Babylonian captivity

The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the

period in Jewish history during which a large number
of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were
captives in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire, following their defeat in the
Jewish–Babylonian War and the destruction of
Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. The event is
described in the Hebrew Bible, and its historicity is
supported by archaeological and non-biblical
evidence.

After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, the

The Flight of the Prisoners (1896) by James
Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II besieged
Tissot; the exile of the Jews from Canaan to
Jerusalem, which resulted in tribute being paid by the
Babylon
Judean king Jehoiakim.[1] In the fourth year of
Nebuchadnezzar II's reign, Jehoiakim refused to pay
further tribute, which led to another siege of the city in Nebuchadnezzar II's seventh year that culminated in
the death of Jehoiakim and the exile to Babylonia of his successor Jeconiah, his court and many others;
Jeconiah's successor Zedekiah and others were exiled in Nebuchadnezzar II's 18th year; a later deportation
occurred in Nebuchadnezzar II's 23rd year. The dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees
given in the biblical accounts vary.[2] These deportations are dated to 597 BCE for the first, with others
dated at 587/586 BCE, and 582/581 BCE respectively.[3]

After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the Achaemenid Persian Empire and its founding king
Cyrus the Great at the Battle of Opis in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were permitted by the Persians to return
to Judah.[4][5] According to the biblical Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem
began in c. 537 BCE in the new Persian province of Yehud Medinata. All of these events are considered
significant to the developed history and culture of the Jewish people, and ultimately had a far-reaching
impact on the development of Judaism.

Archaeological studies have revealed that, although the city of Jerusalem was utterly destroyed, other parts
of Judah continued to be inhabited during the period of the exile. Most of the exiled did not return to their
homeland, instead travelling westward and northward. Many settled in what is now northern Israel,
Lebanon and Syria. The Iraqi Jewish, Persian Jewish, Georgian Jewish and Bukharan Jewish communities
are believed to derive their ancestry in large part from these exiles. These communities are now largely
concentrated in Israel.[6][7]

Contents
Biblical accounts of the exile
Archaeological and other extra-biblical evidence
First campaign (597 BCE)
Second campaign (588-586 BCE)
Aftermath in Judah
 Persian restoration
Exilic literature
Significance in Jewish history
Chronology
See also
References
Further reading

Biblical accounts of the exile

In the late 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of Judah was a client
state of the Assyrian empire. In the last decades of the century,
Assyria was overthrown by Babylon, an Assyrian province. Egypt,
fearing the sudden rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire, seized
control of Assyrian territory up to the Euphrates river in Syria, but
Babylon counter-attacked. In the process Josiah, the king of Judah,
was killed in a battle with the Egyptians at the Battle of Megiddo
(609 BCE).

After the defeat of Pharaoh Necho's army by the Babylonians at

Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to Clay tablet. The Akkadian cuneiform
Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Some of the young nobility of inscription lists certain rations and
Judah were taken to Babylon. mentions the name of Jeconiah
(Jehoiachin), King of Judah, and the
In the following years, the court of Jerusalem was divided into two Babylonian captivity. From Babylon,
parties, one supporting Egypt, the other Babylon. After Iraq. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II,
Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, circa 580 BCE. Vorderasiatisches
Judah revolted against Babylon, culminating in a three-month siege Museum, Berlin
of Jerusalem beginning in late 598 BCE.[8] Jehoiakim, the king of
Judah, died during the siege[9] and was succeeded by his son
Jehoiachin (also called Jeconiah) at the age of eighteen.[10] The city fell on 2 Adar (March 16) 597
BCE,[11] and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and its Temple and took Jeconiah, his court and other
prominent citizens (including the prophet Ezekiel) back to Babylon.[12] Jehoiakim's uncle Zedekiah was
appointed king in his place, but the exiles in Babylon continued to consider Jeconiah as their Exilarch, or
rightful ruler.

Despite warnings by Jeremiah and others of the pro-Babylonian party, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon
and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra. Nebuchadnezzar returned, defeated the Egyptians, and
again besieged Jerusalem, resulting in the city's destruction in 587 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the
city wall and the Temple, together with the houses of the most important citizens. Zedekiah and his sons
were captured and the sons were executed in front of Zedekiah, who was then blinded and taken to
Babylon with many others (Jer 52:10–11). Judah became a Babylonian province, called Yehud, putting an
end to the independent Kingdom of Judah (Because of the missing years in the Jewish calendar, rabbinic
sources place the date of the destruction of the First Temple at 3338 AM (423 BCE)[13] or 3358 AM (403
BCE)).[14]

The first governor appointed by Babylon was Gedaliah, a native Judahite; he encouraged the many Jews
who had fled to surrounding countries such as Moab, Ammon and Edom to return, and he took steps to
return the country to prosperity. Some time later, a surviving member of the royal family assassinated
Gedaliah and his Babylonian advisors, prompting many refugees to
seek safety in Egypt. By the end of the second decade of the 6th
century, in addition to those who remained in Judah, there were
significant Jewish communities in Babylon and in Egypt; this was
the beginning of the later numerous Jewish communities living
permanently outside Judah in the Jewish Diaspora.
Illustration from the Nuremberg
According to the book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended
Chronicle of the destruction of
the exile in 538 BCE,[15] the year after he captured Babylon.[16]
Jerusalem under the Babylonian rule
The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-
called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and
Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction
of the Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE.[15]

Archaeological and other extra-biblical evidence

First campaign (597 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem, his capture of King Jeconiah, his appointment of Zedekiah in his
place, and the plundering of the city in 597 BCE are corroborated by a passage in the Babylonian
Chronicles:[17]: 2 93 

In the seventh year, in the month of Kislev, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to
the Hatti-land, and encamped against the City of Judah and on the ninth day of the month of
Adar he seized the city and captured the king. He appointed there a king of his own choice
and taking heavy tribute brought it back to Babylon.

Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets, describing ration orders for a captive King of Judah, identified with King
Jeconiah, have been discovered during excavations in Babylon, in the royal archives of
Nebuchadnezzar.[18][19] One of the tablets refers to food rations for "Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of
Yahudu" and five royal princes, his sons.[20]

Second campaign (588-586 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian forces returned in 588/586 BCE and rampaged through Judah,
leaving clear archaeological evidence of destruction in many towns and settlements there.[17]: 2 94  Clay
ostraca from this period, referred to as the Lachish letters, were discovered during excavations; one, which
was probably written to the commander at Lachish from an outlying base, describes how the signal fires
from nearby towns were disappearing: "And may (my lord) be apprised that we are watching for the fire
signals of Lachish according to all the signs which my lord has given, because we cannot see Azeqah."[21]
Archaeological finds from Jerusalem testify that virtually the whole city within the walls was burnt to
rubble in 587 BCE and utterly destroyed.[17]: 2 95 

Aftermath in Judah
Archaeological excavations and surveys have enabled the population of Judah before the Babylonian
destruction to be calculated with a high degree of confidence to have been approximately 75,000. Taking
the different biblical numbers of exiles at their highest, 20,000, this would mean that only about 25% of the
population had been deported to Babylon, with the remaining 75% staying in Judah.[17]: 3 06  Although
Jerusalem was destroyed and depopulated, with large parts of the city remaining in ruins for 150 years,
numerous other settlements in Judah continued to be inhabited, with no signs of disruption visible in
archaeological studies.[17]: 3 07 

Archaeologist Avraham Faust states that between the deportations and executions caused by the
Babylonians, plus the famines and epidemics that occurred during the war, the population of Judah was
reduced to barely a 10% of what it had been in the time before deportations.[22]

Persian restoration

The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to
restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the
authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,[23] but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text
is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.[23] Professor Lester
L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic",
but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also
stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a
single event.[24]

As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud
Medinata[25]) with different borders, covering a smaller territory.[24] The population of the province was
greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000
people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.[17]: 3 08 

A 2017 exhibition in Jerusalem displayed over 100 cuneiform tablets detailing trade in fruits and other
commodities, taxes, debts, and credits accumulated between Jews driven from, or convinced to move from
Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar around 600 BCE. The tablets included details on one exiled Judean
family over four generations, all with Hebrew names.[26][27]

Exilic literature
The exilic period was a rich one for Hebrew literature. Biblical depictions of the exile include Book of
Jeremiah 39–43 (which saw the exile as a lost opportunity); the final section of 2 Kings (which portrays it
as the temporary end of history); 2 Chronicles (in which the exile is the "Sabbath of the land"); and the
opening chapters of Ezra, which records its end. Other works from or about the exile include the stories in
Daniel 1–6, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, the "Story of the Three Youths" (1 Esdras 3:1–5:6), and the
books of Tobit and Book of Judith.[28] The Book of Lamentations arose from the Babylonian captivity.
The final redaction of the Pentateuch took place in the Persian period following the exile,[17]: 3 10 and the
Priestly source, one of its main sources, is primarily a product of the post-exilic period when the former
Kingdom of Judah had become the Persian province of Yehud.[29]

Significance in Jewish history

In the Hebrew Bible, the captivity in Babylon is presented as a punishment for idolatry and disobedience to
Yahweh in a similar way to the presentation of Israelite slavery in Egypt followed by deliverance. The
Babylonian captivity had a number of serious effects on Judaism and Jewish culture. For example, the
current Hebrew alphabet was adopted during this period, replacing
the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.

This period saw the last high point of biblical prophecy in the
person of Ezekiel, followed by the emergence of the central role of
the Torah in Jewish life. According to many historical-critical
scholars, the Torah was redacted during this time, and began to be
regarded as the authoritative text for Jews. This period saw their
transformation into an ethno-religious group who could survive Depiction of Jews mourning the exile
without a central Temple.[30] Israeli philosopher and Biblical in Babylon
scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann said “The exile is the watershed. With
the exile, the religion of Israel comes to an end and Judaism
begins.”[31]

This process coincided with the emergence of scribes and sages as Jewish leaders (see Ezra). Prior to exile,
the people of Israel had been organized according to tribe. Afterwards, they were organized by smaller
family groups. Only the tribe of Levi continued in its temple role after the return. After this time, there were
always sizable numbers of Jews living outside Eretz Israel; thus, it also marks the beginning of the "Jewish
diaspora", unless this is considered to have begun with the Assyrian captivity of Israel.

In Rabbinic literature, Babylon was one of a number of metaphors for the Jewish diaspora. Most frequently
the term "Babylon" meant the diaspora prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. The post-destruction
term for the Jewish Diaspora was "Rome", or "Edom".

Chronology
The following table is based on Rainer Albertz's work on Israel in exile.[32] (Alternative dates are
possible.)
 Year Event
609 Death of Josiah
BCE
609–598 Reign of Jehoiakim (succeeded Jehoahaz, who replaced Josiah but reigned only 3 months) Began
BCE giving tribute to Nebuchadnezzar in 605 BCE. First deportation, purportedly including Daniel.
598/7 Reign of Jehoiachin (reigned 3 months). Siege and fall of Jerusalem.
BCE Second deportation, 16 March 597
597 Zedekiah made king of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon
BCE
594 Anti-Babylonian conspiracy
BCE
588 Siege and fall of Jerusalem. Solomon's Temple destroyed.
BCE Third deportation July/August 587
583 Gedaliah the Babylonian-appointed governor of Yehud Province assassinated.
BCE Many Jews flee to Egypt and a possible fourth deportation to Babylon
562 Release of Jehoiachin after 37 years in a Babylonian prison.[33] He remains in Babylon
BCE
539 Persians conquer Babylon (October)
BCE
538 Decree of Cyrus allows Jews to return to Jerusalem
BCE
520–515 Return by many Jews to Yehud under Zerubbabel and Joshua the High Priest.
BCE Foundations of Second Temple laid

See also
Avignon Papacy, sometimes called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy"
Al-Yahudu Tablets, 200 clay tablets from the sixth and fifth centuries BCE on the exiled
Judean community
Biblical Egypt
Return to Zion, biblical account of the return to Judah by some of the exiled Juhadites
Psalm 137, expressing lamentation of the exiles in Babylon for the loss of Jerusalem

References
1. Coogan, Michael (2009). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
2. Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel S Past: The
Changing Study of the Bible and History (https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaU
C&pg=PA357). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 357–58. ISBN 978-0802862600.
Retrieved 11 June 2015. "Overall, the difficulty in calculation arises because the biblical
texts provide varying numbers for the different deportations. The HB/OT’s conflicting figures
for the dates, number and victims of the Babylonian deportations become even more of a
problem for historical reconstruction because, other than the brief reference to the first
capture of Jerusalem (597) in the Babylonian Chronicle, historians have only the biblical
sources with which to work."
3. Dunn, James G.; Rogerston, John William (2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm.
B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 545. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
 4. Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context.
Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226.
5. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27.
6. The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medieval Historical Chronicle The
Conversion of Katli and The Life of St. Nino, Constantine B. Lerner, England: Bennett and
Bloom, London, 2004, p. 60
7. "When Iran Welcomed Jewish Refugees" (https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/10/19/when-iran-w
elcomed-jewish-refugees/).
8. Geoffrey Wigoder, The Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible Pub. by Sterling
Publishing Company, Inc. (2006)
9. Dan Cohn-Sherbok, The Hebrew Bible, Continuum International, 1996, p. x. ISBN 0-304-
33703-X
10. 2Kings 24:6–8
11. Philip J. King, Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion (Westminster John Knox Press,
1993), p. 23.
12. The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. by Michael D Coogan. Pub. by Oxford
University Press, 1999. p. 350
13. Rashi to Talmud Bavli, avodah zara p. 9a. Josephus, seder hadoroth year 3338
14. malbim to Ezekiel 24:1, abarbanel et al.
15. "Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule" (http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/hi
story_4.html). Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
16. Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p.
103
17. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New
Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-
684-86912-4.
18. Thomas, David Winton (1958). Documents from Old Testament Times (https://books.google.
com/books?id=4cRBAQAAIAAJ&q=tablets&pg=PA84) (1961 ed.). Edinburgh and London:
Thomas Nelson. p. 84. ISBN 9780061300851.
19. Cf. 2Kings 24:12, 24:15–24:16, 25:27–25:30; 2Chronicles 36:9–36:10; Jeremiah 22:24–
22:6, 29:2, 52:31–52:34; Ezekiel 17:12.
20. COJS staff. "Babylonian Ration List: King Jehoiakhin in Exile, 592/1 BCE" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20130616092557/http://cojs.org/cojswiki/Babylonian_Ration_List%3A_King_Je
hoiakhin_in_Exile%2C_592/1_BCE). COJS.org. The Center for Online Judaic Studies.
Archived from the original (http://cojs.org/cojswiki/Babylonian_Ration_List:_King_Jehoiakhi
n_in_Exile,_592/1_BCE) on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013. "Ya’u-kīnu, king of
the land of Yahudu"
21. Translation from Aḥituv, Shmuel. Echoes from the Past. Jerusalem: CARTA Jerusalem,
2008, p. 70.
22. Faust, Avraham (2012). Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period: The Archaeology of
Desolation. (https://books.google.es/books?id=NcnPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119&hl=es&source
=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false) Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 140-143. ISBN 978-1-
58983-641-9.
23. Becking, Bob (2006). " "We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass
Return" (https://books.google.com/books?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&pg=PA8). In Lipschitz, Oded;
Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Winona Lake, IN:
Eisenbrauns. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7.
24. Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period:
Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id
=-MnE5T_0RbMC&pg=PA355). T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0567089984.
25. Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the
word for province
26. "Ancient tablets on display in Jerusalem reveal Jewish life during Babylon exile" (http://ww
w.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4622505,00.html). Ynetnews. 3 February 2015.
27. Baker, Luke (3 February 2017). "Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's
Babylon" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK2
0150203). Reuters.
28. Rainer Albertz, Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century BCE (page 15
link) (https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA15) Society for Biblical
Literature, 2003, pp. 4–38
29. Blum, Erhard (1998). "Issues and Problems in the Contemporary Debate Regarding the
Priestly Writings" (https://books.google.com/books?id=10E4LpK732sC&pg=PA31). In Sarah
Shectman, Joel S. Baden (ed.). The strata of the priestly writings: contemporary debate and
future directions. Theologischer Verlag. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9783290175368.
30. A Concise History of the Jewish People. Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littma. Rowman &
Littlefield, 2005. p. 43
31. "Secrets of Noah's Ark - Transcript" (https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/secrets-of-noahs-
ark). Nova. PBS. 7 October 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
32. Rainer Albertz, Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century BCE (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PR21), p.xxi.
page 77 with another list of dates (https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&
pg=PA77)
33. 2 Kings 25:27 (https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09b25.htm#27)

Further reading
Yehud Medinata (http://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=17449&str1=%D7%A4%D7%97%D
7%95%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94&str3=&find=1&e
x=0&docs=1&pic=1&sites=1&title=&all=1&x=0&y=0) map, CET – Center For Educational
technology (http://www3.cet.ac.il/aboutEng.aspx)
Yehud Medinata (http://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=9677&str1=%D7%A4%D7%97%D
7%95%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94&str3=&find=1&e
x=0&docs=1&pic=1&sites=1&title=&all=1&x=0&y=0) Border map, CET – Center For
Educational technology
Peter R. Ackroyd, "Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century
B.C." (SCM Press, 1968) (https://books.google.com/books?id=fNiTMhIJDb0C&printsec=fron
tcover&dq=Exile+and+Restoration:+A+Study+of+Hebrew+Thought+of+the+Sixth+Century+
B.C.&source=bl&ots=cobmHbwG5f&sig=u_OB2rb9QBhib3yCvbgoJ69JMAc&hl=en&ei=-40
kTNe9PIbCcZ_kzeQC&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q&f=false)
Rainer Albertz, Bob Becking, "Yahwism after the Exile" Van Gorcum, 2003) (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=hwExATCqwvwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Yahwism+after+the+exile&s
ource=bl&ots=6cZeYs-x81&sig=HZUo4o__HEHM-lQRPR_V0qbnlXc&hl=en&ei=PF0fTPflN
sS3cd2yveUM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q&f=false)
Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Judaism, the first phase: the place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the
origins of Judaism" (Eerdmans, 2009) (https://books.google.com/books?id=m1V1DeBS6P0
 C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Judaism,+the+first+phase:+the+place+of+Ezra+and+Nehemiah
&source=bl&ots=LBvGbmdYft&sig=G6O6KoUiTSyeYOppa7HS4bH_r0k&hl=en&ei=jbAcTJ
CHHcmDcJDL1K8N&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v
=onepage&q&f=false)
Nodet, Étienne, "A search for the origins of Judaism: from Joshua to the Mishnah" (Sheffield
Academic Press, 1999, original edition Editions du Cerf, 1997) (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=rE49wYHz5YUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+search+for+the+origins+of+Judaism:+
from+Joshua+to+the+Mishnah&source=bl&ots=c-UHPQ8WPk&sig=G1-1cHfQnOGs8SO_O
6AY_rnPPn0&hl=en&ei=-7AcTOaDI8m3cfmeqOsM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false)
Becking, Bob, and Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette (eds), "The Crisis of Israelite Religion:
Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic & Post-Exilic Times" (Brill, 1999) (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+crisis+of+Israelite+r
eligion:+transformation+of+religious+tradition&source=bl&ots=flG41pogn0&sig=Qz0yXNl7g
tiS324vozM7oiCXu2U&hl=en&ei=e4wLTOizLsqrce_vlbMO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul
t&resnum=2&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false)
Bedford, Peter Ross, "Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah" (Brill, 2001) (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=MOd320e710IC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Osarsiph&lr=&source=
gbs_similarbooks_s&cad=1#v=onepage&q&f=false)
Berquist, Jon L., "Approaching Yehud: new approaches to the study of the Persian period"
(Society of Biblical Literature, 2007) (https://books.google.com/books?id=X8uK-dZr_BAC&p
g=PA195)
Grabbe, Lester L., "A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period", vol.1
(T&T Clark International, 2004) (https://books.google.com/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C&pg=PA
85)
Levine, Lee I., "Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.-70
C.E.)" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002) (https://books.google.com/books?id=gqL8C_JBE
m0C&pg=PA196)
Lipschitz, Oded, "The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem" (Eisenbrauns, 2005) (https://books.googl
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Wikisource.
 "Babylonian Captivity". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Babylonish Captivity". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Friedrich Justus Knecht (1910). "LXXV. Fall of the Kingdom of Juda. — The Babylonian
Captivity"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Practical_Commentary_on_Holy_Scripture/LXX
V._Fall_of_the_Kingdom_of_Juda._%E2%80%94_The_Babylonian_Captivity). A Practical
Commentary on Holy Scripture. B. Herder.

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