machines

Article
Research Based on Modeling and Simulation of the Transient
Regime in Controlled Switching with High Power Switches
Caius Panoiu, Dumitru Ciulica, Manuela Panoiu * and Sergiu Mezinescu

Department of Electrical Engineering and Industrial Informatics, University Polytechnica Timisoara Hunedoara,
331128 Hunedoara, Romania; [email protected] (C.P.); [email protected] (D.C.);
[email protected] (S.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +40-741012314

Abstract: This paper addresses one of the current areas of interest in electrical engineering, which
is controlled switching of high voltage circuit breakers. During their operation, the problem of
controlled switching of high voltage circuit breakers in commutation regimes was studied. Several
types of switching were analyzed, considered representative of the transient regime, depending on
the type of load, on the defect that may occur on the power supply lines, as well as depending on
the position of this defect (near or far). The study carried out in the paper includes simulations of
the controlled connection/disconnection operations in a transient regime, assuming the existence of
different kinds of defects. To perform the study and simulations in the transient regime, a model,
implemented in Matlab, was used for a time interval located around the origin of the time axis.
The study included the dependence of the SF6 circuit breaker switching process on the following



parameters: the DC voltage supply, ambient temperature and oil pressure in the circuit breaker

 actuator. The validity of the theory presented in this paper, in addition to being validated by
Citation: Panoiu, C.; Ciulica, D.; simulations, is proven by the fact that the protection system currently in use at the power station
Panoiu, M.; Mezinescu, S. Research of an 800 MW power plant, at the 400 kV power line, is based on the principles presented in this
Based on Modeling and Simulation of paper. The theory presented in the paper has been implemented in industry for nearly two years,
the Transient Regime in Controlled and the results confirm that the theory presented in the paper is fully applicable in high voltage
Switching with High Power Switches. power stations.
Machines 2021, 9, 99. https://doi.org/
10.3390/machines9050099
Keywords: circuit breaker; connection and disconnection operation; transition; modelling

Academic Editor:
Alejandro Gómez Yepes

1. Introduction
Received: 28 March 2021
Accepted: 6 May 2021 Given the growing role of electricity use in modern society, an interruption of power
Published: 12 May 2021 supply is an important problem that must be avoided. This is where the role and functions
of circuit breakers come into play, which must ensure a quality electrical power supply.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Circuit breakers are very important circuits in the power supply of electrical systems. They
with regard to jurisdictional claims in can handle faults that, if not properly managed, can cause power supply system failures.
published maps and institutional affil- This paper is an extended version of the conference paper [1] presented at the 2020
iations. 8th International Conference on Control, Mechatronics and Automation (ICCMA). In the
conference paper, the main aspects are related to the disconnection of circuit breakers.
In this paper, we further study the switch connection regime of the circuit breakers, a
regime that was not studied in the paper presented at the conference. As a result of the fur-
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. ther study regarding the switch connection regime of the circuit breakers, the „Simulation
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. in Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker Connection” chapter of this
This article is an open access article paper was developed. Theoretical elements were detailed with mathematical equations
distributed under the terms and that show why the transient regime occurs in the case of connection and disconnection
conditions of the Creative Commons processes. Thus, in addition to aspects presented in [1], referring to the disconnection
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of circuit breakers, the dependence of the connection/disconnection process on certain
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ parameters that influence these processes has been studied in this paper.
4.0/).

Machines 2021, 9, 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines9050099 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2021, 9, 99 2 of 28

2. Related Works
Switching operations are performed not only to isolate faults, but also to connect or
disconnect parts of the power supply network to achieve the purpose of isolating parts of
the system, for maintenance or balancing production and consumption. Any switching
operation determines a change in the state of the system. Because an ideal switch between
two zones is not physically possible, a transient response within the system will inevitably
occur during this switching process, which can determine the appearance of overcurrent
or overvoltage. For each type of load, comparative analysis was performed to assess the
influence of the parameters on the switching process, such as: ambient temperature, the
supply voltage of the triggering coils, as well as the pressure of the hydraulic agent of
the actuator.
The paper presents, in detail, the controlled switching process of high voltage circuit
breakers (HVCB) and describes the theory and technology of the circuit breakers that are
used today [2,3]. The paper discusses the benefits of controlled switching as well as how
to determine the optimal time command of the controlled switches in order to reduce the
effects of the transient switching regime. The study presented in this paper also refers to
the transient regimes that occur. The research presented in this paper is based on [2,4,5],
which detail the HVCB controlled switching.
The simulations performed confirm the benefits of controlled switching, namely
improvements in circuit breaker performance, reduction in switching in the transient
regime, reduced equipment maintenance costs, extended equipment life and improvements
in energy quality. These advantages are also presented in [2].
The process of interruption of high voltage circuits has been studied in the literature in
a large number of scientific papers, because electricity is widely used in all fields of activity.
However, the need for electric power quality has increased more and more [2]. Customers
expect that electric power to be supplied without interruption and at the best values of
electrical parameters. Under these conditions, the disturbance levels are not acceptable,
because they can lead to a series of failures [2,3].
Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) are currently widely used due to their operational
safety [6]. In such substations, high voltage circuit breakers are widely used because they
can quickly interrupt the fault and, thus, can prevent damage to electrical equipment [6].
Based on an HVCB study, the authors of [7] analyzed the defects that appear during
switching of these types of GIS, as well as the failure of GIS isolation in the switch opening
and closing process.
In [8], a close–open time control method is proposed using an auxiliary switch. Accord-
ing to this paper, the average close–open time for SF6 breakers was determined statistically
to be 23–35 ms.
In [9], research is performed on transient circulation current that appears in the
switching process of SF6 circuit breakers. A method for accurately calculating the transient
circulation current is presented here.
The process of dynamic disconnection of electrical circuits takes place simultaneously
with the ignition between the contacts of the switching equipment, which are called
electrodes, through the column in which the current continues to flow [10]. The final
extinction of the electric arc occurs at the zero crossing of the current, compared to which
the transient recovery voltage has a sufficiently low growth rate, so that it can no longer
produce the reigniting of the electric arc. Different mathematical models of circuit breakers
have been developed as tools to assess circuit breaker capacity and to investigate the
interaction between circuit breakers and external circuits.
In [11], the breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is analyzed, both for high currents
and also for relatively small capacitive and inductive currents. In the case of inductive
currents, a large amount of energy is stored in the inductive elements, which can generate
an overvoltage when the current breaks. When the capacitive currents are interrupted,
there is a danger of unsuccessful interruption at the first current crossing through zero.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 3 of 28

In the cases of both capacitive and inductive switching, the process is influenced by the
transient recovery voltage (TRV).
The authors of [12] investigate the measurement of transient pressures in a high
voltage circuit breaker of 252 kV during high current interruption.
In [13] the impact of electric arc ignition speed of SF6 circuit breakers on arc contact
erosion is analyzed. The study proved that the electric arc ignition speed has a significant
effect on contact erosion.
In [14], the self-powered ring main unit is studied. Arc quenching methods are also
studied to make this analysis possible. A main ring unit is used to perform voltage and
current measurements of the power supply grid in order to detect failures.

3. The Switching Process

The current interruption of a circuit breaker normally occurs at zero value of current,
in a time interval of microseconds. In the interruption process of the current, several
processes take place simultaneously [15].
After the current is interrupted, the arc voltage remains constant in the high current
range, rises to a peak value known as the extinction voltage, and then falls to zero with a
very steep slope of the variation du/dt.
The current crosses the zero value with a variable slope of di/dt, but can be distorted
under the influence of the arc voltage. The electric arc has a resistive character and,
therefore, the arc voltage and current reach zero value at the same time, as demonstrated
in [16,17].
Around the zero value of the current, the energy in the arc channel is quite low
(practically at the zero value of the current, and there is no increase in energy) and when
the arc length is at its maximum, the current can be interrupted.
After the power supply is interrupted, the gas between the switch contacts is still hot.
The process is characterized by a steep slope of the recovery voltage and of the resulting
electric field. The charged particles begin to circulate and cause a current called the post-arc
current. The presence of the post-arc current, combined with the transient recovery voltage,
conducts energy consumption in the hot gas channel.
At the beginning of the extinguishing process, when the energy of the arc is formed by
the individual gas molecules dissociated into free electrons and positive ions, the plasma
state of the arc is restored, and the current cannot be interrupted. This phenomenon is
called thermal switching of the circuit breaker.
When the power supply disconnect is achieved, the hot gas cools and the post-arc
current disappears. Another electrical discharge can occur when the dielectric strength of
the space between the circuit breaker contacts is not sufficient to withstand the transient
recovery voltage.
In [18], the current interruption process of a circuit breaker is presented. It was
shown in [18] that there is a strong interaction between the physical process involving the
breaker contacts and the network connected with the terminal of the breaker. This leads
to the simplest lumped-element representation of the power system. Figure 1 presents
Machines 2021, 9, 99 4 of 30
the elements of the electrical network connected to the circuit-breaker terminals. All the
variables used in this research paper are listed in the nomenclature section.

Figure 1. Electrical network elements connected to the circuit-breaker terminals.

Figure 1. Electrical network elements connected to the circuit-breaker terminals.

The current is canceled by a combined action of Rp and Cp, the arc energy decreases,
and the cooling of the mechanism has a period which depends on the time constant of the
circuit. In [18], it was demonstrated that the equation of the interruption time is presented
Machines 2021, 9, 99 4 of 28

The current is canceled by a combined action of Rp and Cp , the arc energy decreases,
and the cooling of the mechanism has a period which depends on the time constant of the
circuit. In [18], it was demonstrated that the equation of the interruption time is presented
in (1), where u0 represents the constant arc voltage, which causes a resistive current [18].
 
u0 /R p + C p dudtarc
∆t = ∆t R + ∆tC = (1)
di L /dt

When the current is interrupted, the voltage on Cp , and on Rp , is equal to zero. The
transient recovery, at the appearance of the voltage between the circuit breaker contacts,
presumes the charging of the Cp capacity and causes the so-called time delay of the
waveform, TRV [19].
To increase the breaking capacity of the circuit breaker, a parallel capacitor is mounted
on the SF6 circuit breakers. After a disconnecting operation, the transient currents will
circulate through the system and, after a connecting operation, when a high frequency
current is interrupted, a transient recovery voltage or TRV will appear at the circuit-breaker
terminals [19].
The configuration of the electrical network at the circuit-breaker terminals determines
the amplitude, frequency and shape of the current and voltage oscillations.
When capacitor banks used for voltage control are placed in a station, the disconnect-
ing devices interrupt a mainly capacitive load when operating under normal charging
conditions. The phase difference between current and voltage is about 90◦ on a capaci-
tive charge.
When a high power transformer is disconnected in a normal load situation, the current
and voltage are out of phase by about 90◦ on an inductive charge.
A fault usually consists of a short circuit. Figure 2 depicts a fault between one phase
and null on a high voltage transmission line at distances ranging from a few hundred
meters to a few kilometers from the circuit-breaker terminals.

Figure 2. Interruption of the small inductive current.

Figure 2
In [18], the difference between current chopping and virtual chopping was presented,
and it was specified that in the case of virtual chopping, the arc is made unstable through a
superimposed high-frequency current caused by oscillations with the neighboring phases
in which current chopping took place. Virtual chopping has been observed for gaseous
arcs in air, SF6 and in oil. Based on this observation, Figure 2 shows the lumped-element
representation of a breaker interrupting a small inductive current. The relationship between
arc voltage and current is presented in Equation (2).

(u arc i arc )∝ = η = ct, (2)

The parameter α is a constant in the range (0.4 and 1) [18]. If the high frequency
oscillation causes a small disturbance of the arc current, and assuming that the arc channel
Figure 4
is in steady-state, the Equation (2) determines the relationship between the arc current and
the arc voltage [20].
Machines 2021, 9, 99 5 of 28

From Figure 2, Equation (3) can be deduced:

d(i arc + i∆ ) i∆
Z
L + R(i arc + i∆ ) + R arc (i arc + i∆ ) + dt = u0 , (3)
dt C
In [18], it was demonstrated that if Rarc is steady-state arc resistance, the following can
be derived from Equation (2):
u arc η
R arc = = , (4)
i arc (i arc + i∆ )α+1

In Equation (3) u0 is residual voltage on CS and Ct and equivalent capacity C = (CCS+CCl ) .

S l
By differentiating the Equation (3) and replacement of Rarc and dRarc /dt, the following
is obtained:
d2 i di i
L 2∆ + ( R − αR arc ) ∆ + ∆ = 0 (5)
dt dt C
The characteristic Equation of (5) is:

( R − αR arc ) 1
λ2 + λ+ =0 (6)
L LC
Solutions of Equation (6) are given in Equation (7):
s
2
( R − αR arc ) R − αR arc

1
λ1,2 =− ± − (7)
2L 2L LC

According to Equation (7), the circuit from Figure 2 oscillates when the expression
 2
R−αR arc 1
2L − LC is negative as in Equation (8), i.e., [21]:

2
R( R − αR arc )

1
< (8)
2L LC

From the point of view of the values of R and ∝Rarc , we can have three cases:
• If ∝Rarc > R results in oscillations in which the amplitude increases, the system is unstable;
• If ∝Rarc < R, it is clear that the created regime is a depreciated regime;
• If ∝Rarc = R, a permanent oscillatory regime will result.
The value of the current depends on the extinguishing medium and the capacity of C,
which is around 0.01–0.05 µF.
For gas extinguishing circuit breakers, the extinguishing current may vary from
amperes for SF6 up to tenths of amperes for vacuum circuit breakers.
Controlled switching, also known as point-on-wave (POW) switching, is defined as
control operations of the switch so that in each phase of an AC network power supply, the
current interruption occurs at moment times that are optimal for the switch and switched
load, and does not affect power quality, as shown in [1,22]. Point on wave prevents high
inrush currents that are associated with the mechanical switching of transformers, reactors
and capacitors, as demonstrated in [22–24].
The electric arc, as a circuit element, is characterized by a nonlinear dependence
between its voltage and current and also by a resistive character, as detailed in [1,25,26].
Figure 3a represents the electric scheme of the circuit, illustrating the interruption of a
short-circuit current. It contains an I1 -main switch and an I2 -auxiliary switch. Switching
the I2 to ON, it is possible to discharge the capacitor Co, which is initially loaded with the
polarity from the figure. At the interruption of a short-circuit current ic (t) simultaneously
 prevents high inrush currents that are associated with the mechanical switching of
transformers, reactors and capacitors, as demonstrated in [22–24].
Machines 2021, 9, 99 The electric arc, as a circuit element, is characterized by a nonlinear dependence 6 of 28
between its voltage and current and also by a resistive character, as detailed in [1,25] and
[26]. Figure 3a represents the electric scheme of the circuit, illustrating the interruption of
a short-circuit current. It contains an I1-main switch and an I2-auxiliary switch. Switching
with
the I2the switching
to ON, I1 to OFF,
it is possible the switch
to discharge theI2capacitor
is turnedCo, to OFF,
whichsoisthe intensity
initially i(t) with
loaded a of the
the
current through the arc results from Equation (9).
polarity from the figure. At the interruption of a short-circuit current ic(t) simultaneously
with the switching I1 to OFF, the switch I2 is turned to OFF, so the intensity i(t) a of the
i(t) = ik (t) − ic (t), (9)
current through the arc results from Equation (9).

(a) (b)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Modelling of the
the electric
electric arc:
arc: (a) electric scheme
scheme of
of the
the circuit;
circuit; (b)
(b) current
current variation
variation [1].
[1].

The arc extinction process involves disconnected circuit parameters (voltage transient
i(t) = ik(t) − ic(t), (9)
recovery, which produces a request for dielectric current interruption, which is conducive
to circuit
The breaker heating) process
arc extinction as well asinvolves
the circuit breaker-specific
disconnected parameters
circuit parameters (breakdown
(voltage
voltage chamber extinction, which expresses the speed of
transient recovery, which produces a request for dielectric current interruption,dielectric rigidity restoration,
which is
and also the
conducive toelectric
circuit arc voltage,
breaker which
heating) asiswell
dependent on thebreaker-specific
as the circuit degree of cooling and the
parameters
extinguishing
(breakdown voltage medium).chamber extinction, which expresses the speed of dielectric rigidity
In shortand
restoration, intervals,
also thecontaining
electric arcthe moments
voltage, whichof is
current
dependent cancellation, the arcofcolumn
on the degree cooling
temperature, and also its
and the extinguishing medium). conductance, are rapidly decreased, demonstrating a process of
recovery of the dielectric strength, as shown in [22,27–29].
In short intervals, containing the moments of current cancellation, the arc column
When theand
temperature, current is conductance,
also its cancelled, corresponding to the periodic
are rapidly decreased, extinctiona of
demonstrating the arc
process of
current, the transient voltage is applied between
recovery of the dielectric strength, as shown in [22,27–29]. the contacts of the circuit breaker. In
general,
Whenit canthebecurrent
assumed is that the definitive
cancelled, extinction
corresponding to of
thetheperiodic
electric arc is obtained
extinction at the
of the arc
moment of the normal cancellation of the current, according to which
current, the transient voltage is applied between the contacts of the circuit breaker. In the transient voltage
has a growth
general, it canrate sufficiently
be assumed low
that thethat it cannot
definitive produceof
extinction the rebound
the electricofarcthe
is electric
obtained arc,
at
neither by thermal packing nor by thermodynamic breakthrough.
the moment of the normal cancellation of the current, according to which the transient These considerations
refer
voltageto has
the ausual
growth cases
rate of dynamic low
sufficiently disconnection
that it cannot inproduce
alternating current of
the rebound installations,
the electric
corresponding to either normal load or short-circuit regimes.
arc, neither by thermal packing nor by thermodynamic breakthrough. These
considerations
4. Materials andrefer to the usual cases of dynamic disconnection in alternating current
Methods
installations, corresponding to either normal load or short-circuit regimes.
4.1. Simulation In Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker Commutation
A mathematical
4. Materials model was developed in Matlab for the time interval t = −100 ms
and Methods
and t = 200 ms using voltage and current Equations (10) and (11). Figure 4 depicts the
4.1. Simulation In Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker Commutation
mathematical model, which was also described in [1].
A mathematical model was developed in Matlab for the time interval t = −100 ms and
√
t = 200 ms using voltage andv(t) = 2 Vequations
current sin(2πft +(10)
FV),and (11). Figure 4 depicts (10)
the
mathematical model, which was also described
√ in [1].
i(t) = 2 I sin(2πft + FI), (11)
v(t) = √2 V sin(2πft + ɸV), (10)
Machines 2021, 9, 99 7 of 28

Figure 2

Figure 4.4 The mathematical model used [1].

Figure

The following parameters: voltage V [V], current I [A], frequency f [Hz], initial phase
current FI and initial phase voltage FV are used for simulation for the time interval in the
range of t  (−100, 0) ms. Depending on the initial phase current, FI, an inductive, resistive
or capacitive character results in the relations as in Equation (12).
Figure 2
FI∈[−π/2,0), capacitive character
FI = 0, resistive character, (12)
FI∈(0,π/2], inductive character

The transient mode frequently occurs when the circuit breaker is opened due to a fault
in the high voltage power supply lines. In this case, the transient current consists of two
components: a periodic one, with frequency equal to the source frequency, which feeds the
defect, and an aperiodic one, which is exponential and depends on the place of the defect
on the line.
Figure 5
Using the Matlab simulation program, the time dependence of voltage and currents
was obtained as presented in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows that the voltage phase and current
phase are typical of the normal operation of a three-phase system in a time interval between
Figure 4 −100 ms and 0 ms [29].

Figure 5 1 5. Voltage and current variation for the time interval t∈(−100,0) ms.
Figure

The program developed in Matlab aims to connect/disconnect a switch with the SF6
extinguishing medium in the case of a transient regime. To do this, the ideal disconnec-
tion/connection time pattern is used, as in Figure 6, at disconnection, and in Figure 7
during the connection process.
Machines 2021,
Machines 9, 99
2021, 9, 99 8 8ofof 30
28
Machines 2021, 9, 99 8 of 30

Figure 6. Disconnecting operation of circuit breaker with aa control

control system: 1—disconnected command, 2—identify the
Figure 6. Disconnecting
Figure 6. Disconnecting operation
operation ofof circuit
circuit breaker
breaker with
with a control system:
system: 1—disconnected
1—disconnected command,
command, 2—identify
2—identify the
the
zero
zero point of the current, 3—delay time, 4—command to the breaker disconnected coil, 5—disconnected time, 6—separate
zero point of the current, 3—delay time, 4—command to the breaker disconnected coil, 5—disconnected time, 6—separate
contacts; 7—arc time, 8—end of the current flow.
contacts; 7—arc
7—arc time,
time, 8—end
8—end ofof the
the current
current flow.
flow.

Figure 7. Connecting operation of circuit breaker with aa control system: 1—connected command, 2—identify the zero
Figure
Figure 7.7. Connecting
Connecting operation
operation of
of circuit
circuit breaker
breaker with
with a control
control system:
system: 1—connected
1—connected command,
command, 2—identify
2—identify the
the zero
zero
point
point of
of the
thevoltage,
voltage,3—delay
3—delay time, 4—command
time, 4—command to to
thethe
breaker connected
breaker coil,coil,
connected 5—connected time,
5—connected 6—touch
time, contacts;
6—touch 7—
contacts;
point the voltage, 3—delay time, 4—command to the breaker connected coil, 5—connected time, 6—touch contacts; 7—
beginning of current flow, 8—prearc time.
beginning of current
7—beginning flow,
of current 8—prearc
flow, 8—prearc time.
time.

When
When the the circuit
circuit breaker
breaker hashas variations
variations in in external
external conditions
conditions during during operation,
operation,
corrections
corrections are required depending on their external conditions. When the switchbreaker
corrections are
are required
required depending
depending on
on their
their external
external conditions.
conditions. When
When the
the switch
switch breaker
breaker
has time
has time
has variations
time variations
variations of of the
of the external
the external conditions
external conditions during
conditions during operation,
during operation, corrections
operation, corrections
corrections are are required
are required
required
depending
depending on
depending onthese
on thesevariations.
these variations.The
variations. Thechecking
The checking of
checking ofcontrol
of control of
control ofthe
of thevariations
the variations of
variations ofthe
of themechanical
the mechanical
mechanical
quantities
quantities
quantities is is performed
is performed according
performed according
according to to the
to the variations
the variations
variations of of the
of the environmental
the environmental conditions,
conditions,such
environmental conditions, such
such
as
as the influence of the idling time, variation of the temperature, variation of the coil
as the influence
influence ofof
thethe idling
idling time,
time, variation
variation of theof the temperature,
temperature, variation
variation of the of
coil the
voltage,
coil
voltage,
the change
voltage, the
theofchange of
ofthe
the hydraulic
change thehydraulic agent
agentpressure
agent pressure
hydraulic and the and
pressure andthe
changingthechanging
in SF6 gas
changing in
inSF6
SF6gas
gaspressure.
pressure. pressure.
Variations
Variations in
Variations in ambient
inambient temperature
ambienttemperature
temperature can can be
be compensated
be compensated
can compensated for
for using
for using appropriate
appropriate
using trans-
appropriate
transducers.
transducers. The need for compensation depends on the size of the variation and the
ducers. The The
need need
for for compensation
compensation dependsdepends
on theon the
size size
of the of the
variation variation
and theandactual
the
actual
operating operating conditions.
conditions. For For
proper proper operation,
operation, adaptiveadaptive
control
actual operating conditions. For proper operation, adaptive control can be good enough control
can becangoodbe good
enough enough
if suf-
ifif sufficiently
ficiently smallsmall
sufficiently variations
variations
small in thein
variations the
the adjustment
adjustment
in processprocess
adjustment are taken
process are taken
areinto
taken into
into account.
account. The system
account. The
The
system
system estimates the expected operating time of the circuit-breaker for variations in
estimates estimates
the the
expected expected
operating operating
time of time
the of the circuit-breaker
circuit-breaker for for
variations variations
in external in
external
temperature,
external temperature,
pressure,
temperature, pressure,
SF6 gasSF6
pressure, gas
gaspressure
pressure
SF6 and forand
pressure thefor
and the
theauxiliary
auxiliary
for voltage
auxiliary voltage
supply.
voltage supply.
The most
supply. The
The
important factors
most that influence the operating time of the circuit-breaker are: the control
most important
important factors
factors thatthat influence
influence the the operating
operating timetime of of the
the circuit-breaker
circuit-breaker are: are: the
the
voltage voltage
control on the CONNECT/DISCONNECT
on the CONNECT/DISCONNECT coil, the ambient
coil, the temperature
ambient where the where
temperature circuit-
control voltage on the CONNECT/DISCONNECT coil, the ambient temperature where
the
the circuit-breaker
circuit-breaker isis located,
located, as as well
well asas the
the hydraulic
hydraulic pressure
pressure for for circuit-breakers
circuit-breakers with with
hydraulic actuation of
hydraulic actuation of mechanisms.mechanisms.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 9 of 28
Machines 2021, 9, 99 9 of 30

breaker is located,
Table 1 showsas
thewell as thevalues
nominal hydraulic pressure
and the for circuit-breakers
limit values of the studiedwith hydraulic
circuit-breaker
actuation of mechanisms.
parameters [30].
Table 1 shows the nominal values and the limit values of the studied circuit-breaker
parameters [30].
Table 1. Usual parameter values of the studied circuit-breakers.

Parameters
Table 1. Usual Min.
parameter values of the studied circuit-breakers. Typ. Max.
Frequency [Hz] 48 50 52
Parameters
Voltage control [V] Min.
187 Typ.
242 Max.
255
VoltageFrequency
connect control
[Hz] [V] 187
48 242
50 255
52
VoltageVoltage controlcontrol
disconnect [V] [V] 187
154 242
241 255
255
Voltage connect control [V] 187 242 255
Hydraulic pressure [bar] 0 355 400
Voltage disconnect control [V] 154 241 255
Hydraulic pressure [bar] 0 355 400
4.1.1. Simulation in Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker
Disconnection
4.1.1. Simulation in Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker Disconnection
Considering the moment t = 0 as the moment of occurrence of the transient regime,
Considering the moment t = 0 as the moment of occurrence of the transient regime,
we use the following mathematical Equations for currents (13), (14) and (15)
we use the following mathematical Equations for currents (13), (14) and (15)
iaper(t) = Idef·sin(φIdef)e-σt, (13)
iaper (t) = Idef ·sin(ϕIdef )e- σt , (13)
iper(t) = Idef·sin(2πft − φIdef), (14)
iper (t) = Idef ·sin(2πft − ϕIdef ), (14)
i(t) i(t)
= iaper (t)(t)
= iaper + i+per (t),
iper (t), (15)
(15)
In
In these
these Equations
Equations
•• iiaper
aper is
is the
the aperiodic
aperiodic component
component of the current in the transient regime;
•• iiper
per is the periodic component of the current in the transient regime;

•• i(t)isisthe
i(t) thetransient
transientcurrent,
current,as
asthe
thesum
sumof
ofthe
thetwo
twocomponents.
components.
In Figure
In Figure 8,
8, the
the two
twocomponents
components of of the
the transient
transient current
current are
arerepresented
represented as
aswell
wellas
as
their sum, which is actually the defective current.
their sum, which is actually the defective current.

500
fiI [rad] = 0.7854 i(t)
Sigma = 0.01 I[A] = 290.3
400 u(t)
i(t) = iaper(t) + iper(t)
300
iper(t)
200 iaper(t)
I[A]/U[V]

100

-100

-200

-300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t [`ms]

Figure8.8.Components
Figure Componentsof
ofthe
thetransient
transientcharacteristic
characteristicon
oninductive
inductiveload;
load;over
overtime,
time,t∈
t∈(0,100) ms.
(0,100) ms.

For the transient regime,

For regime, the phaseɸIFI
thephase of of
defdef thethe
current Idef Irepresents
current the phase
def represents shift
the phase
of the
shift of source and and
the source determines the the
determines loadload
character,
character,likelike
in Equation
in Equation (12). Based
(12). on on
Based the
Equations
the Equations (13)–(15),
(13)–(15),thethe
components
componentsofofthe thetransient
transient characteristic t∈(0,100) ms
characteristic t∈(0,100) ms were
were
obtained
obtained over time,
time,asasshown
showninin Figure
Figure 9, using
9, using an inductive
an inductive load,load,
and asand as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure
10 for a10capacitive
for a capacitive
load. Inload. In9,Figure
Figure 9, the and
the voltage voltage and characteristic
current current characteristic of a
of a transient
transient
regime are regime are represented,
represented, where σ where
= 0.01, σso=the
0.01, so the
defect is defect is at
at a long a long distance
distance and the
and the periodic
periodic
component component of the is
of the current current
equal is
toequal to π/2,
π/2, the the amplitude
amplitude of the defective
of the defective current iscurrent is
I = 290.3
Machines 2021, 9, 99 10 of 30

Machines 2021, 9, 99 10 of 28

A. In this case, it is noted that the aperiodic component is above the horizontal axe where
the transient current is found in the positive area.
I = 290.3 A. In this case, it is noted that the aperiodic component is above the horizontal
axe where the transient current is found in the positive area.

Figure9.9. Components
Figure 9Figure Components of
ofthe
thetransient
transientcharacteristic
characteristicon
oncapacitive
capacitiveload;
load;over
overtime,
time,tt∈(0,100) ms.
∈(0,100) ms.

Capacitive load FiI = pi/2

300
i(t)
u(t)

200
iper(t)
i(t) = iaper(t) + iper(t)
100

0
I[A]/U[V]

-100

iaper(t)
-200

-300

-400

-500

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t [`ms]

Figure10.
Figure 10. Characteristic
Characteristictransient
transientcurrent
currentcapacitive
capacitiveload.
load.

If the
If the fault
fault phase negativeFIɸI
phaseisisnegative defdef== − −π/2, single-phase characteristic
π/2, the single-phase characteristic of of the
the
transient current
transient currentIIdef
def =
= 290.3
290.3 A
A in the time interval t∈(0,100) defect,
t∈(0,100) ms, for a long distance defect,
σsigma == 0.01 as
σsigma as in
in Figure
Figure 10,
10, and
and itit isis found
found that
that the
the maximum
maximum transient
transient current
current isis
negative [1].
negative [1].
Tostudy
To studythethe influence
influence of fault
of the the fault
(defect)(defect) location,
location, the coefficient
the coefficient ofisσchanged
of σ = 0.9 = 0.9 is
changed
to to 0.09,
0.09, 0.009 and 0.009
0.0009and 0.0009
from from the
the defect from defect
near from
to longnear to longIndistance.
distance. In itFigure
Figure 11, 11,
is noted
that
it is flattening
noted that the aperiodic
flattening the component is more pronounced
aperiodic component for near defects,
is more pronounced for neari.e., σ of
defects,
Machines 2021, 9, 99 11 of 30

Machines 2021, 9, 99 11 of 28
i.e., σ of about 1. Figure 11 shows the voltage and current variation for inductive load, ɸIdef
= π/2, Idef = 290.3 A; over time, t∈(−100,100) ms, for σ = 0.9, σ = 0.09, σ = 0.009 and σ = 0.0009.
It is observed in Figure 11 that when a transient regime appears, the current to be
interrupted
about 1. Figure is very high,the
11 shows and if theand
voltage moment
currentofvariation
connecting the circuit
for inductive breaker
load, FIdef is in a
= π/2,
maximum wave, this current affects the circuit breaker, [1].
Idef = 290.3 A; over time, t∈(−100,100) ms, for σ = 0.9, σ = 0.09, σ = 0.009 and σ = 0.0009.

Figure11.
Figure 11.The
Thevoltage
voltageand
andcurrent
currentvariation
variationfor
forinductive
inductiveload, ɸIdef= =π/2,
load,FIdef π/2,Idef
Idef==290.3
290.3A;
A;over
overtime,
time,t∈
t∈(−100,100) msfor
(−100,100) ms for
σ = 0.9, σ = 0.09, σ = 0.009 and σ = 0.0009.
σ = 0.9, σ = 0.09, σ = 0.009 and σ = 0.0009.

For
It simulation,
is observed in aFigure
time 11 control was used,
that when whichregime
a transient is represented
appears, the in blue color.
current to
be interrupted is very high, and if the moment of connecting the circuit breaker is in ais
Depending on the type of circuit breaker, a time characteristic of each delay switch
calculated,wave,
maximum whichthisis dependent
current affects on thetheoutdoor temperature,
circuit breaker [1]. on the DC voltage supply of
the Forswitch trigger coil and on the oil pressure
simulation, a time control was used, which is represented if the circuit breaker
in blue color. is operated
Depending
hydraulically,
on i.e., tbreaker
the type of circuit breaker,= f a(°C,V_DC, p), as shown
time characteristic of eachindelay
[31–33].
switchTheis calculation of the
calculated, which
coefficient
is dependent according to which
on the outdoor the disconnection
temperature, on the DC of voltage
the switch is studied
supply is conducted
of the switch trigger
based
coil and ononmeasured values if
the oil pressure and
thesaved
circuitinbreaker
vectors.isThe coefficients
operated will theni.e.,
hydraulically, be tcalculated
breaker = f
◦ C,interpolation.
(by V_DC, p), as shown in [31–33]. The calculation of the coefficient according to which
In the scope of
the disconnection ofstudying
the switch theisdisconnection of a circuit
studied is conducted breaker,
based the scheme
on measured in Figure
values and
4 was in
saved used. The time
vectors. coefficients will
The coefficients on the disconnection
then be calculatedprocess of the circuit-breaker were
by interpolation.
experimentally
In the scopedetermined
of studyingfor thethe studied circuit-breakers
disconnection and the
of a circuit breaker, results
the scheme areinpresented
Figure 4
in the
was following.
used. The time coefficients on the disconnection process of the circuit-breaker were
experimentally
1. The temperature determined for the studied
dependency of timecircuit-breakers
coefficient Ctempand the on
= f(T) results are presented in
the disconnection of
the following.
a circuit breaker is represented in Table 2, [34]. Taking into consideration the
1. measured values,
The temperature the equation
dependency which
of time describes
coefficient this= f(T)
Ctemp dependency is presentedof in
on the disconnection a
Equation (16). is represented in Table 2 [34]. Taking into consideration the measured
circuit breaker
values, the equation which describes this dependency is presented in Equation (16).
Table 2. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on outdoor temperature.
Table 2. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on outdoor temperature.
T [°C] Ctemp (ms)
T [◦ C]
40 Ctemp21.5
(ms)
4020 21.522
20 2222.5
0
0 22.5
−20
−20 2323
−30
−30 2424
−40 31
−40 31

Ctemp (T) = 0.0026·T2 − 0.0829·T + 21.482 (16)

 Ctemp (T) = 0.0026·T2 − 0.0829·T + 21.482
Machines 2021, 9, 99 12 of 28

Figure 12 represents the dependency of parameter Ctemp on the outd

on the disconnection of a circuit breaker.
Figure 12 represents the dependency of parameter Ctemp on the outdoor temperature
on the disconnection of a circuit breaker.
31

30

29

28

27
C temp

26

25

24

23

22

21
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
t grdC

Figure 12. Dependency of Ctemp on the outdoor temperature on the disconnection of a circuit breaker.
Figure 12. Dependency of Ctemp on the outdoor temperature on the disconnection
2. The DC voltage supply dependency of time coefficient tUDC = f(UDC) on the discon-
breaker.
nection of a circuit breaker is represented in Table 3 [34]. Taking into consideration
the measured values, the equation which describes the dependency is presented
2. The DC voltage
in Equation (17). supply dependency of time coefficient tUDC =
disconnection of a circuit breaker is represented in Table 3, [3
Table 3. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on DC voltage control.
consideration the measured values, the equation which describes th
U Control (V)
presented in Equation (17). tUDC (ms)
UDC
187 6.6
Table 3. Measured values
192 of the dependency of time coefficient
5.6 on outdoor temp
203 3.4
U209
Control
221
(V) 2.2
−0.2
232 UDC −2.4
tUDC (ms)
241 −4.2
252 187 −6.4 6.6
255 −7
192 5.6
203 3.4
tUDC (UDC) = −0.2·UDC + 44 (17)
209 2.2
Figure 13 represents the dependency of parameter tUDC on the DC voltage supply on
221
the disconnection of a circuit breaker. −0.2
232 −2.4
241 −4.2
252 −6.4
255 −7

tUDC(UDC) = −0.2·UDC + 44
Figure 13 represents the dependency of parameter tUDC on the DC vo
Machines 2021, 9, 99 13 of 28
Machines 2021, 9, 99 13 of 30

8
tiU = f(U)
6

2
tiU [ms]

-2

-4

-6

-8
180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
U [V]

Figure13.
Figure 13. Dependency
Dependency of
of ttUDC
UDC on
on the
the DC
DC voltage
voltage supply
supply on
on the
the disconnection
disconnection of
of aa circuit
circuit breaker.
breaker.

3.
3. The oil
oil pressure
pressure dependency
dependencyofoftime
timecoefficient
coefficientCPh = f(P)
CPh on on
= f(P) the the
disconnection of a
disconnection
circuit
of breaker
a circuit is represented
breaker in in
is represented Table
Table4, 4[34].
[34]. The
The equation
equation that describes
describes the
the
(18), taking
dependence is presented in Equation (18), taking into
into account
account the
the measured
measured values.
values.

Table4.4.Measured
Table Measuredvalues
valuesofofthe
thedependency
dependencyofoftime
timecoefficient
coefficienton
onoil
oilpressure.
pressure.

Oil Pressure
Oil Pressure (bar) (bar) CPh (ms)
CPh (ms)
310 310 6 6
316 316 4.2 4.2
321 321 2.7 2.7
326 326 1.2 1.2
333 −0.9
337
333 −2.1 −0.9
342 337 −3.6 −2.1
346 342 −4.8 −3.6
350 346 −6 −4.8
350 −6
CPh (P) = −0.3 P + 99 (18)
CPh (P) of
Figure 14 represents the dependency = −0.3 P + 99 CPh on the oil pressure on the
parameter (18)
disconnection of a circuit breaker.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 14 of 30

Machines 2021, 9, 99 14 of 28
Figure 14 represents the dependency of parameter CPh on the oil pressure on the
disconnection of a circuit breaker.

Figure14.
Figure Timedelay
14.Time delaycharacteristic
characteristicof
ofthe
theoil
oilpressure
pressure on
on the
the disconnection
disconnection of
of aa circuit
circuit breaker.

Calculationof
Calculation ofthe
thefinal
final ttbreaker
breaker parameter
parameter is ismade
madeaccording
accordingtotoequation
Equation (19)[35].
(19), [35].
The program, implemented in Matlab, commands the
The program, implemented in Matlab, commands the disconnection of the circuitdisconnection of the circuit
breaker. The
breaker. Theassured
assuredtime
timecommand
commandprecision precisionisis 11 microsecond
microsecond and and depends
depends on on thethe
outdoor temperature, on the DC voltage supply of the switch trigger
outdoor temperature, on the DC voltage supply of the switch trigger coil and on the oil coil and on the oil
pressure. Based on this precision, the program determines the next
pressure. Based on this precision, the program determines the next zero crossing where zero crossing where the
switch
the switchis disconnected.
is disconnected.
tbreaker = Ctemp + tUDC + CPh , (19)
tbreaker = Ctemp + tUDC + CPh, (19)
For simulation of the disconnecting process, the following parameter values of a
For simulation
monophasic of the disconnecting
power supply system were used: process,U =the following
8.6 V, FU = −0.34 ◦ , f = 50values
parameter Hz, I =of a
3 A,
Machines 2021, 9, 99 monophasic ◦ power supply
FI = 1.26 , outdoor system
temperature = 23 ◦
were C,used:
Ucc =U242 V, PV,=ɸU
= 8.6 330=bar.
−0.34°, f = 50 Hz,
In Figure A,ofɸI30
I = simula-
15, the 3 15
=tion
1.26°, outdoor
results temperature
for the time command = 23 °C, Ucc = 242 V, of
of disconnected P =circuit
330 bar. In Figure
breaker of t1 =15, the simulation
tcommand = 13 ms
results for the time command of disconnected of circuit breaker of t1 = tcommand = 13 ms are
are presented.
presented.

Figure 15. The simulation of monophasic power supply system on the disconnecting process of the circuit breaker on
Figure 15. The simulation of monophasic power supply system on the disconnecting process of the circuit breaker on t1 =
t1tcommand
= tcommand = 13 ms.
= 13 ms.

The main parameters which are used in simulation of the disconnection process of
the circuit-breaker are presented in Table 5. Based on the equation presented in Table 6,
the parameter values of the disconnection simulation process are t1 = tcommand = 13 ms.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 15 of 28

The main parameters which are used in simulation of the disconnection process of the
circuit-breaker are presented in Table 5. Based on the equation presented in Table 6, the
parameter values of the disconnection simulation process are t1 = tcommand = 13 ms.
Table 5. The main parameters used in simulation of disconnection process of the circuit-breaker.

Parameters Values
Temperature [◦ C] 23
Ucc [V] 242
P [bar] 330
tT 21
tucc −4
tp 0
t5 17
t1 13
t2 26

Table 6. The equation used in simulation of the disconnection process of the circuit-breaker.

Equation Parameters Values

i(t) = 0 t2 26
t = f(T,U,P) t5 17
SP2 = 1000/f/3 sp2 10
nrp = t5/SP2 + 1 Nrp 2
Machines 2021, 9, 99 16 of 30
t7 = t2 + nrp*SP2 t7 46
t4 = t7 − t6 t4 29
t3 = t4 − t2 t3 3
Using a program which was developed in Matlab, the need to control the circuit
Usingwhen
breakers a program whichcrosses
the current was developed in Matlab,
zero value, the of
in the case need to controlcurrent,
a transient the circuit
was
breakers when
demonstrated. the current crosses zero value, in the case of a transient current, was
demonstrated.
Figures 16 and 17 present the disconnecting operation of the circuit breaker for an
Figures 16 and 17 present the disconnecting operation of the circuit breaker for an
inductive load.
inductive load.

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Transient
Transientuncontrolled
uncontrolledswitching
switchingdiagram forfor
diagram inductive load,
inductive ɸIdefFIdef
load, = π/2,= Idef
π/2,= Idef
290.3=A,290.3
σ = 0.005,
A, σ t=disconnect
0.005,=
31.221 ms.
tdisconnect = 31.221 ms.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 16 of 28

Figure 16. Transient uncontrolled switching diagram for inductive load, ɸIdef = π/2, Idef = 290.3 A, σ = 0.005, tdisconnect =
31.221 ms.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Transient
Transient switching
switching diagram
diagramfor
forinductive load,ɸIdef
inductiveload, FIdef= π/2, IdefIdef
= π/2, = 290.3 A, σA,
= 290.3 = 0.005, tcommand
σ = 0.005, = 50.121=ms,
tcommand tdisconnect
50.121 ms,
= 77.375 ms.
tdisconnect = 77.375 ms.
The following values were used for the example in Figure 16: U = 220 V, ϕU = 0 rad;
I = 100 A, ϕI = 1.57 = π/2 rad; f = 50 Hz, Sigma fault distance = 0.005; Idef = 290.3 A,
ϕ Idef = 1.57 = π/2 rad; command time = 31.221 ms.
This time is determined by the protection that detects the occurrence of the defect.
From Figure 16, it is found that the current to be interrupted is high and, within a
few ms, it is damped, requiring a significant process to extinguish the electric arc. The
fault current from Figure 16 must be interrupted very soon after its occurrence, because if
it is maintained for a long time, it can lead to the destruction of the electrical equipment
in operation.
To simulate the controlled disconnection shown in Figure 17, the following values
were used: U = 220 V, ϕU = 0 rad; I = 100 A, ϕI = 1.57 = π/2 rad; f = 50 Hz, Sigma fault
distance = 0.005; Idef = 290.3 A, ϕ Idef = 1.57 = π/2 rad; command time = 50.121 ms.
This time is about half the amplitude of the fault current. It is observed that if
the opening occurred at this time, we would have a damped variation of current and
voltage [36]. The program determines the time when the fault current crosses the time axis
at t = 97.108 ms and opens the switch so that the momentary value of the fault current is
almost zero.
Figure 18 shows the disconnecting operation of the circuit breaker for a capacitive load.
At a command time greater than 150 ms, all three situations, capacitive, resistive,
and inductive load, are depicted in Figure 19. It can be seen that in the case of a value
of σ = 0.005, at a command time over than 150 ms, the drive time is shorter than in the
previous example, indifferent to the load, and is approximately 23 ms. The disconnect
switch command date is held at 50 ms in the blue graphic representation, and the circuit
breaker position is shown in red in the lower part. It is noted that the drive time between
issuing the opening commands and disconnection of the circuit breaker is approximately
27 ÷ 28 ms in the case of a transient fault.
 inductive load, are depicted in Figure 19. It can be seen that in the case of a value of σ =
0.005, at a command time over than 150 ms, the drive time is shorter than in the previous
example, indifferent to the load, and is approximately 23 ms. The disconnect switch
command date is held at 50 ms in the blue graphic representation, and the circuit breaker
Machines 2021, 9, 99 position is shown in red in the lower part. It is noted that the drive time between issuing
17 of 28
the opening commands and disconnection of the circuit breaker is approximately 27 ÷ 28
ms in the case of a transient fault.

Figure
Figure
Machines 18.
18.
2021, 99Transientswitching
9, Transient switchingdiagram
diagramfor
forcapacitive
capacitiveload, ɸIdef= =π/2,
load,FIdef π/2,Idef
Idef= =290.3
290.3A,A,σ σ = 0.005,
= 0.005, tcommand == 32.221
tcommand 32.221 ms,
ms,
18 of 30
tdisconnect ==57.697
tdisconnect 57.697ms.
ms.

600
i(t)
U [V] = 220 fiIU[rad] = 0 u(t)
I [A] = 100 fiI[rad] = 0.7854 Sigma = 0.005 I [A] = 290.3 fiI [rad] = 1.5708
400

fiI = pi/2

200

0
I[A]/U[V]

-200

-400
fiI = -pi/2
fiI = 0
180.021

-600
203.825 210

-800
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
t [`ms]

Figure19.
Figure 19.Transient
Transientswitching
switchingdiagram
diagramfor forcapacitive,
capacitive,resistive
resistive and
and inductive
inductive FIɸI
load,
load, def = −π/2; 0; π/2, for Idef = 290.3 A, σ
def = −π/2; 0; π/2, for Idef = 290.3 A,
= 0.005, tcommand = 180.021 ms, tdconnect = 203 ms.
σ = 0.005, tcommand = 180.021 ms, tdconnect = 203 ms.

4.1.2. Simulation in Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker

4.1.2. Simulation in Matlab of the Transient Regime of the SF6 Circuit-Breaker Connection
Connection
In the scope of studying the connection of a circuit breaker, the same scheme as in
In the scope of studying the connection of a circuit breaker, the same scheme as in
Figure 4 was used. The time coefficients on the connection process of the circuit-breaker are
Figure 4 was used. The time coefficients on the connection process of the circuit-breaker
experimentally determined for the studied circuit-breakers and the results are presented in
are experimentally determined for the studied circuit-breakers and the results are
the following.
presented in the following.
The temperature dependency of time coefficient Ctemp = f(T) on the connection of a
circuit breaker is represented in Table 7. Taking into consideration the measured values,
the equation which describes this dependency is presented in Equation (20).

Table 7. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on outdoor temperature.

Machines 2021, 9, 99 18 of 28

The temperature dependency of time coefficient Ctemp = f(T) on the connection of a

circuit breaker is represented in Table 7. Taking into consideration the measured values,
the equation which describes this dependency is presented in Equation (20).

Ctemp (T) = 0.0026·T2 − 0.0829·T + 71.482 (20)

Table 7. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on outdoor temperature.

T [◦ C] Ctemp (ms)
40 71.5
20 72
0 72.5
−20 73
−30 74
−40 81
Machines 2021, 9, 99 19 of 30
Figure 20 represents the dependency of parameter Ctemp on the outdoor temperature
on the connection of a circuit breaker.

82

80

78
Delay coeficient

76

74

72

70
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
T °C y= 0.0026x2 - 0.0829x + 71.482

Figure 20.
Figure 20. Dependency
Dependencyofof
Ctemp on the
Ctemp on outdoor temperature
the outdoor on the on
temperature connection of a circuit
the connection of breaker.
a circuit breaker.

The DC
The DC voltage
voltage supply
supply dependency
dependency of of time coefficient ttUDC = =f f (UDC)
time coefficient (UDC)on
on the
the discon-
UDC
disconnection of a circuit breaker is represented in Table 8. Taking into consideration the
nection of a circuit breaker is represented in Table 8. Taking into consideration the measured
measured values, the equation which describes the dependency is presented in Equation (21).
values, the equation which describes the dependency is presented in Equation (21).
Table 8. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on outdoor temperature.
tUDC (UDC) = −0.2·UDC + 44 (21)
U Control (V) UDC tUDC (ms)
187 6.6 temperature.
Table 8. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on outdoor
192 5.6
U Control203
(V) UDC t3.4
UDC (ms)
209
187 2.2 6.6
221
192 −0.25.6
203
232 −2.43.4
209
241 −4.22.2
221
252 −0.2
−6.4
232
255 −7−2.4
241 −4.2
252 −6.4
255 tUDC (UDC) = −0.2·UDC + 44 −7 (21)
Figure 21 represents the dependency of parameter tUDC on the DC voltage supply on
the connection of a circuit breaker.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 19 of 28

Machines 2021, 9, 99 20 of 30
Figure 21 represents the dependency of parameter tUDC on the DC voltage supply on
the connection of a circuit breaker.

to [ms] 2

0
185 195 205 215 225 235 245 255
-2
y = -0.2x + 44
-4

-6
-8
U [V]

Figure 21. Dependency of tU on the DC voltage supply on the connection of a circuit breaker.
Figure 21. Dependency of tU on the DC voltage supply on the connection of a circuit breaker.
4. The oil pressure dependency of time coefficient CPh = f(P) on the connection of a
4. The oil pressure dependency of time coefficient CPh = f(P) on the connection of a
circuit breaker is represented in Table 9. Taking into consideration the measured
circuit breaker is represented in Table 9. Taking into consideration the measured
values, the equation which describes the dependency is presented in Equation (22).
values, the equation which describes the dependency is presented in Equation (22).
Table 9. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on oil pressure.
Table 9. Measured values of the dependency of time coefficient on oil pressure.
Oil Pressure (bar) CPh (ms)
Oil Pressure (bar) CPh (ms)
310 6
310 316 6
4.2
316 321 4.2
2.7
321 326 2.7
1.2
326 1.2
333 −0.9
333 −0.9
337 −2.1
337 −2.1
342 342 −3.6
− 3.6
346 346 −4.8
− 4.8
350 350 −66
−

CPh (P) = −0.3·P + 99 (22)

CPh (P) = −0.3·P + 99 (22)
Machines 2021, 9, 99 Figure 22 represents the dependency of parameter CPh on the oil pressure 21 onofthe
30
Figure 22 represents the dependency of parameter CPh on the oil pressure on the
connection of a circuit breaker.
connection of a circuit
For simulation of breaker.
the connecting process, the following parameter values of a
monophasic power supply system were used: U = 8.6 V, ɸU = −0.34°, f = 50 Hz, I = 3 A, ɸI
8
= 1.26°, outdoor temperature = 18 °C, Ucc = 238 V, P = 325 bar.
Figure
6 23 presents the simulation result for the time command of connecting of circuit
breaker of t1 = tcommand = 5 ms.
4 main parameters which are used in simulation of connection process of the
The
circuit-breaker are presented in Table 10. Based on the used equation presented in Table
2
11, the parameter values of the connected simulation process are t1 = tcommand = 5 ms.
tp [ms]

0
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
-2

-4

-6

-8
P h [bar]

Figure 22.
Figure 22. Time
Timedelay
delaycharacteristic
characteristicof the oil pressure
of the on the
oil pressure onconnection of a circuit
the connection of a breaker.
circuit breaker.
 2

tp [ms]
0
300 310 320 330 340 350 360
-2
Machines 2021, 9, 99 20 of 28
-4

-6
For simulation of the connecting process, the following parameter values of a monopha-
-8 supply system were used: U = 8.6 V, FU = −0.34◦ , f = 50 Hz, I = 3 A, FI = 1.26◦ ,
sic power
P h [bar]
outdoor temperature = 18 ◦ C, Ucc = 238 V, P = 325 bar.
Figure 23 presents the simulation result for the time command of connecting of circuit
breaker of Time
Figure 22. t1 = tdelay = 5 ms. of the oil pressure on the connection of a circuit breaker.
characteristic
command

Figure23.
Figure 23. The
The simulation
simulation of
of monophasic
monophasicpower
powersupply
supplysystem
systemononthe
theconnecting process
connecting of of
process thethe
circuit breaker
circuit on on
breaker t1 =
tcommand = 5 ms.
t1 = tcommand = 5 ms.
The
Table 10.main parameters
The main parameterswhich
usedare
in used in simulation
simulation of connection
of connection process of process of the circuit-
the circuit-breaker.
breaker are presented in Table 10. Based on the used equation presented in Table 11, the
parameter values of Parameters Values
the connected simulation process are t1 = tcommand = 5 ms.
Temperature [°C] 18
Table 10. The main parameters used in simulation of connection process of the circuit-breaker.
Ucc [V] 238
P [bar]
Parameters 325
Values
tT
Temperature [◦ C] 18
71
Ucctucc
[V] 238−4
tp
P [bar] 3252
tT t5 7169
tucc −4
t1 5
tp 2
t5 t2 69 11
t1 5
t2 11

Table 11. The equation used in simulation of connection process of the circuit breaker.

Equation Parameters Values

i(t) = 0 t2 11
t = f(T,U,P) t5 69
SP2 = 1000/f/3 sp2 10
nrp = t5/SP2 + 1 nrp 8
t7 = t2 + nrp*SP2 t7 96
t4 = t7 − t6 t4 27
t3 = t4 − t2 t3 38
Machines 2021, 9, 99 21 of 28

5. Simulation Results, Industry Implementation and Related Discussion

5.1. Simulation Results
Controlled switching is used to eliminate transient regimes on manually switched
capacitor banks, shunt reactors and power transformers. An important aspect of all
controlled switching applications consists in the accuracy obtained during ignition and
breaking of the electric arc.
Uncontrolled switching can lead to equipment wear. Closing resistors and coils that
were previously used to reduce these problems are no longer required. Switching control
provides an efficient solution. Taking into account the current values, the control unit
optimizes the switching operations of the circuit breaker using instantaneous values of
voltages or currents [28]. Disconnection of an inductive or capacitive load can have the
effect of reigniting the electric arc and causing overvoltage. Connecting an inductive load
can have the effect of overcurrent in the case of a non-optimized switching process.
The switching point at zero crossing of the current is a method of eliminating the tran-
sient effects that occur in time-controlled switching operations. Circuit breaker commands
for connecting or disconnecting are delayed so that the contact is closed or opened at the
optimum time characteristic of the phase angle. This method can improve the performance
and life of the circuit breaker. Based on the simulations from the previous section, it can be
seen, regarding the controlled switching of the transient regime, that the simulations allow
us to obtain current and voltage wave shapes equivalent to those from the literature [11,37].
The simulations performed allowed the obtaining of different values of breaking
currents, necessary in the disconnection process. In the literature, there are papers such
as [38] that also investigate the breaking currents.
Based on simulation, it was possible to modify the character of the source, respectively, of
the load by modifying the current and voltage phase shift. In this way, the types of interruptions
could be analysed and compared with the circuit breaker tests presented in [39].
The simulation of the connecting time, in the case of circuit breakers with SF6, largely
depends on the type of circuit-breaker. For each type of circuit breaker, the characteristics
must be determined by the temperature, the DC supply voltage of the drive coils and
the pressure of the hydraulic agent. Given that the circuit breaker operates under normal
conditions, i.e., the temperature within 0 ◦ C ÷ +40 ◦ C, we can approximate this coefficient
as equal to 72 ms for the connection operation and 22 ms for the disconnection operation
of the circuit breaker. The authors of [9] analyze the duration of the transient circulation
current, defined as the time interval between the moment when this current appears and
the moment when it disappears. This value was estimated at 12 ms and the simulations
from this paper confirmed this.
In [8], research was conducted on the average interruption time, and it was proven
that the values are 23–35 ms. To check these time intervals, it is necessary to use auxiliary
contacts, which copy the position of the circuit breaker contacts, and provide very fast and
accurate results [40].
As shown in Section 3, distance to fault was simulated in this paper using different
values of the σ parameter, which influences the switching process, mainly the shape of the
aperiodic component of the current and, thereby, the transient recovery voltage, as shown
in [41]. Fault location is an important issue in the switching process. In other research,
different approaches for fault location estimation were used [42].

5.2. Industry Implementation

This section describes the current implementation of the simulation results presented
in the previous sections at a 400 kV power station. In this regard, the command-and-control
system of a line circuit breaker currently in operation at the power station is presented.
Figure 24 depicts the control screen of a line cell. A line cell’s command-and-control
system must perform the following functions:
• The current monitoring function, which is carried out by displaying the station’s
single-phase operation scheme in dynamic coloring mode as well as the electrical
Machines 2021, 9, 99 22 of 28

operating parameters of the equipment and installations that comprise the transfor-
mation station.
• The function of viewing information and detail screens, which can be achieved by
accessing both the control screens and the dedicated surveillance screens for the
existing units.
• The operator function, which includes connecting and disconnecting the user, trans-
Machines 2021, 9, 99 24 ofat30
ferring the remote control between levels of remote control and displaying the level
which it is, and inserting indicator boxes.

Figure24.
Figure 24.The
Thecontrol
controlscreen
screenofofaaline
linecell.
cell.

5.2.1.The
Controlled Disconnection
control screen of the Loadabout
displays information Basedthe
oncell’s
the Command-and-Control
electrical operating parameters
System,
(line Using
voltage, a Circuit
current Breaker
intensity on each phase, active power, reactive power and supply
voltage frequency),
When as well
the switch as fromathe
is pressed, signaling
window withsystem (information
the following on theappears,
elements status ofas
automations and protections
shown in Figure 25: and alarms from the cell protection system).
•
5.2.1. aControlled
static labelDisconnection
reading “Switch maneuver”;
of the Load Based on the Command-and-Control System,
•
Using aadynamic “Cancel” button for closing the window;
Circuit Breaker
• Whentwo confirmation buttons afor
the switch is pressed, turningwith
window on the
the following
circuit breaker (“Disconnection”
elements and
appears, as shown
“Controlled
in Figure 25: disconnection”).
• aWhen the “Disconnection”
static label button is pressed, the circuit breaker is disconnected
reading “Switch maneuver”;
•without any control.
a dynamic “Cancel” button for closing the window;
• If the
two “Controlledbuttons
confirmation disconnection” button
for turning is selected,
on the another(“Disconnection”
circuit breaker window will open,
andas
shown in Figure 26, with options
“Controlled disconnection”). to control the circuit breaker’s disconnecting time, and
containing the following elements:
• a static label with the word “Disconnect”;
• a „Cancel” button for closing the window;
• a confirmation button labeled as “Save Data” that allows the circuit breaker to be
opened and data to be saved from the moment of controlled opening.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 23 of 28
Machines 2021, 9, 99 25 of 30

Figure25.
Figure 25.The
Thecontrol
controlscreen
screenof
ofthe
thecircuit
circuitbreaker’s
breaker’sdisconnection.
disconnection.

When the “Disconnection” button is pressed, the circuit breaker is disconnected

without any control.
If the “Controlled disconnection” button is selected, another window will open, as
shown in Figure 26, with options to control the circuit breaker’s disconnecting time, and
containing the following elements:
• a static label with the word “Disconnect”;
• a „Cancel” button for closing the window;
• a confirmation button labeled as “Save Data” that allows the circuit breaker to be
opened and data to be saved from the moment of controlled opening.

5.2.2. Controlled Connection of the Load Based on the Command-and-Control System,

Using a Circuit Breaker
When the switch is pressed, a window with the following elements appears, as shown
in Figure 27:
• a static label with the words “Choice Circuit Breaker operation”;
• a dynamic “Cancel” button for shutting down the window;
• two confirmation buttons for selecting the circuit breaker operation (“Synchronized
connection” and “Non-synchronized connection”);
• a dynamic “Controlled connection” button for using the controlled connection of
the26.
Figure load;
The control screen of the circuit breaker’s controlled disconnection.
• two confirmation buttons for activating the circuit breaker operation (“Activate Syn-
chronizing” and “Un-activate synchronizing”).
Machines 2021, 9, 99 24 of 28

Figure 25. The control screen of the circuit breaker’s disconnection.

Machines 2021, 9, 99 26 of 30

5.2.2. Controlled Connection of the Load Based on the Command-and-Control System,

Using a Circuit Breaker
When the switch is pressed, a window with the following elements appears, as
shown in Figure 27:
• a static label with the words “Choice Circuit Breaker operation”;
• a dynamic “Cancel” button for shutting down the window;
• two confirmation buttons for selecting the circuit breaker operation (“Synchronized
connection” and “Non-synchronized connection”);
• a dynamic “Controlled connection” button for using the controlled connection of the
load;
• two confirmation buttons for activating the circuit breaker operation (“Activate
Figure
Figure 26.The
26. Thecontrol
controlscreen
Synchronizing” screen
and ofofthe
thecircuit
circuit
“Un-activate breaker’scontrolled
breaker’s controlleddisconnection.
synchronizing”). disconnection.

Figure 27. The control screen of the circuit breaker’s connection.

Figure 27. The control screen of the circuit breaker’s connection.

IfIf the
the“Controlled
“Controlledconnection”
connection”button
buttonis is selected,
selected, another
another window
window willwill
open,open, as
as shown
shown in Figure 28, with options to control the circuit breaker’s connecting time,
in Figure 28, with options to control the circuit breaker’s connecting time, and containing and
containing
the following theelements:
following elements:
• a static label with the word “Connection”;
• a “Cancel” button for closing the window;
• a confirmation button labelled as “Save Data” that allows the circuit breaker to be
opened and data to be saved from the moment of controlled opening.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 25 of 28

• a static label with the word “Connection”;

• a “Cancel” button for closing the window;
Machines 2021, 9, 99 27 of 30
• a confirmation button labelled as “Save Data” that allows the circuit breaker to be
opened and data to be saved from the moment of controlled opening.

Figure 28. The control screen of the circuit breaker’s controlled connection.
Figure 28. The control screen of the circuit breaker’s controlled connection.

6.6.Conclusions
Conclusions
The controlled
The controlled switching
switchingprocess
processhas hasthethe advantage
advantage that,that,
due due
to the tosmall valuesvalues
the small of
arcing times during the interruption of the fault, it can extend
of arcing times during the interruption of the fault, it can extend the lifespan of the the lifespan of the circuit
breaker.
circuit breaker.
Based on
Based on the
the presented
presentedsimulation
simulationresults,
results,the thefollowing
following conclusions
conclusions were identified:
were identified:
the calculation algorithm can be adapted according to the needs of the user sincesince
the calculation algorithm can be adapted according to the needs of the user the
the control
control
time cantime
be set can be set
very very
close close i.e.,
to zero, to zero,
to thei.e.,start
to the start moment
moment of the transient
of the transient regime.regime.
The main
The main advantage of the program is that it calculates the moment
advantage of the program is that it calculates the moment of disconnection at zero crossing of disconnection at
zero crossing current. The defects caused by transient phenomena
current. The defects caused by transient phenomena are influenced by the frequency of are influenced by the
frequency of the intersection of the time axis, i.e., zero is not a constant factor due to the
the intersection of the time axis, i.e., zero is not a constant factor due to the aperiodic
aperiodic component. The precision of the zero crossing point can be modified to the
component. The precision of the zero crossing point can be modified to the precision of
precision of 1 microsecond.
1 microsecond.
If it is not possible to determine the temperature, pressure and voltage characteristics,
If it is not possible to determine the temperature, pressure and voltage characteristics,
an approximation of the total disconnection time can be made from the field
an approximation of the total disconnection time can be made from the field measurements
measurements and an error margin of 20 ms can be added.
and an error margin of 20 ms can be added.
Simulation results of the opening time for SF6 circuit breakers depend on the switch
Simulation results of the opening time for SF6 circuit breakers depend on the switch
type. For each type of switch, its characteristics must be enhanced depending on the
type. For each
temperature, ontype
the DCof voltage
switch, supply
its characteristics
and on the hydraulic must be agentenhanced
pressure.depending on the
temperature, on the DC voltage supply and on the hydraulic agent
In situations in which the circuit breaker operates under normal conditions, i.e., the pressure.
In situations
temperature in which
within the circuit
the range of 0 °Cbreaker
÷ 40 °C, operates
we canunder normal the
approximate conditions, i.e., the
temperature
temperature within the range of 0 ◦ C ÷ 40 ◦ C, we can approximate the temperature
coefficient to 22 ms for the opening operation. To check these times, it is necessary to use
coefficient to 22 msthat
auxiliary contacts for copy
the opening operation.
the position To check
of the circuit thesecontacts
breaker times, itvery
is necessary
quickly andto use
auxiliary
accurately. contacts that copy
The calculation the position
algorithm for theof connection
the circuit time breaker contacts
is simple. very
It all comesquickly
downand
accurately.
to calculating Thethecalculation algorithm
various time points forandthe connection
applying time is simple.
the command to the It all comes
switch’s coildown
at
tothe
calculating
appropriate the various
time. time points
Measurement and applying
is performed the command
with high precision by tomeans
the switch’s coil at
of existing
the appropriate
transducers time.
in the Measurement
temperature is performed with high precision by means of existing
and voltage.
transducers in the temperature
The simulations and voltage.
were conducted for a single phase. If the circuit breaker control is
monopolar, then the phase shift command must be transmitted in phase to the studied
phase with a certain calculated delay.
Machines 2021, 9, 99 26 of 28

The simulations were conducted for a single phase. If the circuit breaker control is
monopolar, then the phase shift command must be transmitted in phase to the studied
phase with a certain calculated delay.
Based on these observations, the system for implementing the theory presented in this
paper in industry was presented in the second part of Section 5. This system was designed
for the current protection system at an 800 MW power plant, specifically for the 400 kV
high voltage line protection circuits. The protection system has been in use for nearly two
years, and the results obtained thus far confirm that the research presented in the paper is
fully applicable in industry.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.P. and D.C.; methodology, C.P.; software, M.P. and D.C.;
validation, S.M.; writing—original draft preparation, D.C. and S.M.; writing—review and editing,
C.P. and M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Rp parallel resistance
Cp parallel capacitance
∆t interruption time
∆tR interruption time caused by resistance
∆tC interruption time caused by capacitance
iL inductivity current
uarc arc voltage
iarc arc current
Rarc arc resistance
Cs source capacitance
Cl load capacitance
I1 main switch
I2 auxiliary switch
Ro, Lo and Co elements of oscillator branch
v(t) input voltage
i(t) input current
ϕv voltage phase shift
ϕi current phase shift
f frequency
tdelay delay time
tbreaker disconnected time
tarc arc time
tprearc prearc time
iaper the aperiodic component of the current
iper the periodic component of the current
Idef the amplitude of the current
T temperature
P oil pressure
Ctemp temperature time coefficient
tUDC DC voltage supply time coefficient
CPh oil pressure time coefficient
tcommand connection/disconnection time command
Machines 2021, 9, 99 27 of 28

tdisconnect disconnection time

HVCB high voltage circuit breaker
GIS gas insulated substations
TRV transient recovery voltage
POW point-on-wave

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