Class XII

Chapter- 2
SELF AND PERSONALITY

Personal Identity: Those attributes that make the individual different from others. (e.g.,
I am Sanjana, I am honest person).

Social Identity: Those aspects of a person that links her/him to a social or cultural group.
(e.g., I am a North Indian).

Self: Totality of an individual’s conscious experiences (personal and social), ideas,

thoughts and feelings with regard to herself and himself.

Self as a Subject and Self as a object-

Self as Subject – When we describe ourselves as an entity that does something (I am a
cricketer).
Self as an Object – When we describe ourselves as an entity on which something is done (I
get affected by pain of others).

Kinds of Self
1) Personal Self: One feels primarily concerned with oneself (personal freedom, personal
responsibility, personal achievement).

2) Social Self: Emerges in relation with others and emphasises aspects such as
cooperation, unity, sacrifice, support or sharing. Also called familial self (family) or
relational self (social relationships).

Cognitive and Behavioural aspects of self-

1) Self Concept: The way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our
competencies (capabilities) and attributes (specific characteristics) is called Self
concept. It is either positive (I am a good singer) or negative (I am not good in maths).

2) Self Esteem: The judgement about our own value or worth is called self esteem. It
could be high (I am highly liked by my teachers) or low (I am not liked by my peers).
 Children form self esteem in four areas: Academic (I am good/ bad in mathematics),
Social ( I am liked/ not liked by my teachers/ parents), Physical athletic competence
( I am / am not flexible), and physical appearance (I am tall/short/ugly/beautiful).
 Children with high academic self esteem perform better in schools than those with
low academic self esteem. Children with low self esteem in all the areas are often
found to display anxiety, depression, and increasing anti social behaviour.
 Warm and Positive parenting helps is development of high Self-esteem.
 3) Self- Efficacy- refers to a person’s belief in one's own ability to complete tasks and
reach goals. People with a strong sense of self efficacy also feel less fearful.
4) Self regulation: Our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour. People who are
able to change their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment are
high on self monitoring.
Self control: Learning to Delay or defer the satisfaction of certain needs. (e.g vrata or
roza)
Psychological techniques of Self Control:
1. Observation of own behaviour- Provides us with information that may be used to
change or modify or strengthen certain aspects of self.
2. Self instruction- instructing ourselves to do something or behave in an effective
manner.
3. Self reinforcement – rewarding behaviour that have pleasant outcomes.

CULTURE AND SELF

Indian Cultural context (Collectivistic) Western cultural context (Individualistic)

Shifting nature of boundaries. Boundaries are fixed.

Self is not separated from one’s own group. Self and group exist as two different entities with
Harmonious coexistence between self and clearly defined boundaries.
group. People maintain individuality

PERSONALITY
“It is defined as the dynamic organisation of those psycho-physical traits, that determine one’s
unique behaviour and thought” {By Gordon Allport}

Characteristics of Personality-
1. It has both physical and psychological components.
2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is fairly unique in a given individual.
3. Its main features don’t change easily with time.
4. It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal or
external situational demands. Thus, personality is adaptive to situations.

Major approaches of Personality

1. Type approaches - study broad patterns in the behaviour
2. Trait approaches – focuses on specific attributes of individuals
3. Interactional approach – Situational characteristics play an important role in
determining behaviour.
4. Psychodynamic approach – Focused on unconscious determinants of behaviour.
 5. Behavioural approach – Personality can be understood as the response of an individual
to the environment.
6. Cultural approach – Understand personality in relation to ecological and cultural
environment.
7. Humanistic approach – Personality is driven by needs to adapt, learn, grow and excel.

Type Approach Trait Approach Interactional Approach

Believes personality can be Explains personality on the Believes that situational
classified into broad patterns basis of specific psychological characteristics play an
of behaviour. characteristics. important role in
determining our behaviour.
Types are cluster of similar Traits are relatively stable,
traits. and persistent patterns of
 These are broad behaviour which makes the
categories. individual different from
 They don’t overlap other’s.
(exclusive in nature)  These are specific
psychological
characteristics.
 These are overlapping
(Inclusive in nature)

TYPE APPROACHES

1. Theory given by Hippocrates – They proposed a typology of personality based on fluid

or humour. Classified people into four types:
a.) Sanguine: Optimistic, sociable, people oriented, happy go lucky
b.) Phlegmatic: Calm, quiet, relaxed, stable , trustworthy
c.) Melancholic: Depressed, serious, intense, moody, sensitive
d.) Choleric: Irritable, extroverted, dominant, leader , confident

2. Charak Samhita- Ayurveda classifies people into – vata, pitta and kapha on the basis
of tridosha.
Also gave typology based on trigunas – sattva (cleanliness, truthfulness,
dutifulness, detachment, discipline), rajas (desire for sense of gratification,
dissatisfaction, envy for others, materialistic mentality), and tamas (anger,
arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of helplessness).

3. Types given by Sheldon- Linked body build and temperament.

Type Body build Temperament

Endomorphic Fat, soft, round Relaxed, sociable

 Mesomorphic Strong musculature, Energetic, courageous
rectangular
Ectomorphic Thin, Long and fragile Brainy, artistic, introvert

4. Jung’s type theory- Introvert (prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw
themselves in emotional conflicts, shy) and Extraverts (sociable, outgoing, candid,
accommodating nature that adapts easily to given situation, quickly forms attachment)

5. Friedman and Rosenman-

a) Type A: High motivation, lack of patience, feels short of time, be in a great hurry,
and feel like always burdened with work. They are more susceptible to
hypertension and coronary heart disease
b) Type B: Absence of Type A; moderate ambition, accommodating attitude,
cooperative, easy going approach to life.

This typology further extended by Morris:

a) Type C: Cooperative, unassertive, and patient, more Prone to Cancer.
b) Type D: Negative feelings; avoid social contact, more prone to depression.

Criticism of Type Approach:

1. Human behaviour is complex but the typologies are too simplistic.
2. People do not fit into such simple categorisation schemes.

TRAIT APPROACHES

Trait – relatively enduring quality on which one individual differs from another.
Characteristics of Traits are as follows:-
(a) Traits are relatively stable over time.
(b) They are generally consistent across situations.
(c) Their strengths and combinations vary across individuals leading to individual
differences in personality.

1. Allport’s Trait Theory- Gordon Allport proposed that individuals possess a number
of traits, which are dynamic in nature. He argued that words people use to describe
themselves and others provide a basis for understanding human personality.
He categorised traits into:
a) Cardinal traits- are highly generalised dispositions. They indicate the goal around
which a person’s entire life seems to revolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence and
Hitler’s Nazism are examples of cardinal traits.
 b) Central traits- are less pervasive in effect, but still quite generalised dispositions.
These traits (e.g., warm, sincere, diligent, etc.) are often used in writing a testimonial or
job recommendation for a person.
c) Secondary traits are the least generalised characteristics of a person. Traits such as
‘likes mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are examples of secondary traits

According to Allport any variation in traits would elicit a different response to the same
situation.
2. Cattell: Personality Factors-
 Raymond Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ from
each other.
 He tried to identify the primary traits from a huge array of descriptive adjectives found
in language. He applied a statistical technique, called factor analysis, to discover the
common structures. He found 16 primary or source traits.
According to him there are two type traits:-
a) Source traits- are stable, and are considered as the building blocks of personality.
b) Surface traits- that result out of the interaction of source traits.

Cattell developed a test, called Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), for
the assessment of personality. This test is widely used by psychologists.

3. Eysenck’s Theory
H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into three broad dimensions,
which are as follows:-
a) Neuroticism Vs Emotional stability: Refers to which people have control
over their feelings. At one extreme- people are anxious, moody, depressed,
tense, shy, guilt feelings, touchy and restless and quickly loose control
(neuroticism), at other extreme- people who are calm, even tempered, reliable,
and remain under control (emotional stability).
b) Extraversion Vs. Introversion: Refers to the degree to which people are
socially outgoing or socially withdrawn. Extraversion (gregarious, active,
impulsive, carefree, dominant, thrill seeking) and Introversion (passive, quiet,
cautious and reserved).
c) Psychoticism vs sociability: Psychoticism (Hostile, egocentric , antisocial,
impulsive, aggressive, unempatheitic) and sociability (trusting, sociable,
generous, relaxed).

4. Five-Factor Model of Personality/Big Five factor ( OCEAN Traits)

Paul Costa and Robert McCrae proposed the following five traits known as the Big Five
facor:-
 a) Openness to experience : Those who score high on this factor are imaginative,
curious, open to new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, those
who score low are rigid.
b) Conscientiousness : Those who score high on this factor are achievement-
oriented, dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking and self-controlled.
On the opposite are people who are impulsive.
c) Extraversion : It characterises people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing,
talkative, and fun loving. On its opposite are people who are shy.
d) Agreeableness : This factor characterises people who are helpful, co-operative,
friendly, caring, and nurturing. On the opposite are people who are hostile and
self-centered.
e) Neuroticism : People who score high on this factor are emotionally unstable,
anxious, worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. On the opposite
side are people who are well adjusted.

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

Psychoanalysis = Sigmund Freud

Psychodynamic = Sigmund Freud + Neo-Freudians
Sigmund Freud was a physician, and developed this theory in the course of his clinical
practice.
He gave the following concepts:-

 Levels of Consciousness- Freud proposed that people have the following three level’s
of consciousness:-
a) Conscious, which includes the thoughts, feelings and actions of which people are
aware.
b) Preconscious, which includes mental activity of which people may become aware
only if they attend to it closely.
c) Unconscious, which includes mental activity that people are unaware of.
According to Freud, the unconscious is a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives. It
also stores all ideas and wishes that are hidden from our conscious awareness, perhaps,
because they lead to psychological conflicts. Unsuccessful resolution of conflicts results
in abnormal behaviour.
Freud believed that information in the unconscious emerges in slips of the tongue,
jokes,
dreams, illness symptoms, and the associations people make between ideas.

The Freudian Slip: Cathy calls up her mother on Mother’s Day and says, “You’re the
beast,
 Mom,” when she consciously intended to say, “You’re the best, Mom.” According to
psychoanalytic theory, this slip of the tongue, known as a Freudian slip, reveals her
unconscious anger toward her mother.

 Structure of Personality
Freud proposed the following 3 primary elements of personality, which reside in the
unconscious as forces :-

a) Id : It is the source of a person’s instinctual energy. It deals with immediate

gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses. The id is
unconscious and works on the pleasure principle, which assumes that people seek
pleasure and try to avoid pain. Id does not care for moral values, society, or other
individuals.
b) Ego : It grows out of id. It works by the reality principle, and often directs the id
towards more appropriate ways of behaving. It manages the conflict between the id
and the constraints of the real world. Works on all three levels of consciousness.
c) Super Ego:- Moral branch of mental functioning. It contains all the moral
standards learned from parents and society. Hence, the superego causes people
to feel guilty when they go against society’s rules. Like the ego, the superego operates
at all three levels of awareness.

Life Instinct- Sexual urges. Freud paid more attention to life instinct.
Death Instinct- Aggressive tendencies
Libido- Instinctual life force that energies Id.

 Ego Defense Mechanisms:

Defence mechanism are a way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality.
a. Repression- in which anxiety provoking behaviours or thoughts are pushed
back into the unconscious.
 Thus, when a person says, “I do not know why I did that”, some repressed feeling or
desire is expressing itself.
b. In projection, people attribute their own traits to others. Thus, a person who has
strong aggressive tendencies may see other people as acting in an excessively
aggressive way towards her/him.
c. In denial, a person totally refuses to accept reality. Thus, someone suffering from
HIV/AIDS may altogether deny her/ his illness.
d. In reaction formation, a person defends against anxiety by adopting behaviours
opposite to her/his true feelings. For eg. A person with strong sexual urges, who
channels her/his energy into religious work.
e. In rationalisation, a person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour
seem reasonable and acceptable.

 Stages of Personality Development

Freud claims that the core aspects of personality are established early, remain stable
throughout life, and can be changed only with great difficulty. Thus he proposed a five-
stage theory of personality (also called psychosexual) development.
a. Oral Stage (0-1 yr):
Mouth is the infant’s primary pleasure seeking centre.
It is through the mouth that the baby obtains food that reduces hunger.
The infant achieves oral gratification through feeding, thumb sucking, biting
and babbling.
b. Anal Stage (2-3 yr):
The child learns to respond to some of the demands of the society.
One of the principal demands made by parents is that the child learns to control
the bodily functions of urination and defecation.
Most children at this age experience pleasure in moving their bowels.
c. Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs):
This stage focus is on the genitals.
At this stage children begin to realise the differences between males and females.
The male child experiences the Oedipus Complex, which involves love for the
mother, hostility towards the father, and the consequent fear of punishment by
the father. The resolution of the Oedipus complex. This takes place by accepting his
father’s relationship with his mother, and by coping his father’s behaviour.
The female child experiences Electra Complex, i.e develops love for father and
symbolically wants to marry him and have a family. When she realises that this is
not possible, she adopts mother like behaviour.
d. Latency Stage ( 7-11 yrs)-
 During this period, the child continues to grow physically, but sexual urges are
relatively
inactive.
Much of a child’s energy is channelled into social or achievement related
activities.
e. Genital Stage : ( Adolescence)
During this stage, the person attains maturity in psychosexual development. The
sexual feeling again become active.
People learn to deal with members of the opposite sex.

Failure of a child to pass successfully through a stage leads to:-

a. Fixation- the child’s development gets arrested at an earlier stage. For
example, a child who does not pass successfully through the phallic stage fails to
resolve the Oedipal complex and may still feel hostile toward the parent of the
same sex.
b. Regression- It takes a person back to an earlier stage. In this situation, people
display behaviours typical of a less mature stage of development.

POST FREUDIAN APPROACHES

1. Carl Jung- Analytical Psychology
 Jung saw human beings guided as much by aims and aspirations as by sex and
aggression.
 The basic assumption of his theory is that personality consists of competing forces
and structures within the individual (that must be balanced) rather than between the
individual and the demands of society, or between the individual and reality.
 He believed the unconscious has two layers: the personal unconscious, which
resembled Freud’s idea, and the collective unconscious, which contains universal
memories of the common human past.
 Jung called these common memories archetypes.
 Archetypes are images or thoughts that have the same meaning for all human
beings. Jung said that archetypes exist in dreams as well as in art, literature, and
religion etc.
 Example: The archetype of the “powerful father” can be seen in the Christian conception
of God, the Zeus of Greek mythology, and popular movies such as The Godfather.

2. Karen Horney- Optimisim

 She adopted a more optimistic view of human life with emphasis on human growth
and self-actualisation.
 She challenged Freud’s treatment of women as inferior.
 According to her, each sex has attributes to be admired by the other, and neither
sex can be viewed as superior or inferior.
 She countered that women were more likely to be affected by social and cultural
factors than by biological factors.
 She argued that psychological disorders were caused by disturbed interpersonal
relationship during childhood.
 When parents’ behaviour toward a child is indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the
child feels insecure and a feeling called basic anxiety results.
 Deep resentment toward parents or basic hostility occurs due to this anxiety.

3.Alfred Adler- Individual Psychology

 His basic assumption is that human behaviour is purposeful and goal directed.
 Each one of us has the capacity to choose and create.
 Our personal goals are the sources of our motivation.
 The goals that provide us with security are important in our personality
development.
 In Adler’s view, every individual suffers from the feelings of inadequacy and guilt,
i.e. inferiority complex, which arise from childhood.
 Overcoming this complex is essential for optimal personality development.

4. Erich Fromm- The Human Concern

 In contrast to Freud’s biological orientation, Fromm developed his theory from a
social orientation.
 He viewed human beings as basically social beings who could be understood in terms
of their relationship with others.
 He argued that psychological qualities such as growth and realisation of potentials
resulted from a desire for freedom, and striving for justice and truth.
 According to Fromm, People and Culture play an essential role in shaping each
other.
 He also recognise the value of positive qualities, such as tenderness and love in
personality development.

5. Erik Erikson- Search for Identity

 Erikson identified eight stages, each of which represents a conflict. The
development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depends on the
successful completion of each task.
 In his theory, development is viewed as a lifelong process, and ego identity is granted
a central place in this process.
  His concept of identity crisis of adolescent age has drawn considerable attention.
 Erikson argues that young people must generate for themselves a central perspective
and a direction that can give them a meaningful sense of unity and purpose.

Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theories

 The theories are largely based on case studies; they lack a rigorous scientific basis.
 They use small and atypical individuals as samples for generalisations.
 The concepts are not properly defined, and it is difficult to submit them to scientific
testing.
 Freud has used males as the prototype of all human personality development. He
overlooked female experiences and perspectives.

BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
 The behaviourists believe in data, which is definable, observable, and measurable.
 They focus on learning of stimulus-response connections and their reinforcement.
According to them, personality can be best understood as the response of an individual
to the environment.
 The structural unit of personality is the response. Each response is a behaviour,
which is emitted to satisfy a specific need.
 The core tendency that organises behaviour is the reduction of biological or social
needs that energise behaviour. This is accomplished through responses (behaviours)
that are reinforced.
  The learning principles proposed by the theories like Classical Conditioning ( Pavlov),
Operant Conditioning ( Skinner) and Observational Learning by Bandura, have been
widely used in developing personality theories.

Criticisms of Behavioural Approaches

1. Behaviourist researchers often do animal studies of behaviour and then
generalize their results to human beings. Generalizing results in this way can be
misleading, since humans have complex thought processes that affect behaviour.
2. Behaviourists often underestimate the importance of biological factors.
3. By emphasizing the situational influences on personality, some social-cognitive
theorists underestimate the importance of personality traits.

CULTURAL APPROACH
 Cultural Approach attempts to understand personality in relation to the cultural
environment.
 It proposes that a group’s ‘economic maintenance system,the climatic conditions, the
habitat and the availability of food (flora and fauna) determine people’s settlement
patterns, social structures, division of labour, and other features such as childrearing
practices , and therefore play a vital role in the origin of cultural and behavioural
variations.
 Rituals, ceremonies, religious practices, arts, recreational activities, games etc play a
vital role in shaping people’s personality.
 Thus, the cultural approach considers personality as an adaptation of individuals to
the demands of their ecology and culture.
 For e.g. people from Birhor (a tribal group) of Jharkhand live a nomadic life, which
requires constant movement in small bands from one forest to another. In such societies
children from an early age are allowed enormous freedom to move into forests and learn
hunting and gathering skills, which makes them independent (do many things without
help from elders), autonomous (take several decisions for themselves), and
achievement-oriented (accept risks and challenges such as those involved in hunting)
from an early age of life.
 Whereas in agricultural societies, children are socialised to be obedient to elders,
nurturant to youngsters, and responsible to their duties, in contrast to being
independent, autonomous, and achievement oriented. Therefore it has been observed
that, its because of different economic pursuits and cultural demands, children in
hunting gathering and agricultural societies develop and display different personality
patterns.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
 Carl Rogers
 Fully Functioning Person-He believes that fulfilment is the motivating force for
personality development. People try to express their capabilities, potentials and
talents to the fullest extent possible.
 Rogers made two basic assumptions about human behaviour:-
1. Behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile.
2. People (who are innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-
actualising behaviour.
 According to Rogers each person has two types of Self:-
1. Real Self- What one currently is.
2. Ideal Self- What one would like to be.
When there is a correspondence between the real self and ideal self, a person is
generally happy. Discrepancy between the real self and ideal self often results in
unhappiness and dissatisfaction.
 Rogers views personality development as a continuous process. It involves learning
to evaluate oneself and mastering the process of self-actualisation. When social
conditions are
positive, the self-concept and self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions
are negative, the self-concept and self-esteem are low.

 Abraham Maslow
 From Class XI book.

ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY-
 A formal effort aimed at understanding personality of an individual is termed as
personality assessment.
 The goal of assessment is to understand and predict behaviour with minimum error
and
maximum accuracy.

Techniques of Personality Assessment-

1. Self- Report Measures/ Direct Techniques
 Are structured measures, require the subject to give verbal and objective responses
(which are accepted on the face value), scored in quantitative terms and are
interpreted on the basis of given norms. Some of the well known self-report measures
are as follows:-
 a. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)( By Hathaway and
McKinley)
 It is a tool used for psychiatric diagnosis,it has been found very effective in
identifying varieties of psychopathology.
 Its revised version is available as MMPI-2.
 It consistsof 567 statements. The subject has to judge each statement as ‘true’
or ‘false’ for her/him.
 The test is divided into 10 subscales,which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis,
depression, hysteria, psychopathic, deviate, masculinity-femininity,
paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion.
 In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (JMPI) along the lines of MMPI.

b. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) ( By H. J. Eysenck)

 This test initially assessed two dimensions of personality,called introverted-
extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable.
 These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits.
 Later on, Eysenck added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It is linked
to psychopathology that represents a lack of feeling for others. A person
scoring high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and antisocial.

c. Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) ( By Cattell)

 He identified a large set of personality descriptors, which were subjected to
factor analysis to identify the basic personality structure.
 The test provides with declarative statements, and the subject responds to a
specific
 situation by choosing from a set of given alternatives.
 The test can be used with high school level students as well as with adults.
 It has been found extremely useful in vocational & career guidance and
occupational testing.

Disadvantages/ Criticisms of Self Report Measures-

 Social desirability- It is a tendency on the part of the respondent to endorse items in a
socially desirable manner.
 Acquiescence- It is a tendency of the subject to agree with items/questions
irrespective of their contents. It often appears in the form of saying ‘yes’ to items.

2. Projective Techniques/Indirect Techniques

 Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings.
 These techniques are based on the assumption that a less structured or
unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project her/his
feelings, desires and needs on to that situation.
 These projections are interpreted by experts.

Characteristics/ Features of Stimuli used in Projective Techniques-

(1) The stimuli are relatively or fully unstructured and poorly defined.
(2) The person being assessed is usually not told about the purpose of assessment
and the method of scoring and interpretation.
(3) The person is informed that there are no correct or incorrect responses.
(4) Each response is considered to reveal a significant aspect of personality.
(5) Scoring and interpretation are lengthy and sometimes subjective.

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques-

 They cannot be scored in any objective manner.
 They generally require qualitative analyses for which a rigorous training is
needed.
 They are time consuming and costly.
 There are problems associated with the reliability of scoring and validity of
interpretations.
Some well known projective techniques are as follows:-
a. Rorschach Inkblot Test ( By Hermann Rorschach)-
 Consists of 10 inkblots, Five of them are in black and white, two with some red
ink, and the remaining three in some pastel colours.
 The blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form. Each blot is
printed in the centre of a white cardboard of about 7”�10” size.
 The blots were originally made by dropping ink on a piece of paper and then
folding the paper in half (hence called inkblot test).
 The cards are administered individually in two phases:-
I) Performance Proper- the subjects are shown the cards and are asked to
tell what they see in each of them.
II) Inquiry- a detailed report of the responseis prepared by asking the subject
to tell where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made.
 The interpretation of this test requires extensive training. Computer
techniques too have been developed for analysis of data.

b. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ( By Morgan & Murray)

  The test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card.
 Each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations.
 Some cards are used with adult males or females. Others are used with boys or
girls. Still others are used in some combinations.
 Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject.
 The cards are presented one at a time. The subject is asked to tell a story
describing the situation presented in the picture: What led up to the situation,
what is happening at the moment, what will happen in the future, and what
the characters are feeling and thinking?
 A standard procedure is available for scoring TAT responses.

c. Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study) ( By Rosenzweig)

 This test was developed to assess how people express aggression in the face of
a frustrating situation.
 The test presents with the help of cartoon like pictures a series of situations in
which one person frustrates another.
 The subject is asked to tell what the other (frustrated) person will say or do.
The analysis of responses is based on the type and direction of aggression.
 An attempt is made to examine the direction of aggression which may be
towards the environment, towards oneself, or it may be tuned off in an attempt
to gloss over or evade the situation.

d. Sentence Completion Test

 It uses a number of incomplete sentences. The starting part of the sentence is
first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence.
 The type of endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and
conflicts.
 It helps in revealing their underlying unconscious motivations.
 For e.g.
1. My father——————————————.
2. My greatest fear is —————————.
e. Draw-a-Person Test
 The subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper. After the completion
of the drawing, the subject is generally asked to draw the figure of an opposite
sex person.
 Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if s/he was a
character in a novel or play. Some examples of interpretations are as follows:
(1) Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly
conflict-ridden interpersonal relationship.
 (2) Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses.
(3) Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and
preoccupation with headaches.
3. Behavioural Analysis
 There are various techniques for behavioural analysis, some of them are as follows:-

a. Interview
 This involves talking to the person being assessed and asking specific questions.
 Diagnostic interviewing generally involves in-depth interviewing, which
includes probing.
 Interviews are of two types :-
1) Unstructured interviews- there is no specific order or language in which
questions are asked. It is spontaneous.
2) Structured interviews- address very specific questions and follow a set
procedure. This is often done to make objective comparison of persons being
interviewed.
 Use of observation for personality assessment is a sophisticated procedure that
requires careful training, and a fairly detailed guideline about analysis of
behaviours in order to assess the personality of a given person.
 For example, a clinical psychologist may like to observe her/his client’s
interaction with family members and home visitors.

Limitation of Observation-
(1) Professional training required for collection of useful data & therefore this
method is quite demanding and time consuming.
(2) Maturity of the psychologist is a precondition for obtaining valid data
through these techniques.
(3) Mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results.

b. Behavioural Ratings
 Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee
intimately.
 They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their
behavioural qualities. The categories may involve different numbers or
descriptive terms.
 General descriptive adjectives always creates confusion for the rater, therefore
clearly defined terms should be used as behavioural anchors.
 Limitations of Behavioural ratings
1. Halo Effect- the tendency for an impression created in one area to influence
opinion in another area.
2. Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale
(called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the
extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle
categories on the scale.
c. Nomination
 Is often used in obtaining peer assessment. It can be used with persons who
know each other very well.
 In using nomination, each person is asked to choose one or more persons of
the group with whom s/he would like to work, study, play or participate in any
other activity. The person may also be asked to specify the reason for her/his
choices.
 Nominations thus received may be analysed to understand the personality and
behavioural qualities of the person.

d. Situation Tests
 Situational stress test provides us with information about how a person
behaves under stressful situations.
 The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who
are instructed to be non-cooperative and interfering.
 The test involves a kind of role playing. The situation may be realistic one, or
it may be created through a video play.