1. Define Organic Chemistry.

Research into organic substances is the focus of organic chemistry (compounds that
contain covalently bonded carbon atoms). Organic chemistry studies organic compounds,
including their content, structure, physical and chemical properties, and chemical
reactions. Numerous medications, polymers, and other natural products have been
synthesized thanks to developments in organic chemistry, among other benefits to human
society. An important branch of organic chemistry, synthetic organic chemistry focuses
on the rational production of organic molecules.

To put it simply, organic chemists analyze and experiment with substances that include
carbon to learn more about their structure, characteristics, chemical makeup, and
potential applications. The two most common components in organic molecules are
hydrogen and carbon, but many more may also be present (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen,
halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur). The field of organic chemistry has evolved
from its original focus on molecules found in living creatures to encompass those created
by humans (e.g., plastics).

Organic compounds contain carbon in covalent bonding, and organic chemists study
organic molecules' structure, characteristics, and reactivity. Understanding their behavior
requires knowledge of their chemical composition and formula, which may glean via
research into their structure and physical and chemical qualities, and reactivity, which
evaluations of these factors can gauge. The chemical synthesis of natural products,
medicines, and polymers, as well as the study of individual organic molecules in the lab
and by theoretical (in silico) analysis, all fall under the umbrella of "organic chemistry."

2. Why is Organic Chemistry important?

Food, clothing, paper, ink, rubber, soap, fragrances, medicines, and so on are all products
of organic chemistry that are crucial to our survival. Products such as paint, food, plastic,
explosives, pharmaceutical, petrochemicals, pesticides, and so on all rely heavily on
organic molecules. Additionally, organic chemistry is essential for chemists and
pharmacists to master synthesizing medicines to treat human illness and pain. In
pharmaceutics, heterocyclic compounds have a high profile due to their unique chemical
reactivity, making them an essential family of molecules. Many pharmaceutically and
physiologically active natural and synthetic substances build from nitrogen-containing
heterocycles.

Studying chemical reactions in living things is at the heart of organic chemistry, making
it a significant field of study. Scientists would not have had the tools to investigate the
mechanisms underlying the various metabolic alterations if not for the development of
organic chemistry. More than that, the study of organic chemistry reveals the specifics of
the chemical reactions between different organic molecules and the components found in
the human body.

Organic chemistry is crucial for grasping fundamental biological principles as it is

concerned with the study of chemical processes occurring in living organisms. Through
the study of organic chemistry, biochemists can investigate the mechanisms underlying
various chemical reactions and identify the factors that affect the chemical reactions of
organic substances. The use of live organisms and other bioprocesses in product creation
or modification is the focus of biotechnology, another field to which organic chemistry
contributes. Medical, agricultural, industrial, and environmental biotechnology wouldn't
exist without organic synthesis reactions.

3. What makes Organic Chemistry different from other areas of

chemistry?
As a discipline, chemistry mainly focuses on studying matter and transformations. The
methods used by chemists to study matter and change and the types of systems studied
differ dramatically. Chemistry has traditionally been divided into five significant
subdisciplines: organic, analytical, physical, inorganic, and biochemistry. Different
concentrations, such as nuclear chemistry, polymer chemistry, biophysical chemistry,
bioinorganic chemistry, environmental chemistry, and so on, have emerged in recent
years.

Analytical chemistry studies how substances work on a qualitative and quantitative

level. It includes various methods, such as distillation, extraction, spectroscopy and
spectrometry, separation, electrophoresis, and chromatography. Environmental, forensic,
and bioanalytical chemistry are all types of analytical chemistry.

Physical chemistry studies the fundamental physical laws governing how atoms,
molecules, and other chemical systems work. Physical chemists look at a wide range of
things, like how fast reactions happen (kinetics), how The interaction of light and matter
(spectroscopy), the arrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules (quantum
mechanics), and how stable and reactive different compounds and processes are
(thermodynamics).

Most people think of inorganic chemistry as the part of chemistry that doesn't deal with
carbon. But carbon is an essential part of many inorganic compounds, and there is a
whole field of study called organometallic chemistry, a mix of organic and inorganic
chemistry. Catalysis, materials chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry are some of the
most critical parts of inorganic chemistry.

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical rules that make up all living things. The main
goal of biochemical research is to figure out how the structure and function of biological
macromolecules are connected. Biochemical analysis has helped us learn more about
regenerative medicine, infectious diseases, organ and tissue transplantation, clinical
diagnostics, and genetic disorders. Biochemistry majors have very successful careers in
treatment, research, and business.

Organic chemistry is a branch that looks at the molecules that make living things. It
mostly looks at the structure and behavior of these molecules, which make up carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a few other atoms. These atoms make the molecules that
all living things need to stay alive. Organic chemists have traditionally focused on
making new molecules and coming up with new reactions that could make these new
molecules easier to make. Organic chemists make molecules like drugs, flavorings,
preservatives, fragrances, plastics (polymers), and agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and
pesticides). Sometimes they make unusual or challenging to make molecules because
they find them in nature. Also, you need to know something about organic chemistry to
learn biochemistry and molecular biology. Because proteins, sugars, fats, and nucleic
acids (DNA and RNA) are all organic molecules, even though they are substantial.
Organic chemistry majors usually go on to work in the pharmaceutical, food, or polymer
industries, do research or teach in organic chemistry, become doctors, or go into other
related fields.

Studying molecules that consist of carbon atoms joined to hydrogen atoms by covalent
bonds called carbon-hydrogen bonds makes up the field of Organic Chemistry, which
considers being one of the most significant subfields of chemistry (hydrocarbons).
"Chemistry of Life" refers to the study of the composition, characteristics, and reactivity
of organic substances. Chemists in the field of organic chemistry are encouraged to think
beyond the box as they develop new molecules and investigate the characteristics of
current ones. Most members of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and chemists with
doctoral degrees specialize in this area.
 4. What are the different branches of Organic Chemistry?

So, carbon is one of a bunch of elements written in the periodic table. It is one of the
chemicals that make up organic chemistry. What's very special about carbon compounds
that they deserve a big part of the study of organic chemistry? The answer is that carbon
can form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms and atoms of other elements in many
different ways, leading to an almost infinite number of different compounds. The
simplest compounds are methane (CH4), most natural gas, and marsh gas. The most
complicated of these compounds are nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code in living
systems.

In the meantime, Organic Chemistry is one of the parts of Chemistry. So, Organic
Chemistry has five subfields.

4.1 Physical Organic Chemistry

In 1940, the term "physical organic chemistry" first appeared as the title of a book by
Louis Hammet. This study looks at the relationship between physical and organic
chemistry by using physical tools to determine how chemical structures affect how they
react. In other words, this study uses the experimental tools of physical chemistry to
study organic molecules.

So, this study has many uses, including in electrochemistry, photochemistry, polymer,
and supramolecular chemistry, bioorganic chemistry, enzymology, and chemical biology,
as well as in process chemistry, chemical engineering, materials science and
nanotechnology, and drug discovery.
In their research, scientists studying physical organic chemistry use theoretical and
experimental methods. They use fields like spectroscopy, spectrometry, crystallography,
computational chemistry, and quantum theory to analyze the rates of organic reactions
and the relative chemical stability of the starting materials, transition states, and products.

4.2 Chemistry of organometallics

Organometallic was created by Louis C. Cadet when he made a methyl arsenic

compound. However, Ernst Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson won Nobel Prizes for their
work on Metallocenes, which made organometallic a recognized subfield.
Organometallic chemistry studies organic compounds with at least one bond between a
metal atom and a carbon atom. The term "metal element" in these compounds includes
things like silicon and boron, which are not metals but are similar to metals.

Organometallic chemistry is a type of chemistry that uses both organic and inorganic
chemistry. Organometallic compounds are often used as catalysts in everyday life, like
when making gasoline or organic polymers.

Organometallic compounds have a direct bond between carbon and a metal atom.
Mercury, zinc, lead, magnesium, lithium, and metalloids are all examples of
organometallic compounds. Organometallic compounds can also be found in nature.
Some of them, like organolead and organomercury compounds, are dangerous to humans.

4.3 Polymer Chemistry

Henri Braconnot first used Polymer chemistry to make nitrocellulose in 1777. Christian
Schonbein expanded on this work in 1846, which led to the discovery of celluloid. Even
though it has been studied for decades, universities didn't start teaching and researching it
until 1940, when an "Institut fur Makromolekulare Chemie" was founded in Freiburg,
Germany. This institute focuses on studying polymer chemistry, also known as
macromolecular chemistry. The Polymer Research Institute (PRI) was set up in the
United States a year later.

Polymer chemistry is a multidisciplinary field focusing on chemical synthesis, chemical

structures, and macromolecules. Polymer studies explain how a material works.
According to IUPAC, a macromolecule is a chain of molecules. Chemistry is the field
that studies macromolecules.

There are two main types of polymers. The first is biopolymers, which are found
naturally in living things like structural proteins, enzymes, hormones, cellulose, DNA,
RNA, etc. The other kind is made in a lab and includes thermoplastic, Teflon,
polystyrene, and thermosetting plastics like kevlar, bakelite, vulcanized rubber, etc.

4.4 Stereochemistry

Stereochemistry studies molecules in three dimensions, or how molecules' atoms arrange

in space concerning each other. There are three things about stereochemistry:
1. Geometric Isomers: How a molecule's rigidity can lead to isomerism
2. Conformation of Molecules: a molecule's shape and how it can change.
3. Chirality of Molecules: How the right or left structure around carbon atoms can
lead to isomerism

 Isomers of Alkenes by Their Shapes

Structural isomerism is when two molecules have the same shape, but their atoms are in
different places. Isomers are things that are the same but look different. Geometric
isomerism is the second type of isomerism. It causes by being too rigid molecules and
can only be found in alkenes and cyclic compounds.

Molecules don't stay in one place; they move, spin, rotate, and bend independently. Since
atoms and groups that are only held together by a sigma bond can move around, the
shape of a molecule is constantly changing. But double-bonded groups can only move
around by breaking the pi-bond. At room temperature, the molecules don't have the 68
kcal/mol energy needed to break the pi-bond. Because pi-bonds are so vital, the groups
attached to them stay close to each other in space. Most of the time, alkenes structures
write as if they are made up of carbon sp2 atoms with other atoms attached. In this
explanation, you can think of one lobe of the pi-bond as being on the paper and the other
as under the form and covered by the lobe on top.

 Conformation of Compounds with Open Chains

In compounds with an open chain, the groups joined by a sigma bond can move around
the bond. Because of this, atoms in an available chain could be in any place in space
concerning any other atom. Even though ethane is made up of small molecules, it can
arrange itself differently. This is called "conformation." We use the dimensional formula,
the ball-and-stick formula, and the Newman projection to explain confirmation.
Dimensional formulas and ball-stick formulas are used to show how a compound
molecule looks in three dimensions. Using the Newman projection, two carbons in a
molecule can be drawn from head to toe. Because this projection can only show two
carbons, a molecule can have more than one Newman projection. For example, two
points can be made for 3-chloro-1-propanol.

 Chirality of Objects and Molecules

Put your left hand near a mirror and look at it. The hand and its mirror image can't be put
on top of each other. If you put that left hand in front of a mirror, what you see will be a
right hand. Greek word "chiral', which means "handedness." Chiral objects can't be put
on top of their mirror images. A hand, a glove, and a shoe are all chiral. On the other
hand, a box is not chiral because its reflection can be put on top of it. Molecules follow
the same rules about being right- or left-handed. A molecule can't be forced to reflect in
only one way. An isomer of a chiral molecule and an isomer of a molecule that can be
stacked on top of another molecule are the same compound. But a chiral molecule can't
be put on top of its reflection. This means that the two molecules are different, and they
are called enantiomers. A pair of enantiomers is a pair of isomers that mirror each other
and can't be put on top of each other.

4.5 Medical Chemistry

Medical chemistry, also called pharmaceutical chemistry, is a mix of organic chemistry,

pharmacology, and different branches of biology. It uses chemistry and pharmacy to
design, synthesize, and develop medicines.

Since medical chemistry focuses on small organic molecules, it includes synthetic

organic chemistry. Synthetic organic chemistry aims to create and develop new
therapeutic agents. This is done by studying existing drugs and agents in development
within the context of their function within the human body.

Ultimately, this field cares about the quality of medicine and focuses on keeping people
healthy instead of curing diseases, which is what medicine is supposed to do.

5. What is the Bronsted-Lowry Definition in acids and bases?

The Bronsted-Lowry theory explains how acids and bases interact regarding protons
moving from one chemical species to another. A Bronsted-Lowry acid is any species that
can give up a proton (H+), and a Bronsted-Lowry base is any species that can take up a
proton. In terms of its chemical structure, any Bronsted-Lowry acid must have hydrogen
that can break apart into H+. For a Bronsted-Lowry base to accept a proton, it must have
at least one lone pair of electrons that can form a new bond with the proton.

Using the Bronsted-Lowry definition, an acid-base reaction is any reaction where a

proton moves from an acid to a base. We can talk about acid-base reactions in any
solvent or the gas phase by using the Bronsted-Lowry definitions. Take the reaction
between ammonia gas (NH3)(g) and hydrogen chloride gas (HCl)(g) to make solid
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)(s):

NH3(g)+HCl(g)→NH4Cl(s)

In this reaction, HCl gives NH3 one of its protons. Because of this, HCl is a Bronsted-
Lowry acid. NH3 is a Bronsted-Lowry base because it has a lone pair that it can use to
accept a proton.

 A Bronsted-Lowry acid gives up a proton (hydrogen ion).

 A Bronsted-Lowry base is an ion that accepts a proton.

According to this theory, an acid is something that can give a proton, and a base is
something that can take in a proton. In water, a salt like Na+F- makes OH- ions by taking
protons from the water itself (to make HF):

F−(aq)+H2O(l)⇌HF(aq)+OH−
When a Bronsted acid breaks apart, it makes more hydrogen ions, [H+], in the solution.
On the other hand, when a Bronsted base breaks apart, it takes a proton from the solvent
(water) to make [OH].
 Acid dissociation
HA(aq)⇌A−(aq)+H+(aq)

 Acid Ionization Constant:

Ka=[A−][H+]/[HA]

 Base dissociation:
B(aq)+H2O(l)⇌HB+(aq)+OH−(aq)

 Base Ionization Constant

Kb=[HB+][OH−]/[B]

Count the number of before, and after reactions, the amount of hydrogen on each
substance was to determine if it is an acid or a base. If the number of hydrogens, in a
sense, has gone down, it is acidic (it donates hydrogen ions). If the number of hydrogens
in a substance has gone up, it is a base (accepts hydrogen ions). Most of the time, these
definitions are used for the reactants on the left. Looking at the reaction backward, you
can find a new acid and base. Compared to the things on the left, the stuff on the right is
called conjugate acids and conjugate bases. Also, remember that the original acid changes
into the conjugate base when the reaction is done.

6. What is the Lewis definition in acids and bases?

Since acid and base chemistry began, the Bronsted acid-base theory has been used. But
this theory is minimal because it focuses primarily on how acids and bases give and take
protons. There are times when the theory only sometimes works, like when it comes to
solids and gases. In 1923, G.N. Lewis of UC Berkeley came up with a different way to
explain what acids and bases are. Based on structure and bonds, his theory gave a broad
explanation of what acids and bases are. Chemists can now predict a more comprehensive
range of acid-base reactions using the Lewis definition of acids and bases. Lewis's theory
used electrons instead of proton transfer and said that an acid is a substance that takes in a
pair of electrons while a base gives up a couple of electrons.

When a Lewis acid and a Lewis base come together, they make a coordinated covalent
bond. In a coordinate covalent bond, one reactant "coordinates" the other. Its electron pair
with another reactant. In this case, the Lewis base gives the Lewis acid its electrons. The
product is known as an adduct or addition compound when they react this way.

Lewis Acid: A substance that accepts an electron pair (an electrophile) and will have
empty orbitals. 

Lewis Base: A substance that gives up an electron pair (called a nucleophile) and will
have lone-pair electrons. 

Lewis acids take in a pair of electrons. Electrophilic means that Lewis acids can attract
electrons. When an acid bonds with a base, it uses its LUMO, which stands for lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital.
Many things can act as Lewis acids. Since they can all accept electrons, all cations are
Lewis acids. (e.g., Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+) . A Lewis acid is an atom, ion, or molecule with an
incomplete set of eight electrons (e.g., BF3, AlF3). Lewis acids are made up of molecules
in which the central atom can have more than 8 electrons in its valence shell (e.g., SiBr4,
SiF4). Molecules with more than one bond between two atoms with different electrical
charges (e.g., CO2, SO2)

Lewis Bases donate an electron pair. Lewis Bases are nucleophilic, meaning their lone
team will "attack" a positive charge. They use the HOMO, which stands for "highest
occupied molecular orbital" (Figure 2). So, a Lewis base is an atom, ion, or molecule
with a lone pair of electrons. Each of the following anions, such as OH-, CN-, CH3,
COO-, NH3, H2O, and CO:, can "give up" an electron to an acid. The highest molecular
orbital that is filled (HOMO) of the Lewis base affects the LUMO, or the lowest occupied
molecular orbital, Lewis acid, to make bonded molecular orbitals. Lewis Acids and Bases
both have HOMOs and LUMOs, but only the HOMO is taken into account for Bases, and
only the LUMO is taken into account for Acids.

Complex ions are made up of more than one atom. They have a metal ion in the middle
and other smaller ions around it. Even though Brnsted theory can't explain this reaction,
Lewis's idea of acids and bases can. The ligand of a coordination compound is often a
Lewis Base, and the metal is a Lewis Acid.
Al3++6H2O⇌[Al(H2O)6]3+
To neutralize the acid, the Lewis base donates electrons, taking them. When ammonia
reacts with Zn2+, the Lewis acid-base theory can be used to explain the compound that is
made.
Zn2++4NH3→[Zn(NH3)4]4+

Amphoterism. You should know by now that acids and bases are two different things.
However, some things can be both acids and bases. You may have noticed this with
water, which can act as an acid and a base. This makes water a molecule that can operate
in different ways. Water can act as an acid by giving its proton to a base and becoming
OH-, which is its conjugate acid. But water can also act as a base by extracting an acid's
proton to form the conjugate base H3O+.

 Water acting as an Acid:

H2O+NH3→NH+4+OH−

 Water acting as a Base:

H2O+HCl→Cl−+H3O+
You may have noticed that the way a molecule acts depends on what it is in. Water
doesn't work as an acid or a base in acidic or basic environments. So, the medium a
molecule is in affects the way that molecule works. Other molecules can play the role of
an acid or a base.

One example is:

Al(OH)3+3H+→Al3++3H2O

 where Al(OH)3 is acting as a Lewis Base.

Al(OH)3+OH−→Al(OH)−4

 where Al(OH)3 is acting as an Lewis Acid.

7. Discuss the Development of the Chemical Bonding Theory.

Sir Isaac Newton wrote Opticks in 1704, and in it he talks about a force that sounds like
what we now call a chemical bond. In the book's Query 31, Newton talks about "forces"
other than magnetism and gravity that make it possible for "particles" to interact.

In 1718, French chemist Étienne Francois Geoffroy made an Affinity Table as he was
translating Opticks into his own language. In this interesting first look at how likely
certain interactions are to happen, Geoffroy made a table that showed the relative affinity
that different substances had for other substances. This showed how strong the
interactions between those substances were.

Their work provided insight into the nature of chemical interactions, even though it
predated our present understanding of elements and compounds. It took almost a century,
nevertheless, for the contemporary idea of the combining power of components to be
grasped. An early description of valency can be found in an article by Edward Frankland
(1852) titled "On a new series of biological substances containing metals" in the journal
Philosophical Transactions. Frankland summed up his ideas by presenting a "rule," as he
called it:
There is a tendency or law that says that, no matter what the characteristics of the atoms
that are coming together are, the combining power of the attracting element is always met
by the same number of these atoms.
In his research, Frankland alluded to the concept of bonding by proposing that each
element coupled with a finite number of atoms of another element. However, the most
significant recent studies pertaining to bonds were conducted by two other scientists.

A century ago, in the early 1900s, American chemist G. N. Lewis (1875–1946) came up
with signs that can be applied to predict how many bonds most elements will make in
their compounds. These symbols are now called Lewis electron-dot symbols or just
Lewis dot symbols. Each Lewis dot symbol comprises the chemical symbol for an
element and dots that stand for the element's valence electrons.

In presenting Lewis Dot Symbol:

• Give a visual picture of valence electrons
• Aids in bond formation by keeping track of valence electrons
 • Contains the element's chemical symbol of the element, as well as a dot
representing each valence electron
• To write the Lewis dot symbol for an element, we put one dot for each
valence electron around the element's chemical symbol. The symbol can have up
to four dots directions up, down, left, and right of it (in any order, as long as the
elements, each with no more than one dot placed and have four or fewer valence
electrons). Again, the next dots, representing elements with more than four
valence electrons, are placed one at a time, each matching one of the first four.
For example, the arrangement of electrons in atomic sulfur is [Ne]3s2 3p4, so it
has six valence electrons.
So, the Lewis symbol for it would be:

:S:

Lewis used the dots that didn't have a partner to figure out how many bonds an element
would make in a compound. The Lewis dot symbol shows why nitrogen forms
compounds in which it shares three unpaired valence electrons to make three ties Boron,
which has three valence electrons that are not paired up in its Lewis dot symbol and also
forms three-bond compounds. In contrast, in carbon, which tends to form compounds, an
element can share all of its unpaired valence electrons. as indicated by the presence of
four unpaired valence electrons in its Lewis dot symbol. With four bonds.

The realization that atoms typically lose, gain, or share electrons to reach eight valence
electrons, called an octet, was Lewis's most significant contribution to the theory of
chemical bonding. The stoichiometry of most compounds found on the periodic table, in
the s and p blocks, can be understood by applying this so-called octet rule. As a result of
quantum mechanics, we now know that there is one ns valence orbital and three np
valence orbitals corresponding to the number eight. These orbitals, when combined, can
hold a total of eight electrons. Unbelievably, Lewis came to this conclusion nearly a
decade before Rutherford put forward his nuclear model of the atom. Helium and
hydrogen are two common elements defying the octet rule. Helium has a total n = 1 shell
because its electron configuration is 1s2, and hydrogen, to attain the electron
configuration of helium, tends to gain one electron or share it with another atom.

Lewis' octet explains why noble gases don't form compounds. There's no need for them to
change their stable s2p6 configuration (full octet, no charge). All other elements gain,
lose, or share electrons to form noble gases. That's why atoms form compounds. Bonds
make atoms more stable and less energetic. Compounds form because bonding releases
energy.

Note: In order to have the same amount of electrons as the noble gas that is nearest to
them on the periodic table, atoms will sometimes gain, lose, or share electrons.