Chapter 4

Basic Music Scoring

Techniques for Games
Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.1

R
everse engineering complex systems often reveals simpler component parts
under the hood. For instance, at machine level, even the most sophisticated
programming code is written with only two digits, 1s and 0s. The binary
equivalents in game scoring include such modest but essential techniques as music
loops, transitions, tags and stingers. This chapter will introduce students to the
mechanics of these and other core music scoring techniques for video games.

MUSICAL BUILDING BLOCKS

Consider for a moment a toy construction set for children. Lego, Tinkertoys, K’Nex—
each of these toy building blocks can be an instructive model for understanding how
a complex game music score may be constructed from simpler component parts.

81
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

Think of each brick, spool or hub as a musical building block

delivering certain musical function(s) within the score. Think
COMPLEX SYSTEMS of each stud, stick and connector as offering a hand-off from
FROM SIMPLE one core music function to another. For example, in the
COMPONENTS simplified figure below, the first block is an intro. Its primary
musical functions include setting the mood and establishing
Year after year, thousands of youth ages an aesthetic. It plays one time only when the player first
nine to fourteen gather in teams across enters the game world.
North America to build autonomous
robots. They also learn to program
these robots to perform a staggering
array of complex tasks. Surprisingly, as
sophisticated as these robots can become,
they are built predominantly from the
simplest possible components—Lego
brand building blocks.
Next, the loop block propels action for as long as needed
within the boundaries of a defined emotional range. It
continues to play while the current game state remains
active. Finally, the tag block plays one time when the current
game state reaches a point of definitive conclusion, such as
a victory or defeat. Its musical functions include providing a
contextual clue of finality and adding a bookend opposite the
intro, thus contributing to structural unity.

Such a component system of scoring allows for music that

can be highly functional. In addition, this building block
approach also provides for a score that is both flexible and
scalable, two of the distinguishing objectives of game music
Similarly, many functionally effective and
flexible music scores for video games discussed in Chapter 2. Every block in the illustration fulfills
are built from simple components. These scoring functions learned in prior chapters. To reiterate one
musical building blocks include intros, of the book’s core propositions, these foundational principles
loops, transitions, tags, stingers and of music scoring are pervasive. They will continue to inform
cinematics. scoring techniques throughout this text and across the
successful career of composers who understand and apply
them.

82
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Now consider a slightly longer chain of components, as illustrated in the figure

below:

The chain begins with an intro block and a loop block, as in the previous figure.
But in this example the first loop block is followed by a transition block. The
transition block functions to propel the action in a new direction and provide a
contextual clue that something in the game has changed. The transition block
connects to a second loop, which eventually terminates in a tag. Keeping the Lego/
Tinkertoy/K’Nex analogy in mind, it is easy to envision how a component-based
score of musical building blocks could continue to grow in size and complexity. Such
a component-based music score could address any number of game state situations
and accompanying scoring requirements.

BASIC SCORE COMPONENTS

With this paradigm of musical building blocks as a backdrop, attention now turns
to a focused exploration of six basic game scoring components and techniques:
intros, loops, transitions, tags, stingers and cinematics.

Intro
An intro presents a new level, section, gameplay mechanic or other type of beginning
within the video game experience. It plays one time as the new game state begins.
Its functions typically include setting a mood, establishing an aesthetic, providing
contextual clues and contributing to structural unity.

An intro may be short or long. It may be simple or complex. It may fade in gently or
begin abruptly. There is tremendous flexibility available to the game composer in
determining the type of form an intro will take. The key is to choose the form that
best serves its music design function for any given point in the score. Nevertheless,
all intros tend to have certain logistical characteristics in common. Intros establish
a tonic key for the subsequent section of gameplay. They set up the instrumental
palette for the corresponding game state. They will offer a stylistic framework or
genre for the subsequent music to follow.

83
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

Most intros trail off with a long fading sustain

at the end. This facilitates a smooth hand-off to
whatever follows in the music design, whether it is
another musical building block or just the ambient
sound of the level. In either case, a long and fading
sustain makes a nice aural connector.

Loop
GUEST LECTURE 
Modular Scoring

Troels Folmann
(Tomb Raider, Transformers)
True adaptive music needs be generated in real-
time … It’s basically the idea of chopping your score
down to very small components and triggering them
in a way that compliments the game experience A music loop is a piece of music whose end dovetails
… Essentially, I can place scores for any change in
back into its beginning, resulting in a seamless and
the game, which is naturally a complex and time-
potentially never-ending track. Music loops are
consuming process. The trend of games is one of
complexity. Everything is getting more detailed,
ubiquitous in games but have acquired something
whether it’s multiple translucent layers of textures, of a shoddy reputation. Since music loops are based
real-time generated light and shadow maps, massive on a simple mechanic, nearly anyone with editing
streaming game worlds and so forth. Audio and software can make one. However, the ability to
music is no exception. The need for dissecting music make a loop does not necessarily equate to making
into smaller fractions is becoming increasingly one that works well in a game. Just as owning a
important in order to support the decisions and knife does not qualify a person to perform surgery,
experiences of the player.2 neither does the ability to cut a track qualify as
expertise in making great music loops. Creating a
music loop that fills game scoring roles elegantly
and effectively can be a precise and sophisticated
process.

Compositional Considerations
To better understand the process of creating
a great music loop for games, first consider

84
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

the inherent challenges of this peculiar workhorse. As discussed in Chapter 2, a

repeating music file can be useful in providing a game score with flexibility and
scalability. But recognized repetition soon becomes tiring. Themes in particular,
while critically important to the branding and emotional impact of any overall
score, are anathema in a music loop. A great theme is memorable. It often possesses
some element of musical inevitability married to an element of surprise. Think
of that particular combination—memorable, inevitable and surprising. This really
does make for great theme writing! To hear such a theme at rare and important
points across the dramatic arc of an entertainment experience can be satisfying and
exhilarating. However, to hear it repeatedly within the span of just a few minutes
would quickly wear thin.

To test this assumption, think about a beloved music theme from the world of
science fiction. The Star Trek fanfare makes a terrific example. This is a brilliantly
executed announcement of heroic arrival coupled with a musical send-off to
unknown discoveries yet to come. One need hear it only once or twice in an hour
to relish its functionality and style. But imagine hearing it repeatedly as part of a
looping music track. Even such a beloved and effective theme as this would soon
cross the threshold into antagonism. Therefore, to be on the safe side, composers
should generally avoid quoting from their themes inside a music loop. The best
place for a theme is inside an intro, transition, tag or cinematic. But not in a music
loop!

Orchestration must also be carefully managed in a music loop. A dramatic change of

color, an unusual voicing, a stark contrast—in short, any orchestration choice that
abruptly draws attention to itself can suffer the same fate as a theme. That is not to
say that unusual voicings or dramatic color should be avoided completely. But the
composer needs to be careful in how such choices are utilized, so that such choices
weave their particular thread into the seamless backdrop, rather than popping out
as a striking musical feature.

In fact, it could be generalized that for a music loop, any musical feature that results
in arresting the attention of the listener may need to be avoided. There are better
places than loops for such musical statements, as we will see later in the chapter.
Does this mean that a music loop should be bland and lifeless? Not exactly. The
best game scores are filled with thoughtfully conceived and skillfully executed
loops that keep the player engaged without periodically or momentarily arresting
their attention. But any super noticeable musical feature, no matter how engaging
when heard sparingly, can become counterproductive if used in a looping music
file. As with all rules, this one can be broken intelligently. Yet emerging composers

85
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

would be well advised to proceed with caution in these matters and err on the side
of restraint.

Knowing what to avoid is a good start. But what should the composer do? What
actually makes for a good music loop? A good music loop creates a continual sense
of movement within the limited dynamic boundaries of a single emotional state.
It should feel like one leg of a journey but never convey a point of arrival. This
deserves some additional explanation. Good game design, like good script writing,
moves a person’s emotions along a path of progression. There are inclines and
declines, high points and low points as emotions are manipulated through conflict
and resolution, climax and denouement, etc.

In a well-executed game design, this kind of movement feels like a continuous

journey for the player. But in truth, it is actually a progression of numerous discrete
nodes or game states. Like points on an old-fashioned dot-to-dot drawing or
samples of a sound wave, each game state is a snapshot of a particular point on
this emotional journey. A music loop which accompanies a given game state must
necessarily remain within the boundaries of that emotional node, never rising
too high or falling too low. Progression comes in moving from one game state or

86
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

emotional node to the next, and from one musical FREYTAG’S PYRAMID
building block to the next. Great sophistication
can be achieved by building a sequence of loops
that move the player up and down an emotional
hierarchy. Some of these advanced techniques will
be explored in the following chapter.

In this chapter, the focus remains on building a

single effective music loop. If a successful music
loop is intended to convey a sense of movement
while remaining within the limits of a single
emotional level, how can this be accomplished?
What tools are available to the composer to achieve
this and how should they be used? Not surprisingly,
An understanding of dramatic form and structure
the available tools are those outlined in Chapter
is critically important for the successful score
1: palette, orchestration, harmony, rhythm, etc. composer. There is a common path of progression
Harmony is a particularly effective tool. among works of drama and entertainment that
yields a feeling of satisfaction to the human pysche.
To illustrate, consider the well-known harmonic
Historically, this path is known as Freytag’s Pyramid,
formula of modulating by minor thirds. This works from Gustav Freytag’s Technik des Dramas.3 This, in
well for an action bed as the progression delivers turn, was based on a study of the book Poetics by
a continual sense of rise without ever arriving. Aristotle, famously advocating a three-act structure
Readers can hear an example of this by visiting the for dramatic works. Roman Horace expanded on
book’s website (www.FocalPress.com/cw/Thomas). this slightly in advocating a five-act structure. The
The cycle can start in any tonality. In the figure modern writer Joseph Campbell wrote of a seventeen-
below, the cycle begins in C major. stage progression called the Hero’s Journey. Yet in
each model, there is a common sense of progression
through conflict, exploration and discovery within
a structure that resonates with people. The most
satisfying music scores tend to mirror these
structures to some degree.

87
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

Running the cycle in reverse with minor seventh chords instead of major chords
can also work well for a suspense loop.

Another workable suspense structure is to build a short progression in a home

key, then modulate by tritone to a new key where the same progression is built. It
can then modulate back to the original key via tritone without ever sounding like
a return home. There are many, many such harmonic structures to discover and
explore.

Poly-harmonic textures which morph rather than cadence can also keep a feeling of
movement without drawing attention. Ambient granular synths and atmospheric
orchestral effects offer the composer a rich palette in which to realize this harmonic
approach.

Another great technique is to string together dissimilar but related runs, hits and
flourishes on a variety of different instruments in odd rhythms. Ironically, the
continual sense of off-balance created by such orchestration and rhythm changes
creates its own feeling of background balance, a mantra of sorts that provides
consistency because of its continual inconsistency. That last statement is impossible
for the author to fully explain (or defend), but most readers will intuitively know
that it is true. Star Wars games utilizing John Williams’ incidental music have done
this effectively for years. This is one example of breaking the rules intelligently.

On the other end of the spectrum, a simple groove can also make for an effective
loop. Without specific storytelling components in music, such as melody and leading
harmonic structures, the repeating pulse simply falls out of player focus and into the
subconscious. Such groove loops can raise energy effectively without bludgeoning
the sensibilities.

88
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Technical Considerations
All of the foregoing discussion is intended to help in the composition of a successful
music loop. But what of its production? What techniques will ensure the transparent
conversion of the composer’s ideas into a seamlessly looping audio file? Here are
a few tips that will help.

When sequencing a new piece of music intended for looping, copy the first two or
three bars of the piece and paste them onto the end of the composition. Listen
through to make sure the dovetail transition feels seamless. Then record or bounce
the tracks out that way. The same is true with a live session. Copy the first two or
three measures onto the end of the cue and have the musicians play to the end of
the chart, including the repeated measures.

After the loop has been recorded, the optimum edit point must be located. It may
not necessarily be the downbeat of the piece. It could easily be somewhere in the
first few measures or the corresponding last few measures. Some experimentation
will help the composer determine the most natural-sounding place to loop.

Once a spot is chosen, exact edit points must occur where both waveforms of the
stereo file cross the 0 db threshold simultaneously. This avoids having clicks or
pops in the audio file when it repeats. In this graphic representation of a music loop
created for Marvel Universe, note that the end of the file has zero crossings for both
sides of the stereo wave form.

When following all of these points of instruction with precision, the composer
should end up with a loop that is musically accurate and clean from pops and clicks.
Yet occasionally, something about the transition from the end into the beginning

89
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

may still be telling. There may be a slightly different color at the beginning than at
the end. There may be subtle difference in dynamics, processing and performance.
One effective tool that helps to blend and mask these differences is the use of an
added reverb tail. Here’s how to do it.

First, send the end of the loop into a reverb.

Next, capture the tail from the loop point to the end of its ring-out.

90
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Finally, cut the tail and overlay it onto the beginning of the loop.

It sounds now as if the end of the piece has played into reverb, and the reverb is
bleeding naturally into whatever part of the song comes next. In this case, it is
playing back into the beginning of the loop. One final caution is to listen carefully
and be aware of unsuspected dissonances or harmonies bleeding over. Other than
that, the technique is fairly bullet-proof.

Transition
Transition blocks carry the score from one game state to another. They may
transition the score from a loop to a cinematic, from an intro to a loop, or from one
loop to another. Almost endless variety exists for what the composer may connect
to either end of a transition block. Like the sticks in a Tinkertoy set, transition
blocks always have the logistical role of connecting the score from one node to
another.

Compositional Considerations
How does one approach the task of composing a transition block for a video game
score? A first step is to define the parameters of a given transition. What block is
being transitioned from? What are the musical attributes of that block? What block
is being transitioned to? What are its musical attributes? These attributes would
typically include key, harmonic progression, melody, tempo and palette.

Consider a game design calling for combat with several low-level guards. When the
last guard is vanquished, a knight comes out to fight the player in a boss battle
scenario. A basic music design might have one combat loop for the guards and a

91
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

second combat loop for the knight. A transition block moves the score from one to
another, as shown in the following diagram.

It is time now to define the musical parameters for each “from” and “to” block. For
this example, Loop 1 is composed on a pedal point in the key of A minor at 120 bpm.
Its palette consists of gran casa, orchestral toms, full string section, trombones,
tuba, bassoon and bass clarinet. Loop 2 is composed on a pedal point in the key
of E minor at 150 bpm. Its palette adds timpani, cymbals, male and female chorus,
horns, trumpets, flute and piccolo.

With this information it is easy now to define parameters for a successful transition
block. The transition block for this hand-off must begin in the key of A minor and
modulate up to E minor. It must accelerate the tempo from 120 bpm to 150 bpm.
It must make a natural evolution in the palette to include or set the stage for the
additional colors of the second loop. This can be done in a thousand different
creative and interesting ways, but the composer now has the essential information
needed to make a musically satisfying transition in the video game score.

For example, a timpani roll on A accompanied by suspended cymbal crescendos

across a two-beat pickup measure at 120 bpm. Double bass, cello, tuba and
trombones make the same crescendo on A, octaves apart. Piatti crash on the
downbeat of the first full measure, with a blat in the low brass on the tonic, followed
by G, Bb, C, D and finally Eb on off-beats. The low strings are striking a marcato
rhythm following the changes in the brass, with violins accompanied by flute and
piccolo taking up an ostinato run which rises and falls high above. The orchestra hits
a unison strike across five octaves on the Eb, pauses, strikes again joined by choir
and an Ab–Eb rip in the horns, pauses, then hits a rhythmic triple strike followed
by a long hairpin (crescendo–diminuendo) on B in the timpani, gran casa, low brass
and cymbals.

The stage is now set for the natural-sounding transition to the new key of E minor
at the new tempo with the new palette.

92
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Certainly building blocks on either side of a transition can be more complicated

than they were in this illustration. Much more complicated! For example, a more
sophisticated harmonic structure, erratic tempo changes, radical differences in
palette or a prominent melodic change all call for deft handling of a transition
block that can effectively hand-off seamlessly between them. In the absence of
intricate marker tracking or some other system to keep tabs on changing tonalities,
the two extreme ends of a transition block may benefit from techniques that blur
the harmonic content, providing a morphing texture rather than a clearly defined
modulation. Such techniques include fading in and fading out with poly chords,
harmonically amorphous percussion rolls or atmospheric electronic sweeps. These
can effectively blend the “from” and “to” connection points with musically nebulous
extremities while allowing the composer the ability to make a clear transitioning
statement in the middle of the block.

The middle of a transition block may be a good place for the composer to quote
from a theme, highlight a unique palette change or show off some other point of
musical interest. Since transition blocks typically occur at moments where gameplay
is changing anyway, this can be a good time to call attention to the music with
something unique and memorable. All of these techniques can be expanded upon
and modified to fit the endless variations of adjacent game states which a composer
may be called upon to score.

Technical Considerations
In general, a transitional piece of music will start very quietly and end with a fading
sustain. Like the icon used to denote the transition block, a niente start and fade-
to-black conclusion allows for its seemingly seamless connective properties. These
properties of fade-in/fade-out dynamics at each extremity can be easily built into

93
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

the sequence, live performance or mixed music file using volume curves. The music
file below was edited post-mix to ensure smooth fade-in and fade-out properties.
Note that each extremity of the transition reaches to zero.

The same thing can be achieved with live performance dynamics, as shown in this
excerpt from a string chart.

Beyond this dynamic consideration, there are no other specific technical

considerations for the production of an effective transition music file. Of course,
typical best practices for any music production apply—clean recordings, jitter-free
digital pipeline, no unwanted clipping at any point in the process, consistent file
formats, etc.

94
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Think of transition blocks as the connector pieces that link otherwise independent
musical nodes to one another, thus creating the illusion of a seamless through-
composed music score that matches the player’s unpredictable progression through
the game.

Tag
The tag block brings a sense of finality or resolve to a prior sequence of related
blocks in the music design. A tag is a closing gesture, which might play at the
successful completion of a puzzle or upon winning a boss battle. A tag may also
play when a player fails to provide a correct answer or loses in combat. A tag in a
game score can function as both climax and denouement, bringing a game level or
other structural construct to its peak and then releasing the tension in preparation
for whatever comes next.

Composition Considerations
The beginning of a tag is subject to the same kinds of compositional considerations
as the beginning of a transition block. In order to effect a smooth hand-off, the
prior block’s harmonic, rhythmic, melodic and palette content must be known and
addressed. Matching or blurring musical constructs, as detailed in the transition
section above, are utilized as appropriate to begin an effective tag.

The heart of the tag is a clear musical statement defining the player’s situation
in the game. There can be no ambiguity here. If the tag reflects victory, then the
music must provide positive reinforcement to the player, indicating a successful
conclusion. If the tag reflects defeat, there can be no mistaking that the moment
is lost. This doesn’t necessarily mean Dun-Dun-Dun on low strings and timpani for
defeat, or a brass fanfare on a dominant-tonic cadence for victory. Clever composers
have devised many innovative ways to signal both loss and victory without resorting
to cliché.

A composer’s approach to creating an effective tag may also benefit from a functional
examination in light of the conventional scoring purposes examined in Chapter 1.
A tag sets a mood of finality, one way or the other. The tag heightens the player’s
emotion of succeeding or alternatively failing to accomplish a desired objective. It
propels whatever action has preceded and brings it to a close. A tag offers the player
a powerful contextual clue regarding their victory or defeat. It should enhance the
aesthetic by utilizing those musical colors that best convey the climactic moment
of the preceding arc. Finally, the tag should contribute to structural unity, not only

95
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

with its feeling of conclusion in juxtaposition to the

intro block (which started the scoring sequence),
but also in its choice of cohesive musical elements.

One final compositional note: a tag may be another

potentially effective place for a thematic statement
in the game. The feeling of victory may be enhanced
by quoting from the main theme of the game, or
GUEST LECTURE  from some other important motif the composer
has used to connect the player to the game score.
Do No Annoying Likewise, a feeling of antagonism or frustrated
determination may be enhanced by quoting from a
villain’s theme. Some tags play often, so care must
Marty O’Donnell (Destiny, Halo, Myth)
be taken not to overuse thematic quotes, lest they
The phrase “First do no harm” is famously attributed lose their effectiveness and start to annoy. Please
to the Hippocratic Oath taken by doctors. As video try not to annoy! Saving such thematic statements
game composers we have our own version of that: for major and rare milestones in the game may be
“First do no annoying.” Don’t overstate your theme or best.
any other single musical feature of your game score.
It will always, inevitably and inescapably, lead to
annoyance. And that just makes people turn off your Technical Considerations
music. Which means you’ve failed. Don’t fail. Use your Unlike a transition block, a tag may begin at any
themes sparingly and at the right spots in your score.
dynamic, depending on its function. A victory
fanfare may begin at a full celebratory volume,
stopping the prior music node in its tracks to bring
the joy. On the other hand, the composer may
prefer a more subtle approach, leading into the tag
statement with a crescendo. Either approach may
be effective, depending on the desired aesthetic. To
illustrate, here is a score excerpt from a victory tag
in the game, Might & Magic: Forgotten Wars. Note
that the first measure dynamics are designed to
arrest attention (sfzp) and also grow into a lively
fanfare (mp < f).

96
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

97
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
TECHNIQUES

Stinger

PEEK BEHIND THE CURTAIN

Using Stingers in Monopoly Streets

In Monopoly Streets, a music loop cycles in the
background while the player rolls the dice. For
normal rolls, the loop continues uninterrupted. But
if the player happens to roll a double, it’s stinger A stinger is a short burst of music created to
time! A short burst of music plays, momentarily match a specific game event or specific kind of
overriding the background loop. The same kind of game event. Stingers are unique in that they do
thing happens when the player passes Go, builds
not necessarily connect with any other music block
a house, achieves a monopoly or lands on Free
in the score. A stinger may stand alone or it may
Parking. I created unique musical stingers that were
matched to each of these events in order to inject a
overlay another part of the music. Its usual purpose
shot of recognizable excitement, giving the player a is to highlight something out of the ordinary or
contextual clue that something rare and desirable noteworthy occurring in gameplay.
has just occurred.
Compositional Considerations
Will there be music playing when the stinger is
triggered or will it play out in the open? If the
stinger plays over existing music, there are several
options to consider. Does the composer want the
stinger to seem like a naturally occurring part of
the underscore? If so then considerations would
include matching the tonality, palette, timing, etc.,
of the underlying composition. On the other hand,
if the composer wants the stinger to dominate the
musical landscape, as a momentary replacement
I also created stingers to highlight noteworthy to the score, then such considerations are not as
moments of misfortune, like landing in jail, paying critical.
income taxes and declaring bankruptcy. Those are
fun too! Using stingers like these allowed me to score
all kinds of important moments in the game as they
occurred in real-time. This would have been very
difficult to do using any other kind of scoring block.

98
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Technical Considerations
For an overlapping stinger, care must be taken to ensure that the summed gain of
the two files playing together does not exceed the available headroom. This is easy
to test. Simply bring up both files in audio editing software. Copy the stinger and
overlay it on the underlying music file at the point of its highest transient, like this:

Step 1. Open both music files.

Step 2. Copy stinger and overlay/paste on music loop.

Step 3. Playback and check meters.

99
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 TECHNIQUES

This shows that combining the files results in a signal strength that exceeds the
available headroom by 4  db. Now the composer can try a variety of remedies,
including reducing file levels (one or both), trying various compression or limiting
algorithms, etc., until the desired sound is achieved at combined levels that
maintain sonic fidelity. The final screenshot shows the result of a successful test
after adjusting the levels.

Now when the two music files are played together, the sum of their volume does
not exceed the available headroom.

Another option to avoid overdriving the audio system is to utilize ducking, which
drops the playback level of the underlying music by a specified amount whenever
the stinger plays. This can also be tested in editing software (or in-game if the
audio system supports it), in order to dial in the exact amount of ducking needed.
Referencing the Monopoly Streets example above, here is what an excerpt from a
Visual Basic script might look like when ducking the underlying music by 6 db while
simultaneously playing the music stinger.

x = dice roll

If x = double Then

Duck music_loop_...mp3 6db

Play music_stinger_double.mp3

This book will take a more involved look at music implementation in Chapter 8.

Sometimes a stinger will play out in the open, as a standalone musical element.
In this case, such tweaking is generally unnecessary. The stinger should then be
produced at a desired level in comparison to other elements in the music score.

100
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Cinematic
A cinematic is a linear game segment wherein control of the action is temporarily
taken away from the player in lieu of programmed content. Think of a cinematic as
a short film within the game experience. A cinematic can be pre-rendered through
editing and animation or it can render in real-time through scripted code. Pre-
rendered cinematics may also be referred to as cut-scenes. Real-time renderings are
sometimes called scripted events. This book uses the term cinematic(s) to describe
all such pre-programmed linear segments in a game.

Cinematics perform a wide variety of purposes for games. A cinematic can set up
a new level, conclude a level, give new information, add color, make a transition
in the drama, etc. While cinematics are widely relied on for conveying storytelling
elements in the game, any function fulfilled by scenes in a play, film or television
program may also be fulfilled by a game cinematic.

It’s important to note that a cinematic will stop gameplay. This is important for the
composer to understand as it has implications for the music design. Transitions into
a cinematic may be abrupt. Or they may appear to be completely seamless. Because
factors such as technical limitations, implementation skill and aesthetics are all over
the map, a composer may be presented with any number of different ways in which
cinematics can transition into and out of the gameplaying experience. Take time to
ask questions of a developer about how cinematics will interface with gameplay.
This understanding will assist the composer in knowing what approach to take in
designing music solutions for the most dramatically effective score.

Compositional Considerations
Fortunately, game design documents tend to be very specific about the location
and circumstances for playing any cinematic. This means that if the composer has
crafted a sufficiently informed music design, all important questions relating to the
key, harmonic movement, melody, rhythm and palette for music files playing on
either side of the cinematic can be answered with clarity. Thus, the task of scoring
the cinematic becomes no more difficult than scoring the next scene in a movie.
Modulations, mood changes, palette shifts, etc., may all be affected to produce the
desired emotional result.

Musical flow is important. Just as a film composer is careful to craft each new cue
in such a way that it makes good musical sense when flowing from the previous
scene (and flowing into the following scene), the game composer must do the same

101
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 TECHNIQUES

with the music underscoring each cinematic. Acknowledging that a picture can be
worth more than paragraphs of text, consider these two illustrations to underscore
the importance of flow.

Figure A.

Figure B.

Note the smooth flow of colors in Figure A. This

represents the gradual unfolding and development
of musical color and ideas in a component music
score. Notice that the color of the cinematic block
blends right in and continues the natural flow of
colors as the score moves across the spectrum.
Contrast this with Figure B, where the flow is
interrupted oddly by the yellow cinematic block.
GUEST LECTURE  The color of the cinematic block in Figure B has
Music for Cinematics nothing to do with the rest of the color scheme
and is oddly out of place. When looking at such a
Benedicte Ouimet, Music Supervisor visual representation it appears blatantly obvious
(Assassin’s Creed, Far Cry, Prince of that music for the cinematic should be composed
Persia) in harmony with the flow of the overall game score.
Yet surprisingly, many video game scores ignore
When I started working for videogames, cinematics this important point completely, instead treating
were long clips that sounded and looked quite each cinematic as an island detached from the
different from the rest of the game. They were fun to
balance of the score.
work on and nice to watch, but players got restless
and skipped them as soon as they could. Nowadays Cinematics can offer the composer an ideal forum
cinematics are a lot more integrated and music has to develop the score’s thematic material. Since
an important role in preserving the immersion. On
cinematics are generally only seen once per play-
the technical side, for best results you need to:
through, there is little risk of overexposure for

102
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

the music which underscores them. Thematic 1. Have the ability to set music entry points at
introduction and development across the span of significant moments of the action and/or the
several cinematics in the game can add richness dialog, just as you would for a linear medium. This
and meaning to the music for players, tying motifs ability comes from the game engine.
to important characters, locations or dramatic 2. Have an audio engine that offers many music
developments. These can be further exploited in transition possibilities (on bars, on beats, with
other appropriate music blocks later in the score, different crossfade lengths, with transition blocks,
as mentioned previously. sequences, etc.).

Finally, the score for a cinematic block must Today we do all that we can to avoid the dreadful,
support not only the dramatic ideas conveyed, clumsy music cuts that historically marked the start
but also the timing. All of the prior musical and end of each cinematic, awkwardly setting them
building blocks discussed in this chapter can be apart as separate blocks of score. I usually ask myself
free-composed, without constraint of any linear these two simple questions. Do we need new music
timeline. Cinematics are different. They are all to start with the cinematic? A lot of times you’ll find
you can let the gameplay music roll, or keep it silent
about the linear timeline! For a cinematic the music
until an appropriate moment comes along. And
must be composed so that it matches the length
second, is there a reason why the music has to stop
and pacing of the visual action. In this way, scoring abruptly right at the end of the cinematic? Most of
a cinematic is also a radically different technical the time there isn’t a good reason, but we often do it
endeavor than scoring a game level. out of habit.

In the cinematic music briefs I create for the composer,

Technical Considerations I always mention what music plays before and after the
Since synchronization to picture is critical, cinematic, so that the composer can match the key,
composers must be able to create their music in tempo and instrumentation. To be on the safe side, we
sync with the moving images. Fortunately, the usually set a center key for the whole score and wander
technology for such synchronized scoring is well away in friendly keys only. All of these steps help to
more seamlessly integrate the music for cinematics
established. Each cinematic plays back at a given
into the natural flow of the game score.
frame rate, generally ranging between fifteen
frames per second (fps) and thirty fps, with some as
fast as forty-eight fps. Like an old-time animation
flip book, a cinematic plays back each of its “pages”
(called frames) at the given number of frames per
second to create the illusion of motion.

103
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 TECHNIQUES

Each of these cinematic frames are numbered. The total count of all frames is logged
from the beginning to the end of each cinematic. This running time log, including
the frame numbers, may be referred to as SMPTE time code, EBU time code or MIDI
time code, depending on the system. But each delivers the time information in a
standardized format listing the number of hours, minutes, seconds and frames
passed. For example, a point occurring precisely two minutes, six seconds and
thirteen frames into the cinematic would read like this: 00:02:06:13.

Game developers may deliver cinematics to the composer in any one of a number
of currently popular movie file formats. Such may include QuickTime, WMV, AVI or
others. The frame rate of each cinematic must be checked and noted so that all
composing or recording software synchronized to that cinematic is set correctly and
to the same frame rate. Otherwise, drift and mismatching can occur in the timing of
the music. Software manuals typically have thorough sections on synchronization
which should be read, understood and followed to avoid problems.

SUMMARY
Complex and serviceable video game scores may be built from relatively simple
musical building blocks. Music blocks in a game score were compared to bricks,
spools and hubs from building sets for children like Lego, Tinkertoys and K’Nex.
Six basic music blocks were examined: intros, loops, transitions, tags, stingers and
cinematics.

Intros open a new beginning in the game experience. They play one time to set up
and establish key musical parameters for the next segment of gameplay. Intros
generally fade out at their conlusion. Loops are repeatable music tracks which
maintain a specific node within the dramatic arc of the game. They can be most
effective if carefully composed so as to avoid either easily recognizable thematic
elements or jarring changes that arrest the attention of the player. Transition blocks
move the score from one emotional node to another. Gathering the key musical
data from the music blocks on either side of the transition allows the composer
to build a transition block that will affect a successful hand-off. Transitions often
occur at moments when the game is changing noticably and may be a good place to
highlight themes or interesting changes in the score texture, voicing, etc. Tags bring
a section of score to an effective conclusion. Stingers are short music bursts that
highlight some aspect of gameplay. They may play on top of existing music or stand
alone. Cinematics provide music to underscore any linear segment of gameplay,
including pre-rendered movies or scripted sequences.

104
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 chapter 4 Basic Music Scoring Techniques for Games

Each basic technique should be approached with compositional and technical

considerations in mind. Successfully produced scoring blocks may be connected
together to build a flexible and dynamic music score, capable of responding
effectively to unpredictable changes in game state.

APPLIED LEARNING
1. Explain at least five ways in which using scoring blocks to build a game score
is analogous to using Legos, Tinkertoys or K’Nex.
2. Define the key characteristics for each of the following basic music blocks:
intros, loops, transitions, tags, stingers and cinematics.
3. List three compositional considerations and two technical considerations
that must be understood and addressed for each scoring block listed above.
4. Compose and produce a functional section of music score using the diagram
below as a guide. Test its effectiveness by building a mock-up in an audio
editing program. Have it evaluated by an instructor and/or peers.

5. From the book’s web page, select a sample game design document and
create a functional music design based on that game design using the
basic scoring techniques examined in this chapter. Compose and produce
all necessary music assets to fulfill the music design. Test its effectiveness
by building a mock-up in an audio editing program. Have it evaluated by an
instructor and/or peers.

REFERENCES
1. Attributed to Leonardo da Vinci.
2. http://createdigitalmusic.com/2006/10/cdm-interview-tomb-raider-legend-composer-
troels-brun-folmann-on-adaptive-micro-scoring/.
3. Dr. Gustav Freytag, Technique of the Drama: An Exposition of Dramatic Composition
and Art, An Authorized Translation of the Sixth German Edition by Elias J. MacEwan, M.A.
(Chicago: Scott Foresman, 1900), pp. 190–2.

105
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC