CE 137 – Hydrology

ACTIVITY No. 1
CE 137 – Hydrology
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering w/ Specializations in:

(Degree Codes: Program- BSCE Plan – BSCE)

SMC - Course Syllabus

Name of Instructor:

Engr. Rodrigo Tomaquin Templado

Educational Background:

MARCH ‘1984 - BSCE (SMC)

1998 - MPA (SMC)

1999 - MBA (SMC)

2003 - MA (SMC)

- Educational Management

- Educational Psychology

- Educational Guidance and

Counselling

2006 - Ed. D. (CAR)[Educational Management]

{SMC}}

- MSCE ( structural ) [12 Units] {MSU-IIT-

Iligan City}

- MSCE ( Geotechnical ) [12 Units] {MSU-IIT-

Iligan City}

- PCM ( Crash Course ) {CPU- Iloilo City}

Cellphone Numbers:
09459809532 - Globe

09462879245 - Smart

09154842322 - Globe
Course Description:
The course deals with the hydrologic cycle and the different
processes such as precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, overland flow,
groundwater flow and surface runoff generation.

Entry Level Skills

The
student must be able to read various provided sources in
and
. English write short essays and participate in class
discussions

This course is intended for third stage Geotechnical engineering

students who are interested in learning some fundamentals of
engineering hydrology. It is the study of water in all its forms (rains,
snow, and water on the earth’s surface), and from its origins to all its
destinations on the earth. The study of hydrology that concerned
mainly with engineering applications is known as applied hydrology.
Engineering Hydrology deals with estimation of water resources, the
study of processes such as runoff, precipitation and their interaction,
the study of problems such as Floods, Droughts and strategies to
overcome them.

Urban Planning, Roads, Culverts, Drains

Dams, Reservoirs, Irrigations and Industry.

The course code is CE 137, the course is given within 28 weeks,

every week the student should attend 2 hrs. theoretical and 2 hrs.
tutorial, the course credit is 2 units.

Methods
1. Give the full lectures to the students (Theory);
2. Class Assignments (Tutorial);
3. Two random quizzes and two major exams for the Midterm; and
4. Two random quizzes and two major exams for the Final;

Number of Units for Lecture and Laboratory: 2 Units lecture

Number of Contact Hours per week: 2 Hours Lecture

Prerequisite: Integral Calculus

Course Outcomes:
At the end the course, the student must be able to:

1. Discuss with appropriate diagrams the hydrologic cycle and the

different processes and storages within the cycle.
 2. Perform calculation related to measurements, movement, and
storages in the different processes of the hydrologic cycle.

3. Familiar to hydrology as one of important science integrated with

Geotechnical engineering;

4. Familiar to different branches of applied hydrology;

5. Familiar to design and operation of hydraulic structures;

6. Familiar to basics of hydrogeology and better understanding the

water well drilling procedure and methods of investigating the water
and well site definition;

7. Familiar to Surface and ground water modeling.

Course Objectives:
1. The course will focus on explaining the background of Applied
hydrology,
2. The application of hydrology in different engineering structures.
3. Students will gain experience by solving problem assignments
throughout the semesters.

Course Outline:
1. Definition of Hydrology;

2. The Hydrologic Cycle;

3. Precipitation;

4. Infiltration;

5. Evaporation;

6. Basic Subsurface flow (Steady State Condition)

7. Rainfall-Runoff Relation

8. Class requirements: Syllabus of Engineering Hydrology

8.1. Introduction to hydrology;

8.2. Hydrologic cycle and water balance;

8.3. Watershed characteristics;

8.4. Weather and hydrology, Precipitation;

8.5. Abstraction from precipitation

8.6. Infiltration;

8.7. Streamflow;

8.8. Rainfall-Runoff relationship;

8.9. Unit hydrograph analysis;

8.10. Flood and flood routing;

8.11. Flood control, draught solution;

8.12. Physical character of reservoir;

 8.13. Reservoir sedimentation;

8.14. Characteristics of Subsurface Media;

8.15. Groundwater Hydraulics;

8.16. Water wells and groundwater recharge;

8.17. Groundwater quality and contamination hydrology;

8.18. Risk Analysis and Hydrologic Design;

8.19. Major probability distribution;

8.20. Groundwater modelling;

8.21. Surface water modelling.

Reference Books:
Author, Title, Publisher, Place of Publication, Date of Publication

1. Bedient, P.B., Huber W. C. and Vieux, B. E. Hydrology and Floodplain

Analysis, Pearson 4th Ed., Philippine edition copyright 2010;
2. David Chin, Water Resources Engineering, 3rd Ed., Pearson 2013;
3. McCuen, R. H., Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1989;
4. Linsley, R. K., M. A. Kohler and J. L. H. Paulhus, Hydrology for
Engineers by; McGraw-Hill, 1988;
5. Applied Hydrology by VenTe Chow, David Maidment and Larry Mays;
McGraw-Hill International Editions; 1988;
6. Handbook of Hydrology David Maidment, 1993.
7. Engineering Hydrology, K. Subramantya, Second Edition, McGraw –
Hill Publishing Company, Reprint 2004.
8. Hydrology . Principles. Analysis. Design. H. M. Raghunath. New age
international publishers. New Delhi. 2004.
9. Groundwater Hydrology, Todd, D.K., (third edition), Jhon Wiley &
Sons, Third Reprint, Inc. India, 2007.
10. The Hand Book of Ground Water Engineering. Delleur, J.W.
Published by CRC press LLC, 1999.

1. Definition of Hydrology
Hydrolo --- the branch of science concerned with the properties
of the earth's water, and especially its movement in relation to land.

What is hydrology’s simple definition?

Hydrolo is the study of water.

What is the study of hydrology?

Hydrology is the study of water. Hydrologis examine the

physical processes involved in the global water cycle, which spans
most disciplines in Earth and environmental sciences.
What is an example of hydrology?
The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the
Earth through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid
image of this is in the evaporation of water from the ocean, which
forms clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain.

Why is hydrology important to life?

Hydrolog is an extremely important field of study, dealing with one of

the most valuable resources on Earth: water. All aspects of the Earth's
available water are studied by experts from many disciplines, from
geologists to engineers, to obtain the information needed to manage
this vital resource.

What are the four branches of hydrology?

The branches of Hydrology include:Hydrogeology, Chemical
hydrology, Ecohydrology, Hydroinformatics, Isotope hydrology,
Surface hydrology, Hydrometeorology, Drainage basin management
and Water quality. Surface Hydrology or Surface-water hydrology is
a branch of Hydrology.

How does hydrology affect the environment?

Hydrology, particularly water flow, can affect the local environment
due to changes in water quality and quantity. These changes can be
man-made (e.g. a dam or weather-related ( floodi ), or due
to a combination of both factors (rainfall runoff caused by poor
agricultural practices).
Which are two main branches of hydrology?

Branches of hydrology

Chemical is the study of the chemical characteristics of

water. Ecohydrolo is the study of interactions between organisms
and the hydrologic cycle.

Is hydrology civil engineering?

Hydrolo is a subspecialty of civil engineering focused on water

and its movement in relation to land.

Who studies hydrology?

Hydrologist

A hydrologis is a scientist who studies water and its movement

around the planet. Hydrologists also study how water affects its
surrounding environment and how environmental factors affect the
quantity and quality of available water. One crucial concept in
hydrology is the hydrologic cycle.

What type of engineering is hydrology?

Civil Engineering

Hydrolo is a branch of civil engineering concerned with water

resources. It includes the study of water quality, quantity, flow, and
distribution (hydrogeology) but most commonly refers to flood
safety and prevention.

Is hydrology a science or engineering?

Hydrology is the scientific study of the effects, properties and

distribution of water on the earth's surface in soil, underlying rock
structures and in the earth's atmosphere. The NJIT Graduate
Certificate in Hydrology and Water Resources enables students to
transition into this highly important field.

What is the objective of hydrological study?

Hydrology has as its primary objective the study of the

interrelationship between water and its environment. As hydrology
is mainly concerned with water close to the land surface, it focuses
on those components of the hydrologic cycle that occur there—
namely, precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and groundwater.

What are the sources of hydrology?

Sources of hydrological data

Catchment Flood Management plans.

Climate Records.

Flood maps.

Gauged flow records.

Groundwater vulnerability maps.

 Hydrological summaries.

MORECS.

Groundwater level records.

What is the application of hydrology?

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation. It determines

the water balance for a particular region. It mitigates and predicts
flood, landslide and drought risk in the region. It estimates the
water resource potential of the river basins.

Does hydrologic mean water?

The adjective hydrologic comes from hydrology, "the science of

water," and its roots, the Greek hyrdo-, "water," and the scientific
suffix -logy, "study or science." The way water moves from the
ocean to the atmosphere and back to the earth is known as the
hydrologic cycle.

How does hydrology work?

Hydrologists study how water moves across and through the Earth's
crust. They study how rain, snow, and other forms of precipitation
impact river flows or groundwater levels, and how surface water
and groundwater evaporate back into the atmosphere or eventually
reach the oceans.

How do hydrology affect humans?

There is considerable evidence that humans are responsible for

disruptions and changes to local and global water cycles. A number
of human activities can impact on the water cycle: damming rivers
for hydroelectricity, using water for farming, deforestation and the
burning of fossil fuels.

What are the 5 most important components of the hydrologic cycle?

water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the
continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of
the many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important
are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and
runoff.

What are five hydrologic processes?

Many processes work together to keep Earth's water moving in a

cycle. There are five processes at work in the hydrologic cycle:
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
evapotranspiration.

What are the main causes of hydrological hazards?

Hydrological hazards, or 'hydro-hazards', are defined as extreme

events associated with the occurrence, movement and distribution
of water, such as floods and droughts. Hydro-hazards usually result
 from a combination of compounding interacting physical processes
that occur across multiple spatial and temporal scales.

What causes hydrological disaster?

Hydrological Disasters

They are generally caused due to earthquake or volcanic

under the sea.

Who is the founder of hydrology?

The concept of hydrology was described in both the old Greek (e.g.
Aristotle) and Roman (e.g. Marcus Vitruvius) cultures, where
impressive water engineering projects were developed, such as
aqueducts and bridges.

What do hydrological engineers do?

Also known as hydrological or water-resources engineering, it

involves designing systems for water movement, flow, distribution
and circulation. Hydrological engineers may also work on sewage
treatment and disbursement, focusing on getting sewage safely
away from a city or state's water supplies.

What is the duties of hydrology engineer?

Hydrologists apply scientific knowledge and mathematical

principles to solve water-related problems such as quantity, quality
and availability. Hydrologists could work on finding new water
sources, predicting droughts or floods and reducing waste water.

What engineers deal with hydrology?

Hydrological engineering, sometimes called hydrologic engineering

or water resources engineering, is an engineering specialty that
focuses on water resources.

Does hydrology have math?

Traditionally, a typical undergraduate student enrolled in a

hydrology and atmospheric science major will take about six
required mathematics and computing courses. This approach treats
calculus, linear algebra, statistics, differential equations, and
computer programmingas isolated subjects.

2. The Hydrologic Cycle

What are the 7 ways water moves in the hydrologic cycle?

2.1. THE WATER CYCLE

The water cycle is often taught as a simple circular cycle of
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Although this can be a useful
model, the reality is much more complicated. The paths and influences of
water through Earth’s ecosystems are extremely complex and not
completely understood. NOAA is striving to expand understanding of the
water cycle at global to local scales to improve our ability to forecast
weather, climate, water resources, and ecosystem health.
The water cycle is the endless process that connects all of the water on
Earth.

NOAA --- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

2.1.1 The water cycle on Earth

Water is essential to life on Earth. In its three phases (solid, liquid, and
gas), water ties together the major parts of the Earth’s climate system air,
clouds, the ocean, lakes, vegetation, snowpack, and glaciersoffsite link.

The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the
Earth and atmosphere. It is a complex system that includes many different
processes. Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form
clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form of rain and snow. Water in
different phases moves through the atmosphere (transportation). Liquid
water flows across land (runoff), into the ground (infiltration and percolation),
and through the ground (groundwater). Groundwater moves into plants (plant
uptake) and evaporates from plants into the atmosphere (transpiration). Solid
ice and snow can turn directly into gas (sublimation). The opposite can also
take place when water vapor becomes solid (deposition).
1.1.1. Water, society, and ecology
Water influences the intensity of climate variability and change. It is
the key part of extreme events such as drought and floods. Its abundance
and timely delivery are critical for meeting the needs of society and
ecosystems.

Humans use water for drinking, industrial applications, irrigating

agriculture, hydropower, waste disposal, and recreation. It is important that
water sources are protected both for human uses and ecosystem health. In
many areas, water supplies are being depleted because of population
growth, pollution, and development. These stresses have been made worse
by climate variations and changes that affect the hydrologic cycle.

2.1.2. Water and climate change

Climate change is affecting where, when, and how much water is
available. Extreme weather events such as droughts and heavy precipitation,
which are expected to increase as climate changes, can impact water
resources. A lack of adequate water supplies, flooding, or degraded water
quality impacts civilization — now and throughout history. These challenges
can affect the economy, energy production and use, human health,
transportation, agriculture, national security, natural ecosystems, and
recreation.
1.1.2 EDUCATION CONNECTION
The water cycle impacts ecosystems, economies, and our daily lives.
The resources in this collection help teachers guide their students beyond
the classic water cycle diagram and through the complex social and
environmental issues that surround water. The water cycle provides the
opportunity to explore the nature of science using models and empirical
evidence.

3. EVAPORATION
Evaporatio is the process by which a liquid turns into a gas. It is
also one of the three main steps in the global water cycle.

Evaporation on a Farm

Water evaporates from a sugar beet field after a summer shower in

Borger, Netherlands. Evaporation is a key step in the water cycle.

Evaporation happens when a liquid turns into a gas. It can be easily

visualized when rain puddles “disappear” on a hot day or when wet clothes
dry in the sun. In these examples, liquid water is not actually vanishing it is
evaporating into a gas, called water vapor.

Evaporation happens on a global scale. Alongside condensation and

precipitation, evaporation is one of the three main steps in the Earth’s water
cycle. Evaporation accounts for 90 percent of the moisture in the Earth’s
atmosphere; the other 10 percent is due to plant transpiration.

Substances can exist in three main states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Evaporation is just one way a substance, like water, can change between
these states. Melting and freezing are two other ways. When liquid water
reaches a low enough temperature, it freezes and becomes a solid ice. When
solid water is exposed to enough heat, it will melt and return to a liquid. As
that liquid water is further heated, it evaporates and becomes a gas—water
vapor.

These changes between states (melting, freezing, and evaporating)

happen because as the temperature either increases or decreases, the
molecules in a substance begin to speed up or slow down. In a solid, the
molecules are tightly packed and only vibrate against each other. In a liquid,
the molecules move freely, but stay close together. In a gas, they move
around wildly and have a great deal of space between them.
 In the water cycle, evaporation occurs when sunlight warms the
surface of the water. The heat from the sun makes the water molecules
move faster and faster, until they move so fast they escape as a gas. Once
evaporated, a molecule of water vapor spends about ten days in the air.

As water vapor rises higher in the atmosphere, it begins to cool back

down. When it is cool enough, the water vapor condenses and returns to
liquid water. These water droplets eventually gather to form clouds and
precipitation.

Evaporation from the oceans is vital to the production of fresh water.

Because more than 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans,
they are the major source of water in the atmosphere. When that water
evaporates, the salt is left behind. The fresh-water vapor then condenses
into clouds, many of which drift over land. Precipitation from those clouds
fills lakes, rivers, and streams with fresh water.

4. CONDENSATION
Condensatio is the process where water vapor (a gas) changes into
water droplets (a liquid). This is when we begin to see clouds.

What is the condensation?

Condensatio is the process where water vapor becomes liquid. It is
the reverse of evaporation, where liquid water becomes vapor.
 Condensation happens one of two ways: Either the air is cooled to its
dew point, or it becomes so saturated with water vapor that it cannot
hold any more water.
What are the 4 forms of condensation?
Condensation | Forms of Condensation: Dew, Fog, Frost, Mist | Types of
Clouds.
What are 4 examples of condensation?
Morning dew on the grass. Water droplets on the outer surface of cold
drink bottle. Foggy car windows.
What is condensation definition and examples?
Condensation is the process through which the physical state of
matter changes from the gaseous phase into the liquid phase. For
example, condensation occurs when water vapour (gaseous form) in
the air changes into liquid water when it comes in contact with a
cooler surface.
What are 5 examples of condensation?
Let's take a few examples of condensation in our daily life to elucidate
the phenomenon:
1. Clouds in the Sky
2. Morning Dew
3. Fog in the Air
4. Breathing Fog in Winters
5. Foggy Car Windows
6. Foggy Glasses
7. Sweaty Drink-Cans
8. Contrails
What are the 3 types of condensation?
Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds. Dew: the water droplets
formed by condensation of water vapor on a relatively cold
surface of an object.

What are the types of condensation reactions?

In organic chemistry, a condensation reaction is a type of chemical
reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single
molecule, usually with the loss of a small molecule such as water. If
water is lost, the reaction is also known as a dehydration synthesis.

What is hydrological problem?

THE ROLE OF THE HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES

Floods, droughts, and water pollution are barriers to sustainable

development and management of water resources. The hydrological
sciences have played an increasingly vital role in the understanding of
these problems and in finding solutions.
What is the best example of condensation?
Examples of Condensation

Morning Dew – This happens when the moisture present in the air condenses
on the grasses and leaves cooling overnight.

Droplets on can or bottle–The cold surface of your can or bottle causes the
moisture in the warm air to condense on its surface.

How many types of condensation are there?

Condensation is the process where water vapour becomes liquid.
Depending on temperature and location, condensation can take
place in different forms, like dew, frost, fog, mist, and clouds.

What causes condensation?

Condensation occurs when warm air collides with cold surfaces, or
when there's too much humidity in your home. When this moisture-
packed warm air comes into contact with a chilly surface, it cools
down quickly and releases the water, which turns into liquid
droplets on the cold surface.

Is rain condensation?
Condensation is the process through which gaseous water vapor
becomes liquid water. A common misconception about
condensation is that rain is a form of condensation. However, rain
is actually a result of condensation. Condensation can happen in
one of two ways: saturation or cooling to the dew point.

Where is condensation used?

Commercial applications of condensation, by consumers as well as
industry, include power generation, water desalination, thermal
management, refrigeration, and air conditioning.

What are the effects of condensation?

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from the
gas phase into the liquid phase and is the reverse of vaporization.

How do you make condensation?

It can happen in one of two ways. For condensation to form, water
vapor is either cooled to its dew point – which is the temperature at
which water in the air condenses to create water droplets. Or, the
air becomes so saturated with water vapor that it can't hold any
more water.

What are three facts about condensation?

10 Facts About Condensation

1) Government figures suggest that 1 in 4 homes in the UK, has an issue
with either condensation and/or damp. Up to 50% of damp-proofing
company callouts are for condensation related problems. Rising
dampness is often confused with condensation but rising damp can
 usually be recognized by “tide marks” and surface blistering up to
about 1.0 m from the floor and condensation tends to be accompanied
by mould growth.
2) Condensation is seasonal and the condensation season coincides with
dropping temperatures. If your property suffered with condensation
last Winter but there haven’t been symptoms over the Summer this
doesn’t mean the issue has gone away as it will, unfortunately, recur
the following Autumn.
3) Condensation is caused by excess moisture in the air settling on cool
surfaces. Air can hold a certain amount of moisture, but the amount
varies depending on temperature; The colder the air, the less moisture
it can hold. When air temperature drops, the moisture that it can no
longer hold is deposited (condenses) onto the coldest surfaces
available. You often see condensation on windows as these are
generally cold surfaces but external walls or even ceilings may also be
cold.

4) Double glazing reduces condensation on windows by keeping glass

temperatures warmer, but this means that moisture will condense on
other cool surfaces elsewhere, particularly adjoining wall surfaces,
unless the property has cavity wall insulation.
5) Cooking, washing, drying clothes, having a bath or shower and even
breathing can cause produce up to 5 litres of moisture a day per
person, within the average home. That’s equivalent to 5 big bottles of
soft drink for each person!
6) Condensation does not always occur in the room where the moisture
has been created. Moisture moves around with the air and it can even
move through walls, doors and ceilings. It helps to close the kitchen
door when you are cooking but you may also need to look at an extract
unit to help remove the excess moisture from the air.
7) You may be experiencing some of the symptoms of condensation
without realizing their cause; there may be musty within the
property, water on windows and windowsills, peeling wallpaper, mould
growths on walls, clothes, shoes or on areas of the walls and ceiling.
8) If condensation is not treated it can result in a lot of expense. Clothes
and bed linen may be damaged by and need replacing and in
milde
the worst-case scenarios the damp can rot timbers and result in
rusting metal wall ties.
9) Living with condensation can cause health problems as this form of
dampness causes mould and mildew to grow and spores from these
can aggravate chest conditions, such as asthma. House mites also
thrive in damp atmospheres and research shows they can also cause
allergies.

10) Condensation and related dampness can be resolved only by

controlling the level of moisture in the air. It is important to control
moisture levels in the entire house and ensure that there is adequate
ventilation. If you think that you have a condensation problem, it’s
important to get a qualified surveyor to inspect the area and suggest
one of the affordable solutions now available.
5. PRECIPITATION
What is precipitation Class 5?
Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the
atmosphere and falls back to the Earth. It comes in many forms, like
rain, sleet, and snow.
What are the 4 types of precipitation?
The most common types of precipitation:
Precipitatio (Water Falling from the
1. Rain. ...
2. Snow. ...
3. Hail. ...
4. Sleet.
What are the 8 types of precipitation?

The different types of precipitation are:

1. Rain. Most commonly observed, drops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch /
0.5 mm or more) is considered rain. ...

2. Drizzle. Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops

very close together. ...

3. Ice Pellets (Sleet) ...

4. Hail. ...
5. Small Hail (Snow Pellets) ...
6. Snow. ...
7. Snow Grains. ...
8. Ice Crystals.
What is precipitation and its types?
The most common types of precipitation are rain, hail, and snow. Rain.
Rain is precipitation that falls to the surface of the Earth as water
droplets. Raindrops form around microscopic cloud condensation
nuclei, such as a particle of dust or a molecule of pollution.

What is precipitation example?

One of the best examples of precipitation reactions is the chemical
reaction between potassium chloride and silver nitrate, in which solid
silver chloride is precipitated out. This is the insoluble salt formed as a
product of the precipitation reaction.

What a precipitation means?

: a deposit on the earth of hail, mist, rain, sleet, or snow. Also the
quantity of water deposited.
What are the 5 steps of precipitation?

Together, these five processes - condensation, precipitation,

infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration- make up the Hydrologic
Cycle. Water vapor condenses to form clouds, which result in
precipitation when the conditions are suitable.

What is class 7 precipitation?

Falling of moisture in the form of rainfall, snow, fog, sleet and hailstone
is termed as precipitation.

What causes precipitation Class 7?

Answer: The sun's heat vaporises water into vapour. This vapour cools
down and condenses to become clouds. This may then fall on the
surface of Earth in the form of rain, snow or sleet. This phenomenon of
water falling back onto the surface of the earth in the form of rain,
snow or sleet is called precipitation.

Can you list 5 types of precipitation?

The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow,
graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the
atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water
condenses and “precipitates.

What are the 5 main types of weather?

The five main types of weather are: (1.) sunny, (2.) cloudy, (3.)
windy, (4.) rainy, and (5.) stormy. Below you will find out about the
different types of weather we experience on a day-to-day basis as a
result of the global weather system.

Why are there different types of precipitation?

When particles fall from clouds and reach the surface as precipitation,
they do so primarily as rain, snow, freezing rain or sleet. The main
difference between these different types of precipitation is the
temperature variations between the cloud base and the ground.

Which is the most common type of precipitation?

Rainfall
Rainfall is the most common type of precipitation that we all might
have experienced. Water vapour in air condenses to form liquid water
droplets. When precipitation happens in the form of liquid water, it is
called rainfall.

How do different types of precipitation form?

The temperature of the cloud and the air between the cloud and the
ground create different kinds of precipitation. Rain: Rain made of liquid
water droplets falls when temperatures in the air and at the surface
are above freezing (32°F, 0°C).
What is precipitation in Brainly?
Includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail. The main forms of precipitation
include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel (soft hail or snow pellets),
and hail. Precipitation is a form of water that falls from a cloud.

Is precipitation wet or dry?

Rain is liquid precipitation: water falling from the sky. Raindrops fall to
Earth when clouds become saturated, or filled, with water droplets.
Millions of water droplets bump into each other as they gather in a
cloud. When a small water droplet bumps into a bigger one, it
condenses, or combines, with the larger one

What is meant by 10% precipitation?

If there's a 10 percent chance of rain, it means the current conditions
yield rainfall one out of every 10 times observed. If it's 20 percent, then
you'd see rain two out of every 10 times, and so on.

What words describe precipitation?

Synonyms for precipitation

1. Drizzle
Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops very
close together. Drizzle appears to float while following air currents,
but unlike fog droplets, it falls to the ground. Quite often fog and
drizzle occur together.

2. Rain
Most commonly observed, drops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch / 0.5
mm or more) is considered rain. However, smaller drops are also
considered raindrops if, in contrast to drizzle, they are widely
separated.
 3. Rainfall

4. Rainstorm
-------a storm with heavy rain.
------- a weather condition with strong wind and heavy rain.
------- a storm that produces rain
------- A storm accompanied by rain.
-------- a storm of or with rain
What causes a rainstorm?
As temperature rises, more water evaporates from the ocean,
transferring energy and water vapor to the atmosphere. That extra
water vapor results in more rain and snow. Areas that are typically
rainy will likely experience intense down pours. But areas that are
typically dry will likely become more parched.

What are the effects of a rainstorm?

Heavy rainfall can lead to numerous hazards, for example: flooding,
including risk to human life, damage to buildings and infrastructure,
and loss of crops and livestock. landslides, which can threaten human
life, disrupt transport and communications, and cause damage to
buildings and infrastructure.

How long can a rainstorm last?

Thunderstorms affect relatively small areas when compared with
hurricanes and winter storms. The typical thunderstorm is 15 miles in
diameter and lasts an average of 30 minutes. Nearly 1,800
thunderstorms are occurring at any moment around the world. That's
16 million a year!

What is a major rainstorm called?

Downpour. noun tremendous pouring of rain. cloudburst. deluge.

What is heavy rainfall called?

A downpour is a heavy fall of rain.
How do you survive a rainstorm?
Head For Shelter

Keep in mind not to touch plumbing, electrical equipment, metal

objects, or water, as those could be electrically charged. Being in a car
is safer than being outside, but you should always keep the windows
rolled up, refrain from using electronics, and resist leaning against the
doors.

What happens before a rainstorm?

The rising warm air forms a partial vacuum, which pulls cold air from
high above. That helps drive the rain down. But this partial vacuum
also pulls in air from all sides of the storm front. Air moving away from
the partial vacuum gets pulled back – so the area in front of the storm
experiences a calm.

What are the 3 types of storms?

Types of storms

1. Blizzards.

2. Hail.
3. Heavy rain.
4. Ice storms.
5. Lightning.
6. Thunderstorms.
7. Wind.
What is a severe rainstorm?
When they contain strong winds, hail and tornadoes they can turn
violent. NOAA classifies a storm as “severe” when it produces wind
gusts of at least 58 mph and/or hail one inch in diameter (about the
size of a quarter) or larger and/or a tornado. A single thunderstorm can
be 10 miles wide and 50,000 feet tall. ( NOAA)

Why do I sleep better during a rainstorm?

Along with the low air pressure, the air is also filled with a lot of water
vapor. The combination of low air pressure and water vapor
inadvertently lowers the oxygen levels in the air, making your brain
feel tired. When it rains, negative ions are released and that leads to
people feeling more relaxed and comfortable.

Where is the biggest rainstorm on earth?

Where is the rainiest place on Earth? Surprisingly, it's not Wales.
According to Guinness World Records, the place with the highest
average annual rainfall is the village of Mawsynram in northeastern
India, which receives nearly 12,000mm of rain per year
What are the 4 types of rain?
Types of Rainfall

1. Convectional rainfall.
2. Orographic or relief rainfall.
3. Cyclonic or frontal rainfall.

What are the 4 types of storms?

The 4 Types of Thunderstorms

1. The single-cell.
2. The multi-cell.
3. The squall line.
4. The supercell.

What causes thunder in a rainstorm?

Answer. Thunder is caused by the rapid expansion of the air
surrounding the path of a lightning bolt.

Is rainstorm weather?
A rainstorm is a type of extreme weather which can produce heavy
rain, poor visibility, and sometimes thunder and lightning. Rainstorms
are formed sometimes from large weather systems (hurricanes,
cyclones, etc.). As the weather systems move inland and start
dissipating, they lose energy.

What are rainstorm clouds called?

Cumulonimbus clouds
Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderheads.
Thunderheads produce rain, thunder, and lightning. Many
cumulonimbus clouds occur along cold fronts, where cool air is
forced under warm air. They usually shrink as evening
approaches, and moisture in the air evaporates.
What causes a rainstorm?
As temperature rises, more water evaporates from the ocean,
transferring energy and water vapor to the atmosphere. That
extra water vapor results in more rain and snow. Areas that are
typically rainy will likely experience intense down pours. But
areas that are typically dry will likely become more parched.

5. Sleet. [Ice Pellets (Sleet)]

Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which
are round or irregular hard grains of ice consisting of frozen
raindrops, or largely melted then refrozen snowflakes.

6. Snow
Precipitation of snow crystals that are mostly branched and in
the form of six-pointed stars.
 7. Storm
8. Cloudburst
What is the meaning of cloudburst?
Cloudburst, a sudden, very heavy rainfall, usually local in nature and of
brief duration. Most so-called cloudbursts occur in connection with
thunderstorms. In these storms there are violent uprushes of air, which
at times prevent the condensing raindrops from falling to the ground.

What is cloud burst and why it happens?

Cloudbursts happen when drenched clouds are not able to cause rain
because of the rising movement of the extremely hot current of air.
Rather than falling down, raindrops get larger in dimension and are
forced up because of the air current.

Is cloudburst a natural disaster?

Cloudburst is defined as a geo-hydrological hazard. The aggressiveness
in nature and the scale of destruction of rainfall are scary at times.

What are the effects of cloudbursts?

Cloudburst-triggered debris flows, flash floods, landslides, and mass
movements have become more intensive and frequent worldwide,
mainly in the mountainous regions, causing large-scale destruction of
people, land, and property (Houghton et al.
9. Small Hail (Snow Pellets)

Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice that are round or

sometimes conical. Diameters are less than ¼ inch (5 mm).

10. Snow Grains

Precipitation of very small, white, and opaque grains of ice.
Basically, this is frozen drizzle.

11. Ice Crystals

Generally occurring in very cold regions, they are falling crystals of ice
in the form of needles, columns, or plates. Also called 'diamond dust',
ice crystals appear like fog with individual water particles forming
directly as ice. The shape of the individual ice crystals causes the
'light pillar' optical effect above the light source.

12. Hail

Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling

separately or frozen together in irregular lumps. Associated with
thunderstorms, individual hail stones are ¼ inch (5 mm) or greater in
diameter. Hail sizes of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more are indicative of sever
thunderstorms.
6. INTERCEPTION
What does interception mean in the water cycle?
Interceptio is the part of the rainfall that is intercepted by the
earth's surface, and which subsequently evaporates. In this definition
the earth's surface includes everything that becomes wet after a
rainfall event and that dries out soon after. It includes: vegetation, soil
surface, litter, build-up surface, etc.
What is the difference between transpiration and
interception?
We conclude that interception mainly works as an intensifier of the
local hydrological cycle during wet spells and wet seasons. On the
other hand, transpiration remains active during dry spells and dry
seasons and is transported over much larger distances downwind,
where it can act as a significant source of moisture.
How does precipitation affect interception?
Interception loss, as a percentage of gross rainfall, decreases as
rainfall amount increases. This is because rainfall amount has little
effect on interception loss once the interception capacity is filled.
What are the 3 types of interception?
Interception
1. gross measured above the canopy or in
openings in a forest.

2. throughfa water that falls between plants,

3. drippag of water from the plants to the grounds,
and.
4. stemflo flow of water down stems and trunks.
How is rain interception measured?
Interception is most easily measured by comparing rainfall underneath
vegetation cover (like a woodland canopy) with rainfall where there in
no vegatation cover. Place several identical rain gauges in the
contrasting areas – don't just use one rain gauge per area.

Where does interception occur?

Interception refers to precipitation that does not reach the soil,
but is instead intercepted by the leaves, branches of plants and
the forest floor. It occurs in the canopy (i.e. canopy
 interception), and in the forest floor or litter layer (i.e. forest
interception ).
How does interception work?
To make initial contact, the intercepting aircraft will rock its wings and
flash its navigation lights at irregular intervals. This means "you have
been intercepted, follow me". To respond, the pilots of the intercepted
aircraft must also rock their wings, flash their lights and then proceed
to follow the military jet.

What is the relationship between interception and

infiltration?
The highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer
forests and hardwood forests that have not yet lost their leaves.
Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water
through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the
soil.
Why does an increase in interception cause a decrease in
surface runoff?
Interception decreases runoff by reducing the amount of precipitation
which initially reaches the ground. Urban areas replace forests,
grasslands, wetlands, and other natural areas. As roads, pavemen
and buildings are impenetrable, water cannot infiltrate the soil and is
instead directed to rivers via drain.
How do seasons affect interception?
The proportion of the precipitation that does not reach the ground, i.e.,
the interception loss, depends on the type of vegetation (forest, tree,
or grassland), its age, density of planting and the season of the year.
The interception loss also depends on rainfall regime, thus on climate.

What factors influence interception?

Factors Affecting Interception:

(i) Type of Vegetation:
(ii) Wind Velocity:
(iii) Duration of Storm:
(iv) Intensity of Storm:
(v) Season of the Year:
(vi) Climate of the Area:
What is the synonym of intercepting?
to stop, seize, or interrupt while in progress or on course the cat was
about to hightail it out the front door when I intercepted her. Synonyms
& Similar Words. Relevance. blocking. grabbing.
What are interception losses?
Interception loss is that portion. of the precipitation which is returned
to the atmosphere through evaporation from plant surfaces or is
absorbed into the plant.
Which is an example of interception?
Interception might take the form of unauthorized file viewing or
copying, eavesdropping on phone conversations, or reading e-mail, and
can be conducted against data at rest or in motion.
What are the 3 main components of interception?
There are three Main Components of Interception:
1. Interception Loss.
2. Throughfall.
3. Stemflow.

7. INFILTRATION
What are the process of infiltration?

Infiltratio is the process of water entry into the soil through the
earth's surface. The water at the soil surface can originate from rain,
snowmelt or anthropogenic activities (e.g. to regulate groundwater
formation by artificial infiltration).

What is infiltration short answer?

. The topic of infiltration has received
Introduction. Infiltration is defined as the flow of water
aaboveground
great deal ofinto
attention because of its importance to topics as widely
the subsurface
ranging as irrigation, contaminant transport, groundwater recharge,
and ecosystem viability.

What is infiltration in the water cycle for kids?

Infiltration - Infiltration is an important process where rain water
soaks into the ground, through the soil and underlying rock layers.
Runoff - Much of the water that returns to Earth as precipitation runs
off the surface of the land, and flows downhill into streams, rivers,
ponds and lakes.

What is runoff and infiltration?

Infiltration and runoff are two important processes in the hydrologic
cycle (Figure 1.1). Infiltration begins when precipitation reaches the
land surface. Runoff begins when the precipitation rate exceeds the
infiltration rate, and retention and surface stor- age are filled.

What causes water infiltration?

Water infiltration due to poor drainage

Poor water along the edge of the foundation is one of the

main causes of basement water infiltration. To drain water away from
your home, make sure that the ground around it slopes away from the
foundation at a rate of one inch per foot for at least the first six feet.

What causes infiltration?

Infiltration is the downward entry of water into the . Infiltration

is expressed in inches per . Rainwater must first enter the soil for
 it to be of value. Water moves more quickly through the large pores of
a sandy soil compared to slower movement through a clay soil with
small pores.

What is the role of infiltration?

Infiltration replenishes aquifers

Natural refilling of deep aquifers is a slow process because

groundwater moves slowly through the unsaturated zone and the
aquifer. The rate of recharge is also an important consideration.

What is evaporation and infiltration?

Soil evaporation is the transition of soil water from the liquid phase to
the vapor phase, after which water vapor diffuses into the atmosphere
through the evaporation surface (Wang et al., 2019). The evaporation
surfaces of infiltration holes are the top surface, sidewall, and bottom
of the hole.

What is another term for infiltration?

permeat The water will eventually permeate through the surrounding

concrete. creep in. percolat

What affects water infiltration?

Infiltration is caused by multiple factors including; gravity, capillary
forces, adsorption and osmosis. Many soil characteristics can also
play a role in determining the rate at which infiltration occurs.

What are the types of infiltration?

1. Infiltration basin.

2. Infiltration trench (a.k.a.) (a.k.a.infiltrationtubes,french

infiltration gallery
, soak-away
3. Drywells pits or)
drains soak holes
4. Underground infiltration systems.
How does infiltration affect water quality?
Role of stormwater infiltration in the natural water cycle

The increase in impervious surfaces can disrupt the natural water

cycle and alter the surrounding environment via the decrease of
groundwater recharge and the increase of water directly flowing to
surface waters.

What happens to water during infiltration?

Infiltration happens when water soaks into the soil from the ground
level. It moves underground and moves between the soil and rocks.
Some of the water will be soaked up by roots to help plants grow. The
plant's leaves eventually release the water into the air through the
plant's pours as waste.
Does infiltration clean water?
When water soaks into the ground, soil and plants work together to
absorb it, filtering pollutants, and decreasing flooding. Some of this
water continues to travel down in the soil, becoming cleaner as it goes
and recharging the groundwater.

What are the characteristics of infiltration?

The infiltration rate is determined by soil characteristics including
ease of entry, storage capacity, and transmission rate through the soil.
The soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover, water
content of the soil, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a
role in infiltration rate.

What is infiltration example?

Infiltration occurs when surface water enters the soil. This process is
similar to pouring water onto a sponge. The sponge soaks up the water
until it can hold no more. At this point, the soil becomes saturated, but
the excess water has to go somewhere.

8. PERCOLATION
What is the meaning of percolation?
the process of a liquid moving slowly through a substance that has
very small holes in it: the percolation of water through rocks . the
process of something spreading slowly: So far we haven't seen much
percolation of higher energy prices through to retail . Movement of
liquids.

What is percolation 7th?

Percolation is the movement of water through soil, and the

rate is the speed at which that movement occurs. Percolation rate is
calculated using the following formula: Percolation rate = Amount of
water (mL)percolation time (mins)

What does percolation of water explain?

Percolation is the movement of water through the soil itself. Finally, as
the water percolates into the deeper layers of the soil, it reaches
ground water, which is water below the surface . The upper surface of
this underground water is called the "water table".

What is percolation in soil?

Infiltration (the rate at which water enters a soil) and percolation (the
rate at which water moves through a soil) are key factors in
determining the value of a soil as a crop soil . These two factors
influence the formation of natural wildlife habitats, and the nature and
speed of flooding in a given area.
Why is percolation used?

Percolatio can be used to predict water transport factors such as the

rate of leaching, or the flow of materials into water. This is most often
used in agriculture to determine the movement of fertilizers or the salt
content of soil.

How is percolation done?

Percolatio is an exhaustive extraction procedure, by which all of the

soluble constituents are completely removed from a comminuted plant
material, by extracting the crude drug by fresh solvent. In the case of
repercolation, percolate is again introduced as the solvent, thus
reducing solvent consumption.

What is the meaning of percolation test?

A percolation test, or perc test, is a procedure performed to review
water drainage in different soils. It is important for many uses, such as
when designing a leach field for a septic system, planning a building
design, or considering agricultural use of the land.

How do you measure water percolation?

To measure how fast water percolates into the soil, you need to
measure the time it takes for a specific amount of water to soak into a
specific area of soil. The easiest way to do this is to get a length of
cylindrical pipe that is sharp enough to push (or hammer) into the soil
at one end.

What is percolation in sandy soil?

Sandy soil. Percolation rate is the rate at which water passes through
the soil. It is a measure used to determine the water holding capacity
of the soil. Sandy soil has large particles and large air gaps too. Water
flows through sandy soil fastest and hence percolation rate of sandy
soil is the highest.
What is the percolation of clay soil?
Clay soils have moderate percolation rates of 0.1 inch or less every
hour. These soils effortlessly become waterlogged, and plant roots can
choke thus.

What is good percolation?

For soils to effectively treat effluent, percolation rates must be
between 10 and 60 minutes per inch of percolation . You need at least
20 to 21 hours to do a standard percolation test requires .

What is percolation instrument?

The percolation device determines the ion-composition of a soil
solution under saturated conditions and is designed such that it
simultaneously percolates a defined solution amount with a constant
skipping speed from various undisturbed soil samples in different soil
sample cylinders (volume: 100 cm³).

What factors affect percolation?

Those factors are as follows:

Soil: In a mechanism called percolation, where water travels
downwards through the tiny gaps between rocks and soil particles,
runoff seeps underground. ...

Moisture content: The quality of water alters their cohesion greatly.

What are the main features of percolation?

Percolation typically exhibits universality. Statistical physics concepts
such as scaling theory, renormalization, phase transition, critical
phenomena and fractals are used to characterize percolation
properties. Combinatorics is commonly employed to study percolation
thresholds.

What is infiltration and percolation?

Infiltration and percolation are two related but different processes
describing the movement of water through soil. Infiltration is defined
as the downward entry of water into the soil or rock surface and
percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous or fractured
rock.

What is the difference between percolation?

The main difference between infiltration and percolation is that
infiltration occurs in the topmost zone of soil whereas percolation
occurs when water passes through soil and rock. Infiltration and
percolation are two types of downward movements of water.
Infiltration occurs fast while percolation occurs slowly.
How does soil affect percolation?
Soil type influences amounts and rates of percolation . The Muskingum
soils, because of their lighter texture, provide greater opportunity for
more rapid soil water movement which is reflected in greater amounts
and more rapid rates of percolation than on the heavier Keene soils
except under the circumstances noted.

What is the percolation capacity of soil?

Percolation rate of water in soil: The phenomenon of absorption of
water by soil is termed percolation . The rate of absorption is different
for different types of soils . The rate of absorption of soil depends on its
composition. A soil with a high percolation rate can hold water for a
short period of time.

What is high percolation?

by high percolation rate means. Water easily move into the soil. For
example, sand has high precolation rate than soil. So ,water easily
moves through the sand than soil.

Why is percolation important to the water cycle?

Percolation is an important process where rain water soaks into
(infiltrates) the ground, into the soil and underlying rock layers. Some
of this water ultimately returns to the surface at springs or in low
spots downhill.

What is simple percolation process?

Percolation extraction is a conventional extraction method used in the
processing of traditional Chinese medicines. After medicinal material
powder is placed in a percolation tank, the extraction solvent is
continuously added, and percolation extract is collected
simultaneously. The percolation equipment is simple.

Which factors determine percolation of soil?

Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size
and aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity
of the soil.

What is the cold percolation method?

During the cold percolation process, a control is provided to monitor
the contents of the vessel and regulate the heater output to obtain and
maintain the proper temperature. A pump draws the output of the
vessel and recirculates it to the vessel top so that the vessel effluent
passes through the vessel charge.

What is percolation in agriculture?

Percolation is the downward movement of water within soil. The rate
of percolation is affected by soil characteristics, with water moving
through coarser soils more quickly than through fine- grained soils.
How do you test percolation in soil?
A percolation test consists of digging one or more holes in the soil of
the proposed leach field to a specified depth, presoaking the holes by
maintaining a high-water level in the holes, then running the test by
filling the holes to a specific level and timing the drop of the water
level as the water percolates into ...

What causes percolation of water on land?

Percolation is primarily controlled by gravitational forces.

Precipitations such as rainfall and snowmelts infiltrate the soil surface

after which it percolates downwards through soil layers. The water is
able to move underground through the rock and soil profile due to the
capillary actions of connected pore spaces.

What is maceration and percolation?

Maceration refers to the process of becoming softened by soaking in a
liquid while percolation refers to the process of a liquid slowly passing
through a filter.

What is the percolation rate of sand?

The average monthly percolation rates of sand clay loam, sand clay,
and clay vary 2-4.5 mm/day, 1.5-3.5 mm/day, and 0.5-2 mm/day,
respectively with the rainfall intensity of 4-14 mm/day.

What is percolation in civil engineering?

Percolation can be defined as the flow of fluids through a porous media
(filter). Infiltration rate may be defined as the meters per unit time of
the entry of water into the soil surface regardless of the types or
values of forces or gradients. Water entry into the soil is caused by
matric and gravitational forces.

9. TRANSPIRATION
This process of elimination of excess water from the plant body is
known as transpiration. It is generally the evaporation of water from
the surface of the leaves. During the process of transpiration, water
molecules in the plant tissues are removed from the aerial parts of the
plants.

What does transpiration explain?

Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour through

the stomata of plants. The loss of water vapour from the plant cools
the plant down when the weather is very hot, and water from the stem
and roots moves upwards or is 'pulled' into the leaves.

What causes transpiration?

Ultimately, for transpiration to occur, the water vapor pressure deficit
of the surrounding air must be lower than the water potential of the
leaves. Transpiration rates are higher when the relative humidity of air
 is low, which can occur due to windy conditions or when the
temperatures are high.

What is transpiration short type answer?

The process by which plants remove excess water through stomata
present on the surface of leaves is called 'transpiration'. Transpiration
is essentially evaporation of water from leaves of the plant.

What is transpiration and why is it important?

Transpiratio is defined as the process where plants absorb water

through the roots and then give off water vapour through pores in their
leaves (stomata). This process removes excess water, creates a
suction pull to help in transport of water upwards, and cools down the
plant.

Where does transpiration happen?

Leaf stomata

Leaf stomata are the primary sites of transpiration and consist of two
guard cells that form a small pore on the surfaces of leaves. The guard
cells control the opening and closing of the stomata in response to
various environmental stimuli and can regulate the rate of transpiration
to reduce water loss.

What affects transpiration in plants?

Factors that affect transpiration in plants

The light intensity, temperature, humidity, wind and water supply will
all affect the transpiration rate.

What are the benefits of transpiration in plants?

Advantages of transpiration:

1. It helps in the exchange of gases.

2. It helps in sending out excessively absorbed water by plants.
3. It helps in the development of the plant body.
4. It helps in the absorption and distribution of water and mineral salts
in plants.
5. It provides coolness to the plant body.

What type of transport is transpiration?

Water Transport

Transpiration ( water transport ) involves three processes : absorption

at the roots , capillary action in the xylem, and evaporation at the
leaves . Roots acquire dissolved minerals in a four-step process:
•Active transport into the root hairs, which moves minerals against
their concentration gradient.
1.Definition of Hydrology

2.The Hydrologic Cycle

3.Evaporation

4.Condensation

5.Precipitation

6.Interception
7.Infiltration
8. Percolation
9.Transpiration

6. Basic Subsurface flow (Steady State Condition)

Rainfall-Runoff Relation

8. Class requirements: Syllabus of Engineering

8.1. Introduction to hydrology;

8.2. Hydrologic cycle and water balance;

8.3. Watershed characteristics;

8.4. Weather and hydrology, Precipitation;

8.5. Abstraction from precipitation

8.6. Infiltration;

8.7. Streamflow;

8.8. Rainfall-Runoff relationship;

8.9. Unit hydrograph analysis;

8.10. Flood and flood routing;

8.11. Flood control, draught solution;

8.12. Physical character of reservoir;

8.13. Reservoir sedimentation;

8.14. Characteristics of Subsurface Media;

8.15. Groundwater Hydraulics;

8.16. Water wells and groundwater recharge;

8.17. Groundwater quality and contamination hydrology;

8.18. Risk Analysis and Hydrologic Design;

8.19. Major probability distribution;

8.20. Groundwater modelling;

8.21. Surface water modelling.