Class –XII Psychology Psychological Disorders - Notes

Major Psychological Disorders covered in the chapter are -

ANXIETY DISSOCIATIVE PSYCHOTIC DISORDER

DISORDERS

OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DEPRESSIVE DISORDER NEURODEVELOPMENTAL

AND RELATED DISORDERS
DISORDER

TRAUMA AND STRESSOR- BIPOLAR AND DISRUPTIVE, IMPULSE-

RELATED DISORDER RELATED DISORDER CONTROL AND
CONDUCT DISORDER

SOMATIC SYMPTOM SCHIZOPHRENIC AND FEEDING AND

AND RELATED SPECTRUM DISORDER EATING DISORDER
DISORDER
& SUBSTANCE RELATED
AND ADDICTIVE DISORDER

Introduction: What is abnormal behaviour?

Most definitions of abnormal behaviour have certain common features, often called “four Ds”:
1. Deviance: Psychological disorders are deviant- different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre.
2. Distress: Behaviour which is unpleasant and upsetting to the person and to the others.
3. Dysfunction: Behaviour which is interfering with the person’s ability to
carry out daily activities in a constructive way.
4. Danger: Behaviour which is dangerous to the person or to others.

Abnormal literally means “away from normal”. It implies deviation from some clearly-defined
norms or standards. There emerges two basic and conflicting views:

The first approach views abnormal behaviour as deviation from social norms.
The second approach views abnormal behaviour as maladaptive which states the best criterion for
determining the normality of behaviour is not whether society accepts it but whether it fosters
the well being of the individual and eventually of the group to which s/he belongs. Well being is
not simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and fulfilment.

“Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms”. How are

psychological disorders diagnosed?

In order to diagnose psychological disorders, they are classified into categories.

The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has published an official manual describing and
classifying various kinds of psychological disorders. The current version of it, the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, V edition(DSM-V), evaluates the patients on five axes or
dimension rather than just one broad aspect of ‘mental disorder’. These dimensions relate to
biological, psychological, social and other aspects.
The classification scheme officially used in India and elsewhere in the tenth revision of the
International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which is known as the ICD-10 Classification of
Behavioural and Mental Disorders. It was prepared by the World Health Organisation (WHO).

For each disorder, a description of the main clinical features or symptoms, and of other associated
features including diagnostic guidelines is provided in this scheme.

Explain various models that describe abnormal behaviour.

MODELS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

1. Biological Model: A wide range of biological factors such as faulty genes, endocrine
imbalances, malnutrition, injuries and other conditions may interfere with normal
development and functioning of the human body. These factors may be potential causes of
abnormal behaviour. According to this model, abnormal behaviour has a biochemical or
physiological basis. When an electrical impulse reaches a neuron’s ending, the nerve
ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a neurotransmitter. Studies indicate that
abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters can lead to specific psychological disorders.
• Anxiety disorders have been linked to low activity of the neurotransmitter
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA).
• Schizophrenia to excess activity of dopamine.
• Depression to low activity of serotonin.

2. Genetic Model: Genetic model have been linked to mood disorders, schizophrenia, intellectual
 disability and other psychological disorder. Researchers, however, have not been able to identify
the specific genes that are culprits. It appears that in most cases, no single gene is responsible for a
particular behaviour or a psychological disorder.
3. Psychological Model: There are several models which provide a psychological explanation of
mental disorders. These models maintain that psychological and interpersonal factors have a
significant role to play in abnormal behaviour. These factors include:
• Maternal deprivation
• Faulty parent-child relationship
• Faulty discipline
• Maladaptive family structure
• Severe stress

The Psychological models include psychodynamic model, behavioural, cognitive and

humanistic -existential models.

a) Psychodynamic Model:
• This is the oldest and most famous of the modern psychological models.
Psychodynamic theorists believe that the behaviour, whether normal or abnormal, is
determined by psychological forces within the person of which s/he is not
consciously aware. These internal forces are considered dynamic, i.e. they
interact with one another and their interaction gives to -shape, thoughts and
emotions.
• Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the results of conflicts between these forces. The
model was first formulated by Freud who believed that three central forces shape
personality – instinctual needs, drives and impulses (id), rational thinking (ego), and
moral standards (superego).
• Freud stated that abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious
mental conflicts that can be generally traced to early childhood or infancy.

b) Behavioural Model:
• This model states that both normal and abnormal behaviours are learned and
psychological disorders are result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving.
The model concentrates on behaviours that are learnt through conditioning and proposes that what
 has been learned can be unlearned.
• Learning can take place by classical conditioning (temporal association in which
two events repeatedly occur close together in time), operant conditioning
(behaviour is followed by a reward) and social learning (learning by imitating
others’ behaviour). These three types of conditioning account for behaviour
whether adaptive or maladaptive.
c) Cognitive Model: This states that abnormal functioning can result from cognitive
problems. People may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational
and inaccurate. People may also repeatedly think in illogical ways and make
overgeneralisations, that is, they may draw broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a
single insignificant event.
d) Humanistic-existential Model: This model focuses on broader aspects of human
existence. Humanists believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be
friendly, cooperative and constructive, and are driven to self-actualise i.e. to fulfil this
potential for goodness and growth. Existentialists believe that from birth, we have total
freedom to give meaning to our existence or to avoid that responsibility. Those who shirk
from this responsibility would live empty, inauthentic and dysfunctional lives.

4. Sociocultural Model: Sociocultural factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and
discrimination, economic and employment problems, and rapid social change, put stress on most of
us and can also to psychological problems in some individuals. According to sociocultural
model, abnormal behaviour is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that
influence an individual.
As behaviour is shaped by societal forces, factors such as family structure and communication,
social networks, societal labels and roles become more important.
It has been found that certain family systems are likely to produce abnormal functioning individual
members. Some families have an enmeshed structure in which the members are overwhelmed in
each other’s activities, thoughts and feelings. Children from this type of family may have difficulty
in becoming independent in life.
The broader social networks in which people operate include their social and professional
relationships. Studies have shown that people who are isolated and lack social support. i.e. strong
and fulfilling interpersonal relationships in their lives are to become more depressed and remain
depressed longer than those who have good friendships.
Sociocultural theorists also believe that abnormal functioning is influenced by the societal
labels and roles assigned to troubled people. When people break the norms of their society, they are
called deviant and “mentally ill”. Such labels tend to stick so that the person may be viewed as
“crazy” and encouraged to act sick. The person gradually learns to accept and play the sick role,
the functions in a disturbed manner.

5. Diathesis-stress Model: This model states that psychological disorders develop when a
diathesis (biological predisposition to the disorder) is set off by a stressful situation. This model
has three components:
• The first is the diathesis or the presence of some biological aberration which may be
inherited.
• The second component is that the diathesis may carry a vulnerability to develop a
psychological disorder. This means that the person is “at risk” or “predisoposed” to
develop the disorder.

• The third component is the factors/stressors that may lead to psychopathology. If such “at
risk” persons are exposed to these stressors, their predisposition may actually evolve into a
disorder. This model has been applied to several disorders including anxiety, depression
and schizophrenia.

Major Psychological Disorders

1. Anxiety Disorder

The term anxiety is defined as diffuse, vague and very unpleasant feeling of fear and
apprehension. The anxious individual shows combination of following symptoms: Rapid heart
rate, shortness of breath, diarrhea, loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness,
frequent urination and tremors.
Generalised Anxiety Panic Phobia Separation Anxiety Disorder
Disorder Disorder

Consists of prolonged, Irrational fears related to Fearful and anxious about

vague, unexplained Consists of a person, object or separation from attachment
and intense fears that recurrent anxiety situation. figures to an extent that is
are not attached to attacks in which developmentally not
any particular object. experiences appropriate.
Symptoms: intense terror. Phobias are of
Children with SAD may have
• Worry and A panic attack three types:-
difficulty
apprehensive an abrupt 1. Specific phobias-
feeling about episode of -being in a room by
includes irrational
the future. intense anxiety themselves
fears such as intense
rising to a peak
• Hypervigilance. fear of certain type -going to school alone
when thoughts of animal or being
• Constantly of a particular -fearful of entering new
into enclosed
scanning the stimuli are situations
spaces.
environment present.
for dangers. 2. Social Phobias- -cling to and shadow their
Such thoughts Intense & parents’ every move.
It is marked by motor
occur in an incapacitating fear -To avoid separation, children
tension because of
unpredictable & embarrassment
which a person cannot with SAD may fuss, scream,
manner. when dealing with
relax. He/she is restless, throw severe tantrums, or make
visibly shaky and tense. The clinical others in public. suicidal gestures
features include 3. Agoraphobia-
shortness of When people
breath,dizziness, develop a fear of
trembling, entering into
palpitations, unfamiliar
choking, nausea, situations. They are
chest pain, also afraid of
discomfort, fear leaving their home,
of going crazy, because of which
losing control or they can’t carry
dying. normal life
activities.
2. Obssessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

People with OCD are unable to control their preoccupations with specific ideas or are unable to
prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act, which affect their ability to
carry out normal activities.
Obsessive Behaviour- inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic.
Compulsive Behaviour- is the need to perform certain behaviours over and over again. For eg.
Counting, touching, checking, washing etc.
E.g. Hoarding Disorder, Trichotillomania (hair pulling disorder), Excoriation (skin
picking).

3. Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorder

People who are caught in natural disasters, bomb blasts, or have been in a serious accidents, or
in a war situation, experience post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Symptoms- Recurrent dreams, flashbacks, impaired concentration & emotional numbing.

Includes- Adjustment disorder and Acute Stress Disorder

4. Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder

Are conditions in which there are physical symptoms in the absence of a physical diseases. The
individual has psychological difficulties & complains of physical symptoms, for which there is
no biological cause.
a) Somatic Symptom Disorder:
Persistent body-related symptoms which may or may not be related to any serious medical
condition.
People with this disorder tend to be overly preoccupied with their symptoms and they
continually worry about their health and make frequent visits to doctors.
As a result, they experience significant distress and disturbances in their daily life.
 b) Illness Anxiety Disorder:
Involves persistent preoccupation about developing a serious illness and constantly
worrying about this possibility. This is accompanied by anxiety about one’ s health.
Individuals with illness anxiety
Overly concerned about undiagnosed disease, negative diagnostic results, do not respond to
assurance by doctors, and are easily alarmed about illness such as on hearing about someone
else's ill-health or some such news.
In the case of somatic symptom disorder, this expression is in terms of physical
complaints while in case of illness anxiety disorder, as the name suggests, it is the
anxiety which is the main concern.

c) Conversion Disorders:
Symptoms:
Reported loss of a body part or some basic bodily functions. For e.g Paralysis, blindness,
deafness, difficulty in walking etc.
These symptoms often occur after stressful experience & may be quite sudden.

5. Dissociative Disorders

Dissociation- involves feelings of unreality, estrangement, depersonalisation & sometimes

loss or shift of identity.
Dissociative Disorders- Sudden temporary alterations of consciousness that blot out painful
experiences.
 Dissociative Amnesia- Dissociative Identity Disorder Depersonalisation/ Derealisation
Is characterised by Also known as Multiple Involves a dream like
extensive but selective Personality Disorder. state in which the person
memory loss that has has a sense of being
known organic cause Associated with
separated from both self
(head injury). traumatic experiences in
and reality.
childhood.
Some people cannot There is a change of
The person assumes self- perception, & the
remember anything
about their past, others alternate personalities person’s sense of
don’t remember specific that may or may not be reality is temporarily
events, people, places aware of each other
lost or changed.
and objects, while other
memories remain intact.
It is associated with
overwhelming stress.
Dissociative Fugue
An unexpected travel
away from home and
workplace.
Assumption of a new
identity
Inability to recall
previous identity
Fugue usually
ends when the
person suddenly
wakes up with no
memory of events
that occurred
during fugue.

6. Depressive Disorder/ Depression:

One of the most widely prevalent and recognised of all mental disorders is depression. Depression
covers a variety of negative moods and behavioural changes. Depression can refer to a symptom or a
disorder.
In day-to-day life, we often use the term depression to refer to normal feelings after a significant loss,
such as the break-up of a relationship, or the failure to attain a significant goal.

Major Depressive disorder-

is defined as a period of depressed mood &/or loss of interest or pleasure in most of the activities
together with other symptoms which may include change in body weight constant sleep
problems, tiredness, inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behavior, thoughts of
death & suicide, excessive guilt or feelings of worthlessness.
Factors predisposing towards depression-
▪ Age - For eg. Woman are at risk during young adulthood & men during middle age.
▪ Heredity – is a major risk factor predisposing people to mood disorders.
▪ Gender- For. Eg woman in comparison to men are likely to be more depressed.
▪ Other factors- For eg. Negative life events and lack of social support.
 7. Bipolar and Related Disorder

Mania – Suicide Factors leading to suicide

People suffering from mania Symptoms of Suicide 1. Social , psychological,
become Euphoric (high), cultural and other factors
1. Changes in eating &
extremely active, extremely such as mental disorders
active, excessively talkative, sleeping habits. (especially depression
and easily distractible. 2. Withdrawal from and alcohol use
friends family and disorders), going through
▪ Manic episodes
disasters, violence, abuse
rarely appear by regular activities.
or loss and isolation.
themselves, they 3. Violent actions,
usually alter with rebellious behavior, Impulse during crisis
depression. running away the capacity to deal with
life stresses such as
▪ Such a mood 4. Drug and alcohol financial issues,
disorder, in which abuse. relationship break-up
both mania and etc. breaks down.
depression are 5. Marked personality
alternatively present, change Previous suicidal
is sometimes 6. Persistent boredom attempt is the strongest
interrupted by risk factor.
periods of normal 7. Difficulty in
mood, this is known concentration Causes: inter -personal
as Bipolar Mood relationships, family and
Disorder. 8. Complaints about negative peer- pressure.
physical symptoms
The ramifications of
9. Loss of interest in suicide on social circle
pleasurable and communities tend to
activities. be devastating and
long-lasting.

8. Schizophrenia Disorders
Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for a group of psychotic disorders in which personal, social and
occupational functioning deteriorates as a result of disturbed thought processes, strange perceptions,
unusual emotional states and motor abnormalities.

Symptoms: can be grouped into 3 categories- Positive ( i.e. excesses of thought, emotion and
behaviour), Negative ( deficit of thought, emotion and behaviour) and psychomotor symptoms.
 1. Positive Symptoms: pathological excesses or bizarre additions to a person’s behaviour.
Symptoms: Delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, heightened perception and hallucinations.
Q: What are Delusions:
Delusions – false belief that is firmly held on inadequate grounds.
Delusions of persecution- They believe plotted against, spied on, slandered, threatened, attacked or
deliberately victimized.
Delusions of reference- in which they attach personal meaning to the actions, objects and events
Delusions of grandeur-They believe themselves to be specially empowered.
Delusions of control- They believe their thoughts, feelings and actions are controlled by others.
Q: What are Hallucinations?
A: Perceptions that occur in absence of external stimuli.

They are of several types-

Auditory Hallucinations: Patients hear sounds or voices that speak directly to them.
Tactile Hallucinations: Tingling, burning sensations.
Somatic: Something happening inside the body, such as snake crawling inside stomach.
Visual: Distinct visions of people and objects.
Gustatory: Food or drink taste strange.
Olfactory: Smell of poison or smoke.
1. Negative symptoms: are pathological deficits and include Alogia (reduction in speech content
or poverty of speech), Blunted effect– Less expression of sadness, joy, anger and other
feelings.
Flat effect- No emotions and feelings
Loss of volition- Apathy or inability to start or complete any work.
Social withdrawal- become focused on their own ideas and fantasies.
1. Psychomotor symptoms: Less spontaneous, make odd grimaces and gestures. Types:
Catatonic stupor: remain motionless and silent for long durations.
Catatonic rigidity: maintain a rigid upright posture for hours.
Catatonic posturing: assuming odd, awkward positions.
9.Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorder

display age-inappropriate amounts of refer to age inappropriate actions

stubbornness, are irritable, defiant, and attitudes that violate family
disobedient, and behave in a hostile expectations, societal norms, and the
manner. Unlike ADHD, the rates of ODD personal or property rights of others. The
in boys and girls are not very different. behaviours typical of conduct disorder
include aggressive actions that cause or
threaten harm to people or animals, non-
aggressive conduct that causes property
damage, major deceitfulness or

Types of aggressive behaviour

swearing), Physical aggression (i.e.

hitting, fighting),
Hostile aggression (i.e. directed at
inflicting injury to others)
and
bullying others without provocation).
10. Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Manifested at an early age before schooling
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Autism Spectrum Disorder Intellectual Disability Disorder
Disorder (ADHD)- Below average intellectual
functioning (with an IQ of
Inattentive- Find it Difficulties in social approximately 70 or below), and
difficult to sustain interaction and communication, deficits or impairments in
mental effort during a restricted range of interests, adaptive behaviour (i.e. in the
work or play or in and strong desire for routine. areas of communication, self-
following instructions. About 70 per cent of children care, home living,
Cannot concentrate, is with autism are also mentally social/interpersonal skills,
disorganized, easily functional academic skills,
retarded.
distracted, forgetful, work, etc.) which are
They are unable to
does not finish manifested before the age of 18
initiate social behaviour years.
assignments, and is and seem unresponsive Refer Table 4.2, page 85
quick to lose interest in to other people’s
boring activities. feelings. Specific learning
Impulsive- unable to They are unable to share disorder the individual
control their immediate experiences or emotions experience difficulty in
reactions or to think with others. perceiving or
before they act. They Many autistic children processing information
find it difficult to wait never develop speech efficiently and
or take turns, have and those who do, have accurately.
difficulty resisting repetitive and deviant - These get manifested during
immediate temptations speech patterns. early school years and the
or delaying
repetitive behaviours individual encounters
gratification. Minor
such as lining up objects problems in basic skills in
mishaps or more
or stereotyped body reading, writing and/or
serious accidents and
movements such as mathematics.
injuries can also occur.
rocking, which can be
The affected child tends to
Hyperactivity – They are self- injurious.
perform below average for
in constant motion.
her/his age. However,
Sitting still through a
individuals may be able to
lesson is impossible for
reach acceptable performance
them. The c may fidget,
levels with additional inputs
squirm, climb and run
and efforts. Specific learning
around the room
disorder is likely to impair
aimlessly. Parents and
functioning and performance
teachers describe them
in activities/occupations
as ‘driven by a motor’,
dependent on the related
always on the go, and
skills.
talk incessantly. Boys
are four times more
likely to be given this
diagnosis than girls.
 11. Feeding & Eating Disorder
Anorexia Nervosa- the individual has a distorted body image that leads
her/him to see herself/himself as overweight. Often refusing to eat,
exercising compulsively. may lose large amounts of weight and even
starve herself/himself to death.
Bulimia nervosa- the individual may eat excessive amounts of food, then
purge her/ his body of food by using medicines such as laxatives or
diuretics or by vomiting. A sense of tension and negative emotions after
purging.
Binge eating- there are frequent episodes of out-of-control eating.

12. Substance Related And Addictive Disorder:

ALCOHOL HEROIN COCAINE

People who abuse alcohol Heroin intake significantly Regular use of cocaine may
drink large amounts and rely interferes with social and lead to a pattern of abuse in
on it to help them face occupational functioning. which the person may be
difficult situations. Most abusers further develop intoxicated throughout the day
a dependence on heroin, and function poorly in social
Eventually, the drinking
revolving their lives around relationships and at work.
interferes with their social
the substance, building up a
behaviour and ability to think May also cause problems of
tolerance for it, and
and work. short term memory and
experiencing a withdrawal
reaction when they stop attention.
Their bodies built up tolerance
for alcohol and they need to taking it.- Dependence may develop, so
drink large amounts to feel its that cocaine dominates the
The most direct danger of
effect. heroin abuse is an overdose, person’s life, more of the drug is
needed to get the desired
They also feel withdrawal which slows down the
respiratory centers in the effects, and stopping it results in
symptoms when they stop feelings of depression, fatigue,
drinking. Alcohol destroys brain, almost paralyzing
breathing and in many cases sleep problems, irritability and
millions of families, social
anxiety. Cocaine poses serious
relationships and careers. It causing deaths.
dangers. It has dangerous
also has serious effects on effects on psychological
the children of persons with functioning and physical well-
this disorder. These children being.
have higher rates of
psychological problems,
particularly anxiety,
depression, phobias and
substance abuse related
disorders. Refer to page 85
box for more effects of
alcohol.
 Commonly Abused Substances (According to DSM-5 Clssification)
Alcohol: (refer box 4.2, page 86 for effects of alcohol)
Amphetamines: Diet pills.
Caffeine: Coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, analgesics (pain killers),
chocolate, cocoa. Cannabis: Marijuana or “bhang”, hashish.
Cocaine:
Hallucinogens: LSD
Inhalants: Gasoline, glue, paint thinners, spray paints, typewriter
correction fluid, sprays. Nicotine: Cigarettes and tobacco.
Opiods: Morphine, heroin, cough syrup, painkiller (analgesic,
anesthetics). Phencyclidine
Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics : sleeping pills, anti-anxiety medication

IMPORTANT: The notes are basic guidelines of the chapter and the guidelines for
framing the answers. Please note the answers are to be detailed as given in the NCERT.
Kindly do not only depend on the notes for the course and the subject content. You need
to be well versed with the NCERT as well.

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