone (3g/h)

0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time, min

Fig.7. Kinetics of mineralization process of Rh6G (Experimental conditions: slit venturi;

solution pH, 10.0; volume of solution, 6L; initial concentration, 50ppm)

38
Fig.8. LC-MS of (a) Rh6G solution before treatment (b) degradation by-products of Rh6G after

30min of treatment

39
Fig.9. Proposed degradation pathway for the degradation of Rh6G

40
Table captions:

Table 1: Molecular structure, maximum absorption, and molecular weight of Rh6G

Table 2: Dimension of the cavitating devices (circular and slit venturi)

Table 3: Kinetic rate constants at different initial concentration of Rh6G

Table 4: Kinetic rate constants at various solution pH

Table 5: Kinetic rate constants at different operating pressures

Table 6: Effect of H2O2 addition on the extent of decolorization

Table 7: Effect of ozone addition on the decolorization and mineralization of Rh6G

41
 Table 1: Molecular structure, maximum absorption, and molecular weight of Rh6G
Name Molecular structure λmax Appearance Molecular
(nm) weight
(g/mol)
Rhodamine 6 G 540 Dark 479.02
(cationic dye) reddish
purple

Table 2: Dimension of the cavitating devices (circular and slit venturi)

Hydrodynamic Dimension of Venturi Length of Length of Half Half Ratio of
cavitating throat length convergent divergent angle of angle of perimeter
device section section converge divergent to its cross-
nt section section sectional
area (α)
Circular venturi 96.14mm 19.54mm 74.60mm 23.5o 6.5 o 2.00

Circular hole of
2 mm diameter
Slit venturi 100.6mm 20.6mm 79mm 23.5o 6.5 o 2.63
H
L
W

W=3.14mm,
H=1mm,
L=1mm

42
Table 3: Kinetic rate constants at different initial concentration of Rh6G

Concentration (ppm) First order rate constant, k x 103 (min–1) Extent of decolorization
(%)
10 3.0 32.06
20 1.4 18.13
30 1.1 13.05
40 0.8 11.36
50 0.7 8.37

Table 4: Kinetic rate constants at various solution pH

Solution pH First order rate constant, k x 103 Extent of decolorization (%)

(min–1)
2 1.3 16.33
4 1.4 17.32
6 1.5 18.95
8 1.9 22.87
10 3.0 32.06
12 2.8 31.50

Table 5: Kinetic rate constants at different operating pressures

Cavitating Pressure Flow rate Velocity Cavitation First order rate Extent of
device (bar) (LPH) (m/s) number constant, k x 103 decolorization
(Cv) (min–1) (%)
Slit 3 518 45.86 0.092 1.6 18.90
a
venturi 5 592 52.55 0.070 3.0 32.06
7 631 55.74 0.062 2.5 28.90
9 678 59.88 0.054 2.3 26.14
11 719 63.38 0.048 2.1 22.86
Circular 3 412 36.30 0.147 2.3 24.38
venturi 5 472 41.72 0.111 2.5 29.65
7 507 44.90 0.096 2.4 28.59
9 553 49.04 0.086 2.3 26.03
11 585 51.60 0.073 2.0 25.19
(Experimental conditions: volume of solution, 6L; initial concentration, 10 ppm; pH of solution,
10.0)
a
Sample calculation is given in appendix.

43
 Table 6: Effect of H2O2 addition on the extent of decolorization

Process Molar ratio of Rh6G: H2O2 First order rate constant, Extent of decolorization
k x 103 (min–1) (%)
HC alone – 3.0 32.09
H2O2 alone 1:30 2.1 17.22
HC + H2O2 1:10 6.3 41.17
1:20 19.4 49.08
1:30 21.6 53.72
1:40 17.2 49.82
1:50 10.4 37.98

Table 7: Effect of ozone addition on the decolorization and mineralization of Rh6G

Process Flow rate Reduction in Mineralization Decolorization Decolorization

of ozone TOC (%) in rate constant, (%) rate constant,
(g/h) 120min k x 103(min-3) k x 103(min-3)
HC alone – 10.32 1.6 32.06 2.9
Ozone lone 3 41.01 5.3 96.14 199.9
HC + Ozone 1 54.23 6.2 96.72 271.2
2 62.12 7.1 97.85 312.5
3 73.19 10.9 100 482.6
5 69.68 10.3 100 571.3
7 48.01 6.3 100 660.1
(Experimental conditions: initial concentration, 50ppm; pH of solution, 10.0; inlet pressure,

5bar)

44