Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Jones, Isabela

Subject: Theories of Crime Causation

Instructor: Mr. John Bel K. Galumba

UNIT 1
Module 1
Introduction to Theories and Causes of Crime
Why do people commit crimes? From misdemeanor to violent felonies, some individuals step in to the criminal justice
system and learn their lesson to never commit a crime again, others unfortunately become repeat offenders with a
never ending rap sheet. Environment obviously plays a huge role but it is only one of the many factors. The study of
crime and why some people can’t get away from it while others never have even a speeding ticket for decades.
Particularly, the study of criminology targets why individuals commit crimes and why they behave in certain situations.
By understanding why, a person commits a crime, one can develop ways to control crime or rehabilitate the criminal.
There are many theories in criminology. Some attribute crime to the individual; they believe that an individual weighs
the pros and cons and makes a conscious choice whether or not to commit crime. Others believe it is the community’s
responsibility to ensure that their citizens do not commit crime by offering them a safe and secure place in which to
live. Some argue that some individuals have specific traits that will determine how they will react when put in certain
negative conditions. Although varied in thought, everyone can agree that justice needs to be secured in a civilized
society.
There is no one cause of crime. Crime is a highly complex phenomenon that changes across cultures and across time.
Activities that are legal in one country (e.g. alcohol consumptions in the UK) are sometimes illegal in others (e.g. strict
Muslim countries). As cultures change over time, behaviors that once were not criminalized may become criminalized
(and then decriminalized – e.g. alcohol prohibition in the USA). As a result, there is no simple answer to the questions
what is crime? And therefore no single answer to what causes crime? Different types of crime often have their own
distinct causes. This briefing provides an overview of some of the key criminological theories that seek to explain the
causes of crime; it is by no means an exhaustive list. Each of the theories covered has its own strength and
weaknesses, has gaps and may only be applicable to a certain types of crime, and not others. There is no right or
wrong theory.
Many traditional explanations for crime were based on beliefs in supernatural or spiritual powers or in laws of nature.
Spiritual explanations for crime were rooted in the people’s religious beliefs and superstition. The guilt or innocence of
a crime, like victory or defeat in battles or disputes, was believed to be decided by divine intervention. Cures for criminal
behavior ranged from religious conversion to torture and death. Natural explanations for crime were rooted in people’s
ideas about the nature of reality in the physical world. Ideas about reality were based on the observation of nature but
were not scientific. For example, the natural world was thought to include inherent good and evil, and crimes often
were regarded as crimes against nature or the natural order rather than crimes against victims or against God. Seeking
explanations for crime in the natural world provided a basis for the development of legal definitions and treatments of
crimes.

1
Spiritual explanations of crime are part of a general view of life in which many events are believed to be the result of
the influence of otherworldly powers. In the middle ages in Europe, feudal lords instituted methods by which they
thought God could indicate who was innocent and who was guilty. The first such method was trial by battle, in which
the victim or a member of his or her family would fight the offender or a member of his or her own family. God was said
to give victory to the innocent party. Somewhat later in history, trial by ordeal was instituted. In this method, the accused
was subjected to difficult and painful test from which an innocent person would emerged unharmed whereas a guilty
person would die in a painful death. For example, a common method of determining whether a woman was a witch
was tie her up and throw her into the water. If she sank she was considered innocent, but if she floated she is guilty.
Other forms of ordeal included running a gauntlet and walking on fire, trial by ordeal was replaced by compurgation, in
which the accused gathered together as group of twelve reputable people who would swear that he was innocent.
Again the idea was that no one would lie under oath for fear of being punished by God. Compurgation evolved into
testimony under oath and trial by jury. Our modern prison system originated in association with a spiritual explanation
of crime. Around 1790, a group of Quakers in Philadelphia conceived the idea of isolating criminal in cells and giving
them only the bible to read and some manual labor to perform. The Quakers thoughts criminals would then reflect on
their past wrongdoing and repent. They use the term penitentiary to describe their invention, a place for pertinent who
were sorry for their sins. Today, some religious individuals and groups still attribute crime to the influence of the devil
and to sinful human nature. The problem with these theories is that, because spiritual influences cannot be observed.
They cannot be proved. Thus these theories cannot be considered as scientific.
There is a growing body of evidence about the factors that place individuals at risk of criminal offending. The theoretical
approaches discussed below attempt to explain the relationship between those risk factors for criminal behavior.
Biological Theories
It is the biological explanation of criminality assume that individuals vary in the behavior because of their biological
structural differences. These structural differences may be the result of chromosomes, genes, chemistry, hormones or
even body type.
Psychological Theories
Set of theories that tries to find out whether criminal behavior is caused by such personality factors as emotional
problems, mental disorder, sociopathy, and thinking patterns.
Sociological Theories
Sociological theories emphasize that human beings live in social groups, and that those groups and the social structure
they create influence behavior. Most sociological theories of crime assume that criminal behaviors are determined by
his or her social environment, which includes family, friends, neighborhoods and others. Most sociological theories of
crime explicitly reject the notion of born criminal.

Assignment 1 (Synchronous)
Instruction: research and list at least five (5) examples of each following theories below.
a. Biological Theories
b. Psychological Theories
c. Sociological Theories

2
 Module 2
Theories of Crime Problem

Theory, defined
It refers to any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce a general principle which increase our
understanding and explanation.
Importance of Theories
It is important because it provides concepts to name what we observe and it explains the relationship between
concepts. Through theories, it allows us to explain what we see and figure out how to bring about change. Theory is
considered as a tool that helps identify a problem and plan for ways of altering the situation.
Three Actors to Criminality (RAT)
The crime triangle comes straight out of the main theories environmental criminology – routine activity theory.

The “Routine Activity Theory” provides a simple and powerful insight into the causes of crime problems. At its heart is
the ideas in the absence of effective controls, offenders will prey upon suitable targets. For crime to exists, a motivated
offender must come to the same place as the suitable target. For property crimes the target is a thing or object of value.
For personal crimes the target is a person. If the suitable target is never in the same place as the motivated offender
the target will not be taken, damaged, or assaulted. Also, there are controllers whose presence can prevent crime. If
the controllers are absent, or present but powerless, crime will likely to exist.
The Three Actors on Routine Activity Theory
1. Motivated offender
Motivated offenders are individuals who are not only capable of committing criminal activity, but are willing to do so.
2. Suitable target
A suitable target is any type of individual or property that the motivated offender can damage or threaten in the easiest
way possible. If a target is suitable, this means that there is a greater chance that the crime can be committed, rather
than, a target that is hard to achieve.

3
The acronym VIVA provides four different attributes of what makes a target actually suitable, in the judgement of the
offender.
The acronym goes as follows:
a. Value (The value of achieving the target, in a real or symbolic manner)
b. Inertia (The physical obstacles of the target: weight, height, strength, etc.)
c. Visibility (The attribute of exposure which solidifies the suitability of the target)
d. Access (The placement of the individual, or object, that increases, or lessens, the potential risk of the
intended attack)

3. Absence of a suitable guardian

Guardianship can be a person or an object that is effective in deterring offense to occur and sometimes crime is stopped
by simple presence of guardianship in space and time.

THE CRIME TRIANGLE

The Crime Triangle identifies three factors that create a criminal offense. Desire of a criminal to commit a crime; Target
of the criminal’s desire; and the Opportunity for the crime to be committed. You can break up the Crime Triangle by not
giving the criminal the Opportunity. Stay alert and use good judgment by knowing whom and what is around you at all
times. You can avoid becoming an easy target.
The crime triangle offers an easy way to visualize and understand crime problems. Three things must exist in order to
have a crime: an offender, a victim, and opportunity. Lacking any one of these, a crime will not occur.
Who are the Vulnerable Victims?
According to Hans Von Hentig, the following groups are the vulnerable to crime victimization.
1. The Young - They are weak by virtue of age and immaturity.
2. The Female – They are often less physically powerful than the male.
3. The Old – They are incapable of physical defense, and the object of schemes.
4. The Mentally Defective – They are unable to think clearly and defend themselves intellectually.
5. The Immigrants – They are unsure of the rules of the conduct in the surrounding society.
6. The Minorities – Because of racial prejudices it may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the agencies of
justice.
7. The Dull Normal – They are simple minded person.

4
 Module 3
CONFLICT THEORY
On a different spin, conflict theory holds that crime results from the conflicts in society among the different social
classes, and those laws actually arise from necessity as a result of conflict, rather than a general consensus. The
fundamental causes of crime are the social and economic forces operating within the society. the criminal justice
system and criminal law are thought to be operating on behalf of the rich and powerful social elites, with resulting
policies aimed at controlling the poor. The criminal justice establishment aims at imposing standards of morality and
good behavior created by the powerful on the whole of society. focus is on separating the powerful from the have –
nots who would steal from others and protecting themselves from physical attacks. In the process the legal rights of
poor folks might be ignored. The middle class are also opted; they side with the elites rather than the poor, thinking
they might themselves rise to the top by supporting the status quo.
Thus, street crimes, even minor monetary ones are routinely punished quite severely, while large financial and business
crimes are treated much more leniently. Purse snatching might receive a longer sentence than stealing millions through
illegal business practices.
The initial thought that one can have about social conflict theory is how to tackle the task of defining it when it is such
a broad theory and when it has influenced so many sociologists, philosophers, and other thinkers alike. One way to
define it is to go to its source and break it apart piece by piece. It all stemmed from the thought of one man, his name
is Karl Marx.

Who is Karl Marx?

He is a German philosopher; a political economist and some think he was also a revolutionary. Although he did not
write extensively about crime he was credited with coming up with the basis for social conflict theory. Those that have
studied his writing and his work and that have sided with him are often called Marxist criminologist or sometimes are
simply referred as radical criminologist or critical criminologist. From this main theory have branched out some sub
theories such as left realism, radical feminism, peacemaking and postmodernism.
What is Conflict Theory according to Karl Marx?
Conflict theory claims society in a state of perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources. It holds that social
order is maintained by domination and power, rather than consensus and conformity. According to conflict theory, those
with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless.
Marx’s conflict theory focused on the conflict between two primary classes. The bourgeoisie represents the member of
society who hold the majority of the wealth and means. The ploretariat includes those considered working class or
poor. With the rise of capitalism, Marx theorized that the bourgeoisie, a minority within the population, would use their
influence to oppress the ploretariat, the majority class.
The uneven distribution within conflict theory was predicted to be maintained through ideological coercion where the
bourgeoisie would force acceptance of the current conditions by the proletariat. Marx further believed that as the
working class and poor were subjected to worsening conditions, a collective consciousness would bring the inequality
to light and potentially result in revolt. If the conditions were subsequently adjusted to address the concerns of the
proletariat, the conflict circle would eventually repeat.
In understanding conflict theory, competition between social classes plays a key part. The following are four primary
assumptions of modern conflict theory:

5
 Competition – competition over scarce resources is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition rather
consensus is characteristics of human relationships.
Structural inequality – inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures. Individuals and
groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.
Revolution – change occurs as a result of conflict between social classes competing interest rather than
through adaption. It is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.
War – even war can be considered as unifier or the destroyer of the society.

CRITICAL THEORY
Critical theory upholds the belief that a small few, elite of the society, decides laws and definition of crime; those who
commit crimes disagree with the laws that were created to keep control of them.
Critical criminology sees crime as a product of oppression of workers and less advantaged groups within the society,
such as women and ethnic minorities, are seen to be the most likely to suffer oppressive social relations based upon
class division, sexism and racism. More simply, critical criminology account the contextual factors of crime or critiques
topics covered in mainstream criminology.
The core concepts of critical theory are as follows:
1. That critical social theory should be directed at the totality of the society in its historical specificity.
2. That critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences,
including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology and psychology.
Critical theory as it is known today can be traced to Marx’s critique of economy and society put forth in his many works.
It is inspired greatly by Marx’s theoretical formulation of the relationship between economic base and ideological
superstructure, and tends to focus on how power and domination operate, in particular, in the realm of the
superstructure.
A critical theory has a distinctive aim: to un mask the ideology falsely justifying some form of social or economic
oppression – to reveal it as ideology. And so, a critical theory aims to provide a kind of enlightenment about social and
economic life that is itself emancipator: persons come to recognize the oppression they are suffering as oppression
and are thereby partly freed from it.

6
 UNIT 2.
Module 4
Biological Theories
Criminal behavior results from a complex interplay of social and biological factors. Social factors are a reflection of
environmental sources of influence, such as socioeconomic status. The term “biological” and “genetic” are often
confused, in part due to the fact that they represent overlapping sources of influence. Biological factors are more
inclusive, consisting of psychological, biochemical, neurological, and genetic factors. Genetic factors refer to biological
factors that are inherited. Social factors, on the other hand, cannot be inherited. Until recently, the majority of
criminological research focused solely on social contributor, either minimizing or negating the importance of genetic
and biological influences on criminal behavior. In the past fifteen years, however, a large body of evidence has
accumulated that suggest that the etiology of criminal behavior may be better understood when genetic and biological
factors are also taken into account. Evidence for the role of genetic factors in the etiology of criminal behavior carries
the assumption that biological factors mediate this relationship.
Biological Theories of Crime Causation
Some genetic theorist believed that chromosome aberrations may be the cause of crime. These theories stated that
people with XYY chromosome syndrome or the so called “macho men” are predisposed to commit crimes. Research
conducted in the Scottish prison found 3% of the inmates who have XYY chromosomal aberrations. Otherwise, such
person is present in the general population, with a share of 0.2%. these claims are completely unjustified and
meaningless if we take into account the low proportion of such persons in the general population.
Another study on crime held that hormones have an important impact on the existence of aggression. Based on
research conducted on animals it was found that the elevated levels of hormones in women and men affect the
emergence of aggressive behavior. These studies mainly dealt with the influence of testosterone on aggressive
behavior, and found that higher levels of testosterone affect the occurrence of aggressive behavior. Elevated
testosterone levels will affect the increase in aggressive behavior, while subtracting testosterone levels will act to
reduce aggressive behavior.
Experiments conducted on animals showed that stimulations of specific areas can affect the development of aggressive
behavior, but also to condition the animals to complete obedience. In 1969, Delgado conducted an experiments on
animals using a radio receiver implanted in the brain to control the aggressiveness of animals stimulating their limbic
system. He found that regardless of cortical stimulation, the animals will behave depending on environmental
conditions. Although the chemical process can artificially induce and encourage the aggressive behavior, it is not clear
what affects the hormone to stimulate the hypothalamus to act differently.
According to biological theories, punishment will not affect deterring the individual from the crime, because the person
has some inherited remnant, stigmata etc. Biological theories of crime causation were the first theories where scientific
methodology was used.

THE LOMBROSIAN THEORY

The father of modern criminology was the Italian Cesare Lombroso. He altered the classic focus of crime from legalities
and punishment to the individual criminal. Lombroso proposed that criminals are biologically different from other human
beings.

7
He believed that criminals are throwbacks to a more primitive stage of human evolution and that the criminal tendency
is inherited. In Lombroso’s view, criminals exhibit more physical and mental abnormalities than non-criminals, such as
unusual skull sizes and asymmetrical facial structure. Many of his theories were developed while he was in charge of
the insane at hospital in Italy. He encouraged more humane treatment of convicts and work programs to help them
become productive members of the society. once widely embraced, his ideas about criminology have largely been
discredited.

Basic Idea of the Positive Theory

a. Criminals are born not made
b. Criminals are product of nature and not nurture
c. Focused on biological and psychological factors to explain criminal behavior.

SHELDONIAN THEORY
William Sheldon thought body types could define personality, he made mention of the following classifications;

A. ECTOMORPH
The ectomorph, according to Sheldon, was a thin, introverted person with poor social skills. It is characterized by the
following figures;

• Narrow hips, shoulder, face and chest

• Skinny arms and legs
• High forehead
Ectomorphs were thought to have the following personality characteristics.

• Socially awkward
• Self – conscious
• Introverted and Private
• Artistic
• Thoughtful

B. ENDOMORPH
A body type characterized by high percentage of body fat with less muscle mass. They’re often heavier and
rounder, but not necessarily obese. They also have a smaller joint, a smaller body size, narrower frame.
Sheldon thought endomorphic people had personalities that were:

• Outgoing
• Funny
• Loving

8
 • Laid – back
• Attention – seeking
C. MESOMORPH
It is a body type marked by greater than average muscular development. They have the following physical
characteristics.

• Broad shoulders and a narrow chest

• A trim or muscular body with a strong feel
• Proportionate facial features not only did they get the goods on looks, according to Sheldon’s Theory they
also had the following qualities:
✓ Outgoing
✓ Courageous
✓ Full of life
✓ Competitive
✓ Risk Taker

9
 Module 5
BIOCHEMICAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY: THE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR CAUSED BY DIET
A. DIET, FOOD ALLERGIES, SENSITIVITIES, VITAMINS, AND MINERALS

What one eats impacts one’s body chemistry. High-protein foods, such as fish, eggs, meat, and many dairy products,
contain high levels of the amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan produces serotonin. Another amino acid, tyrosine, is
related to the production of both dopamine and norepinephrine. These relationships have suggested that many
aggressive behaviors may be controlled with a diet higher in protein and lower in refined carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates—specifically, refined carbohydrates, such as white refined flour, white rice, white refined sugar, and
any processed foods with high levels of sugar—also are examined as related to problem behavior. Complex
carbohydrates are slowly transformed into glucose, which stimulates the production of insulin in the pancreas, which
in turn produces energy for the body. Simple or refined carbohydrates are not processed slowly and result in the rapid
release of insulin into the bloodstream, causing a sharp decrease in blood sugar, depriving the brain of the glucose
necessary for proper functioning. This sharp decline in blood sugar also triggers the release of hormones such as
adrenalin and increases in dopamine. This combination has been associated with increased aggression, irritability, and
anxiety.

The state of having chronically reduced blood sugar caused by the excessive production of insulin is called
hypoglycemia. Individuals who are hypoglycemic experience increased levels of irritability, aggression, and difficulty in
controlling their emotional expressions. Hypoglycemia has successfully been used to mitigate criminal behavior. The
most infamous example occurred during the late 1970s when Dan White killed San Francisco Mayor George Moscone
and City Supervisor Harvey Milk after consuming nothing but junk food such as Twinkies and soda for several days.
At trial, White’s attorney successfully argued that White suffered from “diminished capacity” due to his hypoglycemia.
His argument has come to be known as the “Twinkie Defense” (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2007).

Experimentation with the diets of criminal populations have indicated that reducing intake of refined carbohydrates and
increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables have significantly decreased behavioral problems and disciplinary
write-ups. It is difficult, however, to separate the impact of diet from other potential factors that may affect behavior.

Other potential contributors related to food intake involve food allergies and the consumption (or not) of various vitamins
and minerals. Once again, refined carbohydrates may be a culprit. These types of foods contain particularly high levels
of cadmium and lead, two minerals known to cause damage to brain tissue and impact the production of
neurotransmitters.

Several food components have been associated with reactions that may include aggressive, violent, or criminal
behavior. Some people may be allergic to or exhibit increased sensitivity to chemicals contained in chocolate
(Phenylethylamine), aged cheeses and wine (Tyramine), artificial sweeteners (aspartame), and caffeine (Xanthines).
Others may react to food additives, such as monosodium glutamate and food dyes. Criminal populations also have
been found to lack vitamins B3 and B6 in comparison to noncriminal populations.

B. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS

The frontal lobe of the brain, an area that has become the focus of biological investigations into criminal behavior, is
particularly sensitive to environmental toxins, such as lead and manganese. Behavioral difficulties, such as
hyperactivity, impulsivity, aggression, and lack of self-control, have been associated with increased levels of these
heavy metals.

10
Examination of the impact of environmental toxins on human behavior is very promising because it integrates biological
with sociological and criminological theories. Facilities that produce, store, treat, and dispose of hazardous wastes are
largely to blame for the production of environmental toxins. Research has shown that proximity to these types of
facilities increases the impairment of the brain and of the general central nervous system, producing lower IQs;
reductions in learning abilities, frustration tolerance, and self-control; and increases in impulsivity, hyperactivity,
antisocial behaviors, violence, and crime.

Researchers who study the relationship of environmental toxins to crime argue that our environment is producing crime
by producing neurological damage. Scholars emphasize the fact that minority populations and lower-income groups
are the ones most likely to live near these facilities and as a result are more likely than white and higher-income groups
to be negatively impacted by these toxins. This, according to the researchers, may help explain why minorities and
people from the lower classes seem to catch the attention of the criminal justice system in higher rates than others.

OTHERS
Crime and Sugar
Biochemical theories claim that there is a casual connection between blood sugar levels, anti – social behavior and
delinquency. Theories are mostly represented in the field of juvenile delinquency and presume that poor nutrition affects
delinquent behavior. Poor nutrition directly affects the learning process. However, the casual connection between
delinquency and candies isn’t direct. Excessively low levels of blood sugar can cause the development of negative
behavior, nervous behavior, mental confusion, physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive consumption of
alcohol can cause hypoglycemia and increase aggressive behavior.
Cholesterol and Crime
Clinical trials made found a relation between low cholesterol and aggressive behavior in animals. The study conducted
in Sweden on 79,777 men and women at age (24 – 70), who had police arrest records for violent crimes, found a strong
connection between lowered levels of cholesterol and violent behavior. Measurements of cholesterol levels of violent
offenders were compared with measurement records of non – offenders based on gender, age, type of offender, alcohol
consumption and enrollment year. Low levels of cholesterol are associated with persons who have difficulties with
internalization of social norms and have the tendency to be irresponsible. Low cholesterol levels can cause
hypoglycemia.
Vitamins and Crime
Vitamins and minerals are very important in a regular diet. Disruption of homeostasis can cause difficulties. Theory
states that low intake of vitamins, and minerals can cause delinquent behavior.
GENERAL INFERIORITY THEORY/ HOOTONS THEORY
Earnest Albert Hooton – He was an American physical anthropologist known for his work on racial classification.
Hooton conducted detailed research on physical and racial characteristics, and used his data to develop wide –
reaching analyses of the racial components of American – Indians and, more controversially, to attempt to characterize
the physical attributes of criminals. While his efforts to connect the external, physical form of people to their internal
personality or character had some merit, his simplistic extrapolation to actual behavior was methodologically and
logistically flawed. Nevertheless, his academic work established physical anthropology as a scientific discipline in
American universities, and his writings awakened the general public interest in this field.
Hooton famous contribution in criminology was his work on racial classification and applied it to the area of criminal
behavior. Hooton believed in Cesare Lombroso’s theory of the born criminal, according to which criminals could be
identified based on their physical characteristics. Through his own research surveying American Criminals, Hooton

11
tried to find evidence supporting Lombroso’s theory, suggesting that criminals have inferior characteristics compared
to people who do not commit crimes. He classified those characteristics compared to people who do not commit crimes.
He classified those characteristics into sociological, psychological, physical, morphological, and pathological areas.
According to Hooton;

• Criminals are less often married and more often divorced

• Criminals often have tattoos
• Criminals have thinner beards and body hair, and their hair is more often reddish – brown and straight
• Criminals often have blue – gray or mixed colored eyes, and less often dark or blue eyes.
• Criminals have low sloping foreheads, high nasal bridges, and thin lips.
• Criminal’s ears often have rolled helix and a perceptible Darwin’s point.
Based on these observations Hooton concluded that the underlying cause of criminal behavior is to be found in Physical
characteristics, that is, physical inferiority. He suggested that human somatotype can even determine which type of
crime a person will commit:
✓ Tall – slender men are predisposed for murder and robbery
✓ Tall – medium heavy men for forgery
✓ Tall – heavy men for first degree murder
✓ Medium height – heavy for anti – social behavior
✓ Short – slender for burglary and larceny
✓ Short medium heavy for arson
✓ While short heavy men for sexual offenses
Since he believed that biological predisposition determines deviant behavior, Hooton advocated removal of criminals
from society seeing no hope in their rehabilitation.
Hooton’s theories were heavily influenced by eugenics ideas and such were harshly criticized. His methodology was
serious questioned, and his beliefs characterized as racist.

Module 6
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Why do individuals commit crimes? At the same time, why is crime present in our society? the criminal justice system
is very concerned with these questions and criminologist are attempting to answer them. in actuality, the question of
why crime is committed is very difficult to answer (Jacoby, 2004).
It is important to recognize that there are many different explanations as to why individuals commit crime (Conklin,
2007).
One of the main explanations is based on psychological theories, which focus on the association among intelligence,
personality, learning, and criminal behavior. Thus, in any discussion concerning crime causation one must contemplate
psychological effects.
When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three major theories. The first is
Psychodynamic theory, which is centered on the notion that an individual’s early childhood experience influences his
or her likelihood for committing future crimes. The second is behavioral theory. Behavioral, Theorist have expanded
the work of Gabriel Tarde through behavior modeling and social learning. The third is Cognitive theory, the major
premise of which suggest that an individual’s perception and how it is manifested affect his or her potential to commit

12
crime. In other words, behavioral theory focuses on how an individual’s perception of the world influences his or her
behavior.
Also germane to psychological theories are personality and intelligence. Combined, these five theories or
characteristics offer appealing insights into why an individual may commit crime. However, one should not assume that
there is only one reason why a person commits crime.
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
Psychodynamic Criminology is a method of studying crime and criminal behavior that draws from Freudian
psychoanalysis.
We can relate the case study of the famous serial killer Ted Bundy where malfunctions in his childhood development led
to him being America’s most notorious serial killer.
Criminal behavior is attributed to maladjustment and dysfunctional personality. Ted Bundy was an American serial killer
and necrophilia who kidnapped, raped, and murdered numerous young women and girls during the 1970s and possibly
earlier. After more than a decade of denials, before his execution in 1989 he confessed to 30 homicides that he
committed in seven states between 1974 and 1978. The true number of victims is unknown and possibly higher.
Psychodynamic theorists believe that this disorder begins during infancy when infants either develop trust or mistrust
towards their caregivers. In the case of Ted this very issue caused a lot of turmoil for him. He grew up thinking that his
grandparents were his parents and that is sister was his mother. This was very hard for him to accept and he felt like he
could not trust anyone. Researchers have supported the psychodynamic theory by claiming that people with disorder
have been subjected to family violence and parental conflict or divorce. Ted’s grandfather was said to be violent towards
Ted and his other siblings. It is believed that Ted’s environment played a huge role in his developing antisocial disorder.

FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sigmund Freud is the established original psychoanalyst to form theories and concepts surrounding the existence of
mental illness and its interconnected nature with human behavior. Throughout his research, Freud concluded that
behavior can be explained through the analysis of one's experiences and trauma giving accountability to the motivation
of a person's actions. The interpretation of his findings concluded a person can adapt his/her behavior from childhood
experiences to become a part of the hidden consciousness state. He studied unobservable behavior, parts of the
personality that are not visibly noticeable within one's nature and on a basic level cannot be explained.
In 1923, Freud formed an idea that the theoretical human mind had three elements that conceptually make up “The
Psyche”.
a. Id (Instincts) It is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited components
present at birth, including the sex, love and the aggressive instinct.
b. Ego (Reality) It is the part of the which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world. It mediates
between the unrealistic id and the external world. It is the decision making component of personality.
c. Superego (Morality) The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one’s
parents and others.
They are not tangible physical areas within the brain, rather, entities that Freud concluded make up the human
personality. What Freud referred to as the "psychic apparatus", three elements of the human personality are now
established as the unconscious level that dictates one's desires and biological instincts. see section ‘Attributed
Neurobiological Factors’ for more details).
Freud did not directly use his research and theories to explain how a person is led to commit a crime, but the application
of his theories has been adapted by psychologist and psychoanalysts to understand the connection between the
unconscious mind and criminalistic tendencies and actions.
Within the realm of science, the study into psychoanalysis has been contested and debated according to its validity.

13
In a research Conducted by the National Justice Institute (NJI, US) on the relation of childhood maltreatment and
criminality. The research conducted by Dr. Herrenkohl and colleagues help us in identifying factors that explain the link
between child maltreatment and adulthood criminal behavior.

The results of the study showed that childhood abuse increased the risk of adulthood crime by promoting antisocial
behavior during childhood and adolescence, followed by the formation of relationships with antisocial romantic partners
and peers in adulthood.

The researchers also found evidence of a “cycle of violence” among individuals with child maltreatment histories. This
pattern of behavior occurs when victims of childhood violence perpetrate violence toward their peers or partners later
in the life cycle. In Herrenkohl and colleagues’ research, individuals with substantiated child maltreatment histories
were more likely to perpetrate sexual and physical intimate partner violence in adulthood compared to their non-
maltreated peers.

THE JENKINS CASE

Nikko Allen Jenkins (born September 16, 1986) is an American spree killer convicted of committing four
murders in Omaha, Nebraska, in August 2013. The murders occurred within a month after he had been
released from prison after serving 10 ⁄2 years of the 21 years to which he had been sentenced for a carjacking
committed at age 15 and for assaults committed in prison. Jenkins stated that he had committed the killings
at the command of the ancient serpent god Apophis.
He was found competent to stand trial, found guilty of the four murders, and was sentenced to death in May
2017.
Jenkins was born in Colorado to parents David A. Magee and Lori Jenkins. He spent much of his life prior to
the murders in the criminal justice system, which he first entered at age 7 after bringing a loaded .25 caliber
handgun to his elementary school. At age 11, Jenkins was kicked out of a group home for repetitive violence,
and stopped regularly attending school. By age 13 he had committed multiple assaults including one knife
assault.
Jenkins was sent to prison in 2003 for two armed carjackings after spending time in a youth detention facility.
While incarcerated, he was charged twice: for his part in a 2006 prison riot, as well as for assaulting a prison
guard while on a furlough for his grandmother's funeral.
JENKINS FAMILY
Nikko’s parents were convicted felons and have served time in different prisons. Nikko was raised alongside his five
other siblings in Nebraska. Three of Nikko’s sisters are convicted felons – Erica is a convicted murderer and is serving
her life sentence at the Nebraska Center for Women, Lori Sayles was implicated in the murder carried out by Erica and
Melonie was jailed on the grounds of being a terroristic threat. 100 years ago, the Jenkin’s are known for their long-
standing good reputation, were a highly respected family in Omaha, Nebraska. One of their ancestors, Levi Levering,
was the town’s tribal leader with his influence reaching as far as Washington D.C. However, the tables turned and the
clan recorded many violent and criminal acts which include child neglect, drug abuse, theft, and murder.

There are similar cases to these and it really substantiate the claim that the psychodynamic of one person could affect
his behavior and possibility put him in conflict with the society.

14
 Module 7
LOW IQ THEORY
WHAT IS IQ?

IQ, (from “intelligence quotient”), a number used to express the relative intelligence of a person.

Once the IQ and crime correlation is measured, the next task I to explain it. Why IQ and crime are negatively correlated?
Explanations of the IQ and crime correlations typically take one of three approaches the:
✓ IQ and Crime spuriously, not casually correlated
✓ Low IQ increases criminal behavior
✓ Criminal behavior decreases IQ
A popular argument against IQ as a cause of crime criticizes IQ test as only measuring middle class knowledge and
values rather than innate intelligence. As a result, the observation that some minority groups and the poor score low
on IQ test simply reflects their diverse cultural backgrounds. These same groups also commit proportionately more
crime because they suffer structural disadvantages such as poverty and discrimination. Consequently, the same people
who score low on IQ test also tend to commit more crime, and so IQ and crime are empirically correlated, thus this
correlation is not casual but reflects only culturally biased testing of intelligence.

CRIMINOLOGIST TAKES ON IQ AND CRIME

Criminologists have suggested for centuries that there exists a link between intelligence and crime (Dabney, 2004).
Some common beliefs are that criminals and delinquents possess low intelligence and that this low intelligence causes
criminality. As criminological research has advanced, scholars have continued to suggest that the Holy Grail is
causality. The ability to predict criminals from non-criminals is the ultimate goal. The ideology or concept of IQ and
crime has crystallized into the nature-versus-nurture debate (Jacoby, 2004).

The nature-versus-nurture debate is a psychological argument that is related to whether the environment or heredity
impacts the psychological development of individuals (Messner & Rosenfield, 2007). Science recognizes that we share
our parents’ DNA. To illustrate, some people have short fingers like their mother and brown eyes like their father.
However, the question remains: Where do individuals get their love of sports, literature, and humor? The nature-versus-
nurture debate addresses this issue. With respect to the nature side, research on the prison population has consistently
shown that inmates typically score low on IQ tests (Schmalleger, 2008). In the early decades of the 20th century,
researchers administered IQ tests to delinquent male children. The results indicated that close to 40% had below-
average intelligence (Siegal, 2008). On the basis of these data and other studies, some scholars argue that the role of
nature is prevalent. However, can researchers assume a priori that heredity determines IQ, which in turn influences an
individual’s criminal behavior? One criticism of this perspective is the failure to account for free will. Many individuals
in our society believe in the ability to make choices. Last, there are many individuals who have a low IQ but refrain from
committing crime.

With respect to nurture theory, advocates ground themselves on the premise that intelligence is not inherited. There is
some recognition of the role of heredity; however, emphasis is placed on the role of society (i.e., environment). To
demonstrate, parents are a major influence on their children’s behavior. At an early age, parents read books; play
music; and engage their children in art, museum, and sporting events. Some parents spend no quality time with their
children, and these children are believed to perform poorly on intelligence test. Other groups important in a child’s
nurturing are friends, relatives, and teachers. Ultimately, the child who has no friends or relatives and drops out of
school is destined for difficult times. Research has demonstrated that the more education a person has, the higher his
or her IQ.

15
The nature-versus-nurture debate will continue. The debate has peaks and valleys. For years, the debate subsides,
and this is followed by years of scrutiny and a great deal of attention. One of two major studies that highlighted this
debate was conducted by Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang (1977). These scholars suggested that low IQ
increases the likelihood of criminal behavior through its effect on school performance. This argument seems somewhat
elementary. Their argument is that a child with a low IQ will perform poorly in school. In turn, this school failure is
followed by dropping out. Given the poor school performance, a child is left with very few options (Hirschi & Hindelang,
1977). This ultimately leads to delinquency and adult criminality. Support of this position has been widespread.
Furthermore, it is important to note that U.S. prisons and jails are highly populated with inmates who only have an
average of eighth-grade education. At the same time, these same inmates at the time of their offense were unemployed.

The second nature-versus-nature study that warrants attention was conducted by Richard Herrnstein and Charles
Murray (1994). In their book The Bell Curve, these scholars suggested individuals with a lower IQ are more likely to
commit crime, get caught, and be sent to prison. Importantly, these authors transport the IQ and crime link to another
level. Specifically, they suggested that prisons and jails are highly populated with inmates with low IQs; however, what
about those criminals who actions go undetected? Through self-reported data, the researchers discovered that these
individuals have a lower IQ than the general public. Thus, research concludes those criminal offenders who have been
caught and those who have not have an IQ lower than the general population (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994).

LOW IQ THEORY AND LABELLING

Another argument against IQ as a cause of crime holds that school teachers and administrators treat students
differently by perceptions of the students’ intelligence – giving negative labels and fewer educational opportunities to
less intelligent students. These labels constrained opportunities, in turn, produce feelings of alienation and resentment
that lead students to delinquent peers and criminal behavior. As such, society’s reaction to intelligence, and not any
property of intelligence itself, increases criminal behavior. Unfortunately, few studies have adequately tested this
labeling hypothesis.

LOW IQ AND DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

In criminology, Differential Association is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland proposing that through interaction
with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior.
Dropping out from schools, membership to gangs are among the possible consequences of performing low in school
systems. This may lead to path leads to criminality, on the notion of the Differential Association Theory, individuals
tend to surround themselves with groups or peers who shared the same values and experiences in life. With these, the
likelihood that those individuals who outcast themselves to the system will likely to form groups that has higher potential
to get involved into criminality.
LOW IQ AND THE JUSTICE SYSTEM
It holds that all people has the equal frequency to engage into criminality. However, less intelligent people would be
less able to evade detection and would be arrested more often.

FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION THEORY

• The frustration-aggression hypothesis is based on the psychodynamic approach. When people are
frustrated, they experience a drive to be aggressive towards the object of their frustration, but this is often
impossible or inappropriate, so the source of their aggression is displaced on something or someone
else.

16
 • It uses the concepts of catharsis (relieving emotional tension) and displacement (unconscious defense
mechanism whereby the mind diverts emotions from their original source to a less threatening, dangerous
or unacceptable one to avoid experiencing anxiety).

• Frustration is a feeling of tension that occurs when our efforts to reach a goal are blocked. According to
this theory, proposed by Dollard (1939) frustration often leads to aggression.

The first to formulate the frustration-aggression hypothesis were the Yale University researchers John Dollard,
Leonard Doob, Neal Miller, O. H. Mowrer, and Robert Sears (1939).

CLOWARD AND OHLINS DELINQUENT SUBCULTURE

They argue that just when adolescents have been encouraged to adopt a set of economic and material
aspirations of which the larger society approves, the means to achieve these goals are systematically blocked.
The result of this blocking is strain, which allows the adolescent to develop a source of authority that is an
alternative to that of the State. They try to combine the concepts of anomie and differential association, arguing
that criminal behavior is learned from a social milieu in which the codes of such behavior are widely available
and highly esteemed. They also try to account for the emergence of three types of subcultures: criminal,
involving property crime; conflict, involving violence; and retreatist, involving drugs. Matza and others have
questioned this analysis, however, instead to focus on individuals and their interpersonal relationships.

NEUTRALIZATION AND DRIFT THEORIES

Neutralization and Drift Theory proposes that juveniles sense an obligation to the law. This obligation to the
law remains in place most of the time. However, when this obligation is strained, juvenile delinquents
tend to drift into crime. This strain is best explained by Sykes and Matza's example of justified theft.

LABELLING THEORY

Labeling theory posits that self - identity and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by
the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and
stereotyping. Labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent in an act, but instead focuses on the tendency
of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. The theory
was prominent during the 1960s and 1970s, and some modified versions of the theory have developed and
are still currently popular. Stigma is defined as a powerfully negative label that changes a person's self-
concept and social identity.

17
 UNIT 3
Module 8
Sociological Theories of Crime
Social Disorganization Theory
Social disorganization theory suggest that a person's residential location is more significant than the person's
characteristics when predicting criminal activity and the juveniles living in this areas acquire criminality by the
cultures approval within the disadvantaged urban neighborhoods.
Strain Theory
Strain theories state that certain strains or stressors increase the likelihood of crime. These strains lead to
negative emotions, such as frustration and anger. These emotions create pressure for corrective action, and
crime is one possible response.
Social learning Theory
Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and
imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory considers how
both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.
Differential Association Theory
Differential association is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland proposing that through interaction with
others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior.
Containment Theory
Containment theory is a form of control theory proposed by Walter Reckless in the 1940s–1960s. The theory
contends that a series of external social factors and internal qualities effectively insulate certain individuals
from criminal involvement even when ecological variables induce others to engage in crime. containment
theory argued that there are inner and outer forces of containment that restrain a person from committing a
crime: the inner forces stem from moral and religious beliefs as well as from a personal sense of right and
wrong; the outer forces come from family members, teachers, or others who influence the individual to some
degree. The effectiveness of containment forces can be influenced by external factors such as effective
supervision and internal factors such as a good self-concept. Reckless’s work also focused on “push-pull”
forces as explanations of deviant behaviour, including “internal” pushes such as discontent and rebellion and
“external” pulls such as delinquent acquaintances.
Social Bond Theory
The theory posits that offending behavior is caused by weakened or broken social bonds with law-abiding
people and institutions. Travis Hirsch claims that social bonds like attachment, commitment, involvement and
belief prevent actors to behave defiantly.
Social Control Theory
Social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-
control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial.
Types of social control

18
 • Direct: by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is
rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures.
• Indirect: by identification with those who influence behavior, say because his or her delinquent act
might cause pain and disappointment to parents and others with whom he or she has close
relationships.
• Internal: by which a youth refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego.

Life course theory

The theory recognizes that not one human is identical, but instead establishes that there are typical life
phrases that are experienced in typical patterns. Within these patterns there are social passages that one
goes through, and thus, must adhere to the implied social contract established in society.
Anomie Theory
Merton's anomie theory is that most people strive to achieve culturally recognized goals. A state of anomie
develops when access to these goals is blocked to entire groups of people or individuals. The result is
a deviant behaviour characterized by rebellion, retreat, ritualism, innovation, and/or conformity.
Self-derogation theory
Self-derogation theory predicts that low self-esteem motivates youths to try out delinquent activities that are
aimed at restoring self-esteem.
Cultural Deviance Theory
Cultural Deviance Theory states that crime is correlated strongly to the cultural values and norms prevalent
in a society. In other words, individuals may turn to crime not on account of any innate character traits, but
because they are influenced by:
• The place they live in,
• The people they are surrounded by, and
• The socio-economic conditions of their micro-environment

Differential oppression theory

The theory of differential oppression suggests that the social order is created by adults for adults. Children are
forced to conform to this order, despite their possible reluctance, because they lack the power to create meaningful
social change. The extended use of power by adults leads to the oppression of children.

19
 Module 9
Female Offender
Women’s offending has historically been described as having been either ignored or presented in a stereotyped
manner. As is known, the classical criminological theories show remarkably little interest in understanding either
women’s offending or differences in offending patterns between women and men. However, among the few who
showed interest on female offenders are the following;

The Female Offender in 1893 (Cesare Lombroso) - This work describes female offenders as primitive and
pathological individuals who had failed to develop into moral, feminine women. Even subsequent to World
War II there were prominent criminologists who linked women’s offending to the biological nature of individual
women.

Pollak (1961), He argued that women’s offending was of a more concealed and fraudulent nature than men’s.
According to Pollak, this was a natural consequence of women concealing their menstrual cycle and their
sexual desires.

The Seductive woman, Girls and women, it has been argued, must be restrained from expressing their
sexuality for the sake of their own mental and physical health, but also because of the temptations this type
of behavior produces for men in their surroundings. Women were therefore often both condemned and
incarcerated for actions of a type that was seldom subject to control among men.

Trends in women’s offending and the declining gender gap

Women’s liberation

Sutherland, argued that as the social roles of men and women converged, so crime levels among women would
increase and gradually approach those of men.
Sisters in Crime
Freda Adler’s book Sisters in Crime. Adler argues there that the sex difference in crime had declined due to
behavioral changes among women rather than men, and there is an assumption that women’s crime levels have
been held in check but that they would increase further as women achieved greater levels of equality with men.

One problem is that explanations based on behavioral change among women assume that offending, as reflected
in crime statistics, is increasing more or less continuously as a result of declining control and increasing criminal
opportunities. The problem is that increases in registered crime, besides being the result of an increased
propensity for crime, may also be explained by changes in reactions to crime. For example, analyses based on
time series data focused on sources other than crime statistics have indicated that crime statistics often tend to
exaggerate increases in levels of not least violent crime.
-End-

Reference: Danilo L. Tancangco PhD Theories and Causes of Crimes. Wiseman’s Book Trading. Inc 2018

20
21