Calculus is a branch of mathematics that engineers use to model how

AJfeff~e111,,t things change and to test ideas and designs before they become real
Th.is u11it will be products. In many cases you will want to know how a quantity changes
(l(Ssessed by (1( series of with time, but variables other than time can also be important. As a
(l(ssij11,111w1.ts set by your future engineer, you need to understand and develop the skills needed
to model and solve complex problems. In this unit you will learn how to
tutor.
use calculus as a tool for solving engineering problems.

How you will be assessed

This unit will be assessed by a series of internally assessed tasks set by your tutor.
Throughout this unit you will find assessment practice activities to help you work
towards your assessment. Completing these activities will not mean that you
have achieved a particular grade, but you will have carried out useful research or
preparation that will be relevant when it comes to your final assignment.
In order for you to achieve the tasks in your assignment, it is important to check that
you have met all of the Pass assessment criteria. You can do this as you work your way
through the assignments.
If you are hoping to gain a Merit or Distinction, you should also make sure that you
present the information in your assignment in the style that is required by the relevant
assessment criteria. For example, Merit criteria require you to solve and analyse
accurately, while Distinction criteria require you to evaluate and critically analyse.
The assignments set by your tutor will consist of a number of tasks designed to meet
the criteria in the table. They are likely to take the form of written reports .

288 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Getting to know your unit

I
Assessment criteria

This table shows what you must do in order to achieve a Pass, Merit or Distinction grade, and where you
can find activities to help you.

Pass Merit Distinction

m
Learning aim

tiQI
Examine how differential calculus can be used to solve engineering
problems
...,.
•.,.
Find the first and second derivatives Find accurately the graphical and analytical Evaluate, using technically correct language
for each type of given routine function. differential calculus solutions and, where and a logical structure, the correct graphical
Assessment practice 7.1 appropriate, turning points for each type of and analytical differential calculus solutions
given routine and non-routine function and for each type of given routine and non-
compare the results. routine function, explaining how the
Find, graphically and analytically, at least Assessment practice 7.1 variables could be optimised in at least two

.,.
two gradients for each type of given routine functions.
function. Assessment practice 7.1
Assessment practice 7.1

Find the turning points for given routine

polynomial and trigonometric functions.
Assessment practice 7.1
Learning aim EJ Examine how integral calculus can be used to solve engineering
problems

l :l:ZI
Find the indefinite integral for each type of Find accurately the integral calculus and Evaluate, using technically correct language
given routine function. numerical integration solutions for each and a logical structure, the correct integral
Assessment practice 7.2 type of given routine and non-routine calculus and numerical integration
function, and find the properties of periodic solutions for each type of given routine and
functions. non-routine function, including at least two
Find the numerical value of the definite Assessment practice 7.2 set in an engineering context.
integral for each type of given routine Assessment practice 7.2
function.
Assessment practice 7.2
i :lij#
Find, using numerical integration and integral
calculus, the area under curves for each type
of given routine definitive function.
Assessment practice 7.2
Learning aim Investigate the application of calculus to the solution of a defined
specialist engineering problem

•ii•
Define a given engineering problem and Analyse an engineering problem, explaining
ll·J:•
Critically analyse, using technically correct
present a proposal to solve it. the reasons for each element of the language and a logical structure, a complex
Assessment practice 7.3 proposed solution. engineering problem, synthesising and
Assessment practice 7.3 applying calculus and a mathematical
model to generate an accurate solution.
DQ:I Assessment practice 7.3
Solve, using calculus methods and a Solve accurately, using calculus methods
mathematical model, a given engineering and a mathematical model, a given
problem. engineering problem.
Assessment practice 7.3 Assessment practice 7.3

289
 Getting started
You have already studied quite a few mathematical topics and gained skills
and knowledge. Think back to what you have learned in the past and what
you have found out about your best ways of learning. Try doing a few warm-
up questions from your previous work. Algebra skills will be particularly
useful when studying calculus. Like all skills, mathematical skills benefit
from practice. When you have completed this unit, think about how your
previous skills and knowledge have developed and identify some new areas
to explore in the future.

1111 Examine how differential calculus can be used to solve

Iii engineering problems
At Functions, rate of change and Key terms )
gradient Function - the relationship between the input to a
system and the corresponding output. In general, if the
Functions input is the variable x and the output is the variable y,
You can begin to understand the relationship between then we can write the function as y =f(x).Polynomial -
measured values in an engineering problem by looking a function that is a sum of non-negative integer powers
for patterns and examining how the values relate to of the independent variable x. A polynomial of degree n
each other. You can model the relationship between is usually written as
two sets of values as an equation for the function. f(x) = a,,xn + an-lxn-l + an-2Xn- 2 + ... + a2X 2 + a1X + ao
A function is a relation that involves two or more where all the a values are real numbers, called the
variables. coefficients of the polynomial.
If you know the equation for a function f(x), you can Degree - the highest power of the independent
calculate the output value of the function for different variable in a polynomial function. A polynomial of
values of the input variable x. For example, if the function degree 2 is called quadratic, of degree 3 is called cubic,
has equation f(x) = x2 , its output values when the inputs are of degree 4 is called quartic, and so on.
2 and 3 can be calculated as \.

22
{(2) = = 4
Besides polynomials, there are several other types of
f(3) = 3 2 = 9 functions that engineers often use.
This function can be written in terms of two variables
Trigonometric functions
as the equation y =x 2 . You can see that the value of y
The most common trigonometric functions are sine (sin),
depends on the value of x, so x is called the independent
cosine (cos) and tangent (tan). You will also use the inverse
variable and y is called the dependent variable.
trigonometric functions (sin-1, cos-1 and tan-1) on your
The function y = x2 is an example of a polynomial calculator.
function. It is a polynomial of degree 2 because the
Exponential functions
highest power of the independent variable x is 2.
Polynomials such as y = 3x2 + 4x - 5 are important Exponential functions take the form f(x) = ax where a is a
functions for engineers to recognise. positive constant. Note that the independent variable, x,
is in the exponent. These functions have some interesting
In this unit, 'routine' functions mean functions to which properties, such as:
differential calculus can be applied directly with no
~ if a= 1 then f(x) = 1x=1 for all values of x
manipulation. Polynomials are examples of routine
functions. 'Non-routine' functions are those that need ~ if x = 0 then f(O) = a 0 = 1 for all values of a.
algebraic manipulation, sometimes several steps, before The second property above means that the graph of
they can be differentiated. Engineering problems are more y = ax always passes through the point (0, 1), regardless of
likely to involve non-routine functions. the value of a.

290 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A

A particular exponential function that is very important in In the worked example below, the independent variable is n
~
engineering applications is f(x) =ex, where e"' 2.71828 ... is time and the dependent variable is distance. The gradient n
c
a constant sometimes known as Euler's number. of the graph therefore represents how distance changes in c
V>

Logarithmic functions
relation to time. Qi
(./)
0
Logarithmic functions are of the form y = loga(x) where a is <
<1l
a positive constant, read as 'y is the logarithm to the base m
::::i
a of the number x'. Cl.9.
::::i
A person standing 10 metres from you starts to <1l
y = loga(x) has the same meaning as x = aY. For example, <1l
::::! .
walk away in straight line, moving at a constant 2
100 = 102 , so 2 = log10 (100); in other words, 2 is the ::::i
(JQ
metres per second over a period of 5 seconds. Find
logarithm to base 10 of the number 100. '"1J
.....
an equation to express the distance between the 0
a-
Engineers normally use two bases for logarithms, 10 and e. person and you at any time. ro
Logarithms to base 10 are typically written simply as log(x), 3
V>

where the subscript 10 is omitted. Logarithms to base e are Solution

called 'natural logarithms' and typically written as ln(x).
Lett be the time in seconds after the person starts
Exponential and logarithmic functions are said to be walking away from you, and lets be the distance
inverse functions of each other. On many calculators you between the person and you.
access 1ox as the inverse of log and ex as the inverse of In, Using the given information on velocity (the
or vice versa. person moves away at a rate of 2 m s-1), you can
make a table showing different times and their
Key terms ) corresponding distances, like Table 7.1.
Exponential function - a function of the form
~ Table 7.1 Distances at some different times
f(x) = ax with a > 0.
Logarithm - the power (or exponent) to which a base Time, t(s) o f2 3 4 5
number is raised to give a particular value: Distance, s (m) 10 12 / 14 I 16 18 20
number= baselogarithm
Engineers commonly use logarithms to either base 10
You can draw a graph, as in Figure 7.1 .
(log) or base e (In).
25
Engineers often work with functions that are more
complicated combinations of the basic forms described
E' 20
above. For example: '"uQ;' 15
c
~ rational functions (ratios of polynomials) such as ~ 10 -t<"'~--i+--+~+--+-+---;.r,--T-...o+----lo!
Vl
s+ 2
X= - - -- 0 5
s2 + 3s - 6
O +-~~-r-----,r--'--+--'---+~~~
~ more complex trigonometric functions such as 0 2 3 4 5
y = sin ( 4x - ~)
2 Time(s)

~ more complex exponential functions such as

~ Figure 7.1 Graph of distance versus time, showing how
v = 12(1 - 0.5e-fo-) to calculate the gradient
~ more complex logarithmic functions such as
i = ln(2t + 10). The graph is a straight line, with the same gradient
everywhere:
Gradient and rate of change of a linear
function
A linear function is a polynomial of degree 1. It can
be written in the form y = mx + c, where m and c are
constants. The graph of a linear function is a straight
line, for which m is the gradient and c is they-intercept
(intersection with the y-axis).

291
 vertical change
gradient= _ _ _ __ ....;.___ ~ Table 7.2 Distances at some different times
horizontal change
1
change in distance j Time, t (s) O l 2 13 4 5
change in time I
, Distance, s (m) 1o.o [ 1o.s [ 12.0 14.5 18.0 1 22.5
=20-10= ..!Q= 2 ms-l Acceleration means that the velocity is constantly
5-0 5
changing, and therefore so is the gradient. The
Because the line goes through (0, 1O), the
gradient at a given value oft can be found
y-intercept is 10.
graphically, by drawing a tangent to the curve at
The equation describing the distances at time t is the required value oft and finding the slope of that
s = mt + c with m = 2 and c = 10; that is, s = 2t + 10. tangent, as shown in Figure 7.2.

25
The gradient of the line describes the rate of change of
the dependent variable with respect to the independent E' 20
variable. In the worked example, the gradient measures the --; 15
u
rate at which the distance from the observer is changing @ 10 ~---!;:...-~~~-1----+----l
~
with respect to time - in other words, the velocity. Velocity
0 5
is a time-based function, so we can write it as v(t) in
function notation. Note that this is not the same as v x t. In 0 -1--'---l---'-- -l---'--+---'-- +--'----I
the above example, v(t) = 2 m s-1 , a constant value.
0 2 3 4 5
Time(s)
Gradient of a non-linear function ~ Figure 7.2 Gradient of a curve
The graph of a non-linear function will not be a straight line, The gradient is greater at t = 4 than at t = 2, so the
so the gradient does not remain the same throughout. To rate of change of distance with respect to time
find the gradient at any point on the graph, you calculate (or the velocity) is greater at 4 seconds than at 2
the gradient of the tangent to the graph at that point. seconds. Using the triangles drawn in Figure 7.2:
. vertical change
Key terms ) v(2) =gradient at 2 = h . h
onzonta 1c ange
Rate of change - how fast the dependent variable =i=2ms- 1
changes as the independent variable increases. It 2
should always be stated in the form 'the rate of change v(4) =gradient at 4 = ~:: = 4 m s- 1
of ... with respect to ... '. For example, velocity is the rate
of change of displacement with respect to time. The
shorthand 'w.r.t.' is often used for 'with respect to'.
A2 Methods of differentiation
Tangent - a straight line that touches a curve at one point.
Graphical differentiation
As you saw above, you can find the gradient of a non-
linear function at any point by drawing the tangent to the
curve at that point, as in Figure 7.3.
What would happen if, in the previous example,
the person moving away from you had been
accelerating from standing at 1 m s- 2 (1 metre per
second per second)? Plot the distance-time graph
and find the velocity at 2 seconds and 4 seconds
after the person starts moving away.
Solution
The distances at times t = 1, 2, .. ., 5 are now as
shown in Table 7.2.

zero gradi ent

~ Figure 7.3 Gradient at different points on a curve

292 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A

~ If the curve slopes up from left to right, the gradient is The gradient of the secant PQ is:
positive. 5y (y + 5y) - y f(x + 8x) - f(x)
~ If the curve slopes down from left to right, the gradient - =
5x (x + 5x) - x 8x
is negative. As Q gets very close to P, the gradient of the secant PQ
~ If the graph is constant (horizontal), the gradient is zero. approaches the gradient of the tangent at P. The gradient of
Calculating a gradient graphically only gives an the tangent is said to be the limit of the above expression as
approximate value, since the position of the tangent is just 8x tends to zero (5x -+ 0). Mathematically this is written as
an estimate. To obtain an accurate result, you need to use dy = lim 5y = lim f(x + 5x) - f(x)
an analytical method. dx ox-.o()x 11x_,o 5x

Here :~denotes the resulting gradient of the tangent,

Differentiation from first principles
which is called the derivative. It represents the rate of
r Key terms ) change of the variable y with respect to the variable x.

Differentiation - the process of calculating the gradient Using the above method of approaching a tangent with
of a function at a given point, or calculating the rate of a secant to find the gradient of a function at any point is
change of the dependent variable at a given value of the known as 'differentiation from first principles'.
independent variable. The area of mathematics dealing
with differentiation is called differential calculus.
Derivative - the result of applying differentiation to a
function . Calculate the derivative of the function y =x 2 from
\..
first principles.
You can find the gradient at a point Pon the graph of a Solution
function f(x) by differentiation. f(x) =xz
f(x + 5x) =(x + 5x) 2 =x 2 + 2x5x + (8x) 2
The delta method
. 5y . (x2 +2x5x+(8x)2)-x 2
This method gets its name from using the Greek lower- lim - =lim
ox-->06x &~o 8x
case letter delta (5) to represent a small change in a
. 2x 5x + (5x)2
variable. (Some texts use capital delta, !1, but they have
=~ 5x
the same meaning.) For example, a small change in the
variable x is written as 5x. = iix-->O
lim(2x + 8x) = 2x

On the graph of the function f(x), consider a second point This means that the gradient at any point x of
Q close to P. You can find the gradient of the line joining P the function y = x 2 is 2x. This is normally written
and Q (the secant); see Figure 7.4. As you move Q closer to dy
as dx =2x.
P, the gradient of the secant PQ gets closer to the gradient
of the tangent to the curve at P.

Fortunately, it is not necessary to calculate the derivatives

of most common mathematical functions from first
+ ox, y + ay) principles. This has already been done, and the results
have been tabulated for most functions you will ever meet.
Most engineering mathematics textbooks include a table
of common derivatives.

~ Figure 7.4 Differentiation from first principles, by using the Derivative notation
secant to approximate the tangent The :y form of writing a derivative is known as Leibniz
x difference in y
If the coordinates of Pare (x, y), then the coordinates of notation. You can think of it as meaning - - -- -
Q are (x + 5x, y + 5y), where 5x is the small horizontal difference in x
which is the definition of gradient. Another way of writing
distance and 5y is the small vertical distance between P
and Q. Since both points lie on the graph of f(x) we have the derivative of a function y =f(x) is f'(x), sometimes called
Newton notation. In this book we will mainly be using
y = f(x)
Leibniz notation, but you should also be aware of the
y + 5y = f(x + 5x) alternative notation f'(x), as it is widely used.

29:
 In engineering, the variables you are working with will often be called something other
than x and y. In such cases you simply replace the x and y in :~ with the names of the
independ ent and depen dent variables in t he particular context. In the first two worked
examples of this unit, the rate of change of distance (s) with respect to time (t) can be
written as dds so the velocity can be expressed as v(t) = ~5 .
t d t
Note that the gradient d~ is known as the first derivative of y with respect to x. Later (in
Section A4) you will learn about second derivatives, and further derivatives (third, fourth
etc.) can also be calculated. Both types of derivative notation can be extended to represent
second and higher derivatives.

Derivative of a linear function

You have already seen that the gradient of a linear function y = mx + c is m. So:
dy
~ if y = mx + c then - = m
dx
or, using the alternative notation,
~ if f(x) = mx + c then f'(x) = m

Differentiating a polynomial function

The preceding worked example gives a clue to how to differentiate a polynomial
function. You saw that:
y=x2
dy
- =2x
dx
The general rule used for find ing the derivative of a polynomial is 'multiply by the
power, then subtract one from the power':
y =axn
dy
- = naxn-1
dx

Differentiate the function y = 4x 3 with respect to x.

Solution
dy
- = 3 x 4x 3- 1 = 12x 2
dx

Sum and difference rules

If a function is the sum (or difference) of two or more other functions of the same variable,
then its derivative with respect to that variable is the sum (or difference) of the separate
derivatives. This is simpler than it sounds - just differentiate each term separately and add
(or subtract) the results.
You can apply this rule together with the previous rule for y = axn to differentiate a
general polynomial of the form f(x) = anXn + an_ 1xn- 1 + an_ 2xn-2 + ... + a2x 2 + a1x + a0.

Differentiate the function y = 4x 3 + 2x 2 - 5x + 6 with respect to x.

Solution
Remember that x = x 1 and x0 = 1 (so 6 = 6x 0 ).
dy
- = 3 x 4x
3 -1 + 2 x 2x
2 1 - - 1 x Sx 1- 1 + 0 = l 2x 2 + 4x - 5
dx

~94 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A

Note that differentiating a constant gives zero. The derivative is the rate of change - and a n
PJ
constant does not change! n-
c
c
Differentiating fractions and surds "'
oi
You can differentiate fractions such as y =~where the independent variable is in the
VI
0
<
ro
denominator, by using the rules of indices to rewrite the function as a power of x:
m
::i
1 °-9.
y= x =x-1 ::i
ro
ro
dy ::::!.
- = ( - l)x+ 1 = - x-2 ::i
dx C1Q
-0
.....
Th .1s can b e srmp
. l"f dy = - 1
" d to: -d
1 re
0
a-
x 2x ro
You can treat surds such as y =IX in a similar way: 3
1
"'
y= /X =X'i

dy = lxt-1= lx i
dx 2 2

Th .1s can b e s1mp

. l"f" dy = - 1
1 1e d to: -d
x 2 IX
Standard derivatives
As mentioned earlier, the derivatives of common mathematical functions - such as
polynomial, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions - have already been
found and are given in tables in most books on engineering mathematics. Table 7.3 is
a simple table showing the derivatives of some commonly encountered functions.

~ Table 7.3 Table of standard derivatives

Type of function I Function y =f(x) Derivative :~ =f'(x)

Constant c 0
Polynomial x 1
xz 2x
ax" naxn-1
Trigonometric (x in radians) sinax a cosax
I cosax - a sinax
tanax asec 2ax
Exponential Ieax ae'"'
1
Logarithm (base e) 1nax
J
x

Differentiate the function y = 4x 5 + 2 sin3x - 5e 2x with respect to x.

Solution
Using the derivatives of ax", sinax and e ax from Table 7.3 together with the sum
and difference rules:
dy
- = 5 x 4x s- 1 + 2 x 3 cos3x - 5 x 2e 2x
dx
= 20x 4 + 6 cos3x - 10e2x

29~
 So far the functions we have encountered have been sums
or differences of standard functions, so differentiating x y
them has been straightforward. But what happens for
~ Figure 7.5 A product term generated by an amplification system
functions that are put together in a more complex way?
The output of this system is a product term, y =u(x)v(x).
Using the chain rule to differentiate a
The product rule for differentiating a product term states:
function of a function
dy du dv
A function such as y = 2x + 3 is said to be a simple function . - =v- +u-
dx dx dx
A function such as y = (2x + 3) 2 is called a composite
To apply the rule, you identify the functions u(x) and v(x),
function, or a function of a function . In this case, 2x + 3 is
find the derivative of each of them, and then substitute the
the 'inner' function, and ( ) 2 is the 'outer' function.
four expressions into the right-hand side of the rule. (You
It is possible to differentiate y =(2x + 3) 2 by expanding can think of the rule as a recipe and the four terms as the
brackets. This is fine as long as the outer function is a fairly ingredients. You need to prepare the ingredients before
low power, but could prove very time-consuming (and error- you can use them in the recipe.)
prone) if you had to multiply out something like y =(2x + 3) 7.
The chain rule is a method of differentiating a composite
function by using a substitution for the inner function.
Define the inner function to be the variable u(x). Then the A test signal can be modelled by the equation
chain rule says that y =x sin2x. Use the product rule to find the
dy dy du derivative of y with respect to x.
- =-X-
dX du dx Solution
Step 1: Identify u(x) and v(x). In most cases, take
the first function as u(x) and the second function
as v(x).
Use the chain rule to differentiate the function
u(x) =x, v(x) =sin2x
y =(2x+ 3)7.
Step 2: Differentiate u(x) and v(x).
Solution Both are standard functions, so you can use the
Let u =2x + 3. Then the given function is y = u 7. results in Table 7.3.
Differentiating both of these expressions: du =1 dv = 2 cos2x
dx ' dx
du dy
- =2 - = 7u 6 = 7(2x + 3) 6
dx ' du Step 3: Substitute u(x), v(x), ~~ and ~: into the
Applying the chain rule: product rule formula.
dy dy du
-=-X- -dy = v-
du + u-
dv = (sm2x)
. (1) + (x)( 2 cos2x)
dX du dx dx dx dx
= 7(2x + 3) 6 x 2
Step 4: Sim pi if e result if possible.
=14(2x + 3) 6 dy
- = sin2x + 2x cos2x
dx

The product rule

The quotient rule
Key term )
v ~
The rule for differentiating a quotient looks more
Product - the result of multiplying two or more factors complicated than the rule for a product, but it contains
together. similar ingredients. If
\.
u(x)
Consider a radio signal that passes through a pre-amplifier y = v(x)
and then a power amplifier. An input signal x is operated then the quotient rule states:
on by a pre-amplifier function u(x), and this output is then
v-du -u- dv
acted upon by a power amplifier function v(x) to produce dy = dx dx
a system output, as illustrated in Figure 7.5. dx v2

:96 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A

You need to find five expressions to substitute into the quotient rule {four of them are n
~
the same as for the product rule, and there is also the v2 in the denominator). Follow ("\
c:
the same procedure as for the product rule. c:
.,,
~
V'l
0
<(1)
m
· I ·1n a communication
· · system can be mo d eII ed by t he equation 2x
· y = -sinx-
::J
A s1gna °-9.
::J
Use the quotient rule to differentiate y with respect to x. (1)
(1)
:;::! .
::J
Solution CTQ
-0
.....
Step 1: Identify u(x) and v(x). Take the numerator to be u(x) and the 0
~
denominator to be v(x). (1)

u(x) = sin2x, v(x) = x .,,3

Step 2: Differentiate u(x) and v(x).

du dv
dx = 2 cos2x, dx = 1

Step 3: Square v(x).

v2 = x2

Step 4: Substitute u(x), v(x), ddu ' dv and v2 into the quotient rule formula.
x dx
du dv
dy vdX-udX
dx v2
(x){2 cos2x) - (sin2x){l)
x2
Step 5: Simplify the resu lt if possible.
dy 2x cos2x - sin2x
- =- - - 2- - -
dx x

Differentiate the following functions with respect to the independent variable.

41) PAUSE POINT
a) y(x) = 4x 3 - 2x 2 + 5
b) v(t) = sin4t
c) i(t) = 5 e 4t
d) P(T) =2 e-3r
e) V = cos3x sin4x
2
f) = x + 2x + 1
y sinx
g) R =/x2 + x + 1

•=rm• In each case, first identify the type of function (e.g. polynomial, exponential) and
then select the appropriate rule to apply.
Identify which of the rules - chain rule, product rule or quotient rule - should be
used to differentiate each of these functions. Then carry out the differentiation.

A3 Numerical value of a derivative

In Section A2 you looked at how to find the derivative of a simple function that is a sum,
difference, product, quotient or composite of standard functions. The resulting derivative

291
 is a function itself, and you have seen that it represents the Since velocity is the derivative of displacement w.r.t.
gradient of the graph or the rate of change of the dependent time, acceleration can be calculated by differentiating
variable with respect to the independent variable. In displacement with respect to time twice. Therefore
engineering applications you will usually want to know the acceleration is the second derivative of the displacement
gradient of a graph at a particular point (the instantaneous functions= f(t). This is written as
gradient), or the rate of change at a specific value of the 2
a= dv = d s = f"(t)
independent variable (instantaneous rate of change). You dt dt 2
find this by substituting that specific numerical value of the d 2s
You should read dt 2 as 'd twos by d t squared'. The
independent variable into the derivative function .
notation indicates that s is differentiated twice with
Key term ) respect tot. The operation of differentiating twice w.r.t. the
Instantaneous gradient or rate of change - the variable t is represented by~2
gradient at a specific point on a curve, which represents dt
the rate of change of the dependent variable at a Similar relationships hold for angular motion:
specific value (instant) of the independent variable.
Angular displacement (radians) e= f(t)
You have seen that velocity is the derivative of displacement
Angular velocity (rad s-1) 00 = dB= f'(t)
dt
(distance moved in a given direction) with respect to time. a= dw = d2() = f"(t)
Angular acceleration (rad s-2)
dt dt 2
Displacement s =f(t)
Velocity v = ds = f'(t)
dt
The instantaneous velocity at a particular moment in time
is calculated by substituting the time value into the velocity e
The angle radians turned by a gearwheel in
function . t seconds is found by experiment to follow the
equation () = 4t + 3t 2
a) Calculate the angular velocity of the gearwheel
when t = Ss.

The displacement, s metres, of a gear piston after b) Calculate the angular acceleration when t = 8 s.
t seconds is found by experiment to follow the Solution
equation a) First, differentiate the angular displacement w.r.t.
s = t 2 + 3t - 4 time to find the angular velocity:
Calculate the velocity of the gear piston after 6
m(t) = ~~ =4 + 6t
seconds.
Then substitute t = 5 to find the instantaneous
Solution
angular velocity at that specific time:
Differentiate the displacement w.r.t. time to find the
m(S) = 4 + 6 x 5 = 34 rad s- 1
velocity function: v(t) = ~~ = 2t + 3
b) Differentiate the angular velocity w.r.t. time to
To find the instantaneous velocity at 6 seconds, find the angular acceleration:
substitute t = 6 into the velocity function: a= doo = 6 rad s- 2
v(6) = 2x6+3=15 ms- 1 dt
The angular acceleration is a constant value
(uniform acceleration), so when t = 8 s we also have
a= 6rads-2 .

A4 Second derivative and turning Note that the differentiation must be carried out
before the given values oft can be substituted.
points
Displacement, velocity and acceleration
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity w.r.t. time:
Turning points on a function
dv
Acceleration a =- Look at the function graphed in Figure 7.6.
dt

298 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A Ill
to find the numerical value of the second derivative at (')
P>
this point. ("')
c
d 2y cVI
~ l f - is positive, the turning point is a minimum.
dx 2 d
V'I
d2y 0
~ l f - is negative, the turning point is a maximum.
dx2
<
(!)
f'Tl
::I
~
::I
-
(!)
(!)
~.
::I
Find and classify the turning points of the function O'Q
'"U
y = -x 2 + x + 1. a
-12-10-8-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 x 0-
Solution ro
~ Figure 7.6 Graph of a function with two turn ing points 3
V>
Step 1: Differentiate the function .
The function changes direction at the points A and B.
dy
These are called turning points. - = -2x+ 1
dx
Maximum and minimum points
Step 2: Find when the derivative is zero.
In Figure 7.6, to the left of point A the function is increasing-
-2x + 1 =0
the gradient is positive. Just to the right of A the function is
2x =1
decreasing - the gradient is negative. At A, where the function
changes direction, the gradient is zero (the tangent to the x= t= 0.5
curve at A is horizontal). The function is said to have a local In this case there is only one possible turning point.
maximum at A. Note that they value at A is not the largest
Step 3: Calculate they value of the turn ing point.
value that the function ever takes, but locally it is a 'peak'.
Substitute the x value found in Step 2 into the
Just to the left of B the function is decreasing - the gradient is
original function :
negative.Just after B the function is increasing - the gradient 2
is positive. At B, where the function changes direction, the When x = l y = -(l) + l + 1 = 1l = 1 25
2' 2 2 4 .
gradient is again zero. We say that the function has a local
minimum at B. Again, they value at Bis not the smallest value Step 4: Determine whether the turning point is a
that the function ever takes, but locally it is a 'trough'. maximum or minimum.
Local maximum and minimum points (also called maxima • Method 1: Pick points just to the left and just to
and minima), like A and B, occur when the gradient of the the right of the turning point.
dy
function is zero: When x = 0.4, dx = -2(0.4) + 1 = 0.2
dy = 0
The gradient is positive - the curve is going up.
dx
dy
To find all the maxima and minima of a function, you need When x =0.6, dx = -2(0.6} + 1 =-0.2
to differentiate the function and look for the points where
The gradient is negative - the curve is going down.
the derivative is zero. You can determine whether a turning
point is a maximum or minimum in one of two ways. As the curve goes up, levels out and then goes
down, the turning point is a maximum.
~ Method 1: Check gradients on either side of the turning
Method 2: Calculate the second derivative at the
point.
turning point.
Look just to the left and just to the right of the turning
dy d2y
point to see if the gradient is positive or negative there. - = -2x+ 1 =? - =-2
dx dx 2
~ If the gradient goes positive-zero-negative, the
The second derivative is negative, so the turning
turning point is a maxi mum.
point is a maximum .
~ If the gradient goes negative-zero-positive, the
To summarise, there is one turning point at the
turning point is a minimum.
coordinates (0.5, 1.25) and it is a maximum.
~ Method 2: Calculate the second derivative at the turning
point. You can check the result by sketching a graph of the
function, as in Figure 7.7.
Differentiate the first derivative to get the second
derivative. Then substitute the value of the turning point

29~
 ~ Figure 7.7 Graph of y = -x2 + x + 1, showing that there is a maximum point at {0.5, 1.25)

Points of inflection
Not all turning points are maximum or minimum points. Sometimes the curve
increases, levels out and then increases again, or it could decrease, level out and then
decrease again. A point at which the gradient is instantaneously zero but where the
curve does not change direction is called a point of inflection (or inflexion).

Find and classify the turning points of the function y =x 3 .

Solution

Step 1: Differentiate the function.

dy
-=3x 2
dx
Step 2: Find when the derivative is zero.
3x 2 =0
x=O

Step 3: Calculate they value of the turning point.

When x = 0, y = 0 3 = O

Step 4: Determine whether the turning point is a maximum or minimum.

When x = -0.1, :~ = 3(-0.1 )2 = 0.03. The gradient is positive - the

curve is going up.

When x = 0.1, dy = 3(0.1 )2 = 0.03. The gradient is positive - the curve is

. dx
going up.
The curve does not change direction at x =0, so this is a point of inflection.
If you look at the second derivative:
dy d 2y
- = 3x 2 =? - = 6x
dx dx 2
d2y
When x = 0 - 2 = 6(0) = 0
' dx
The second derivative at the turning point is neither positive nor negative.
To summarise, there is one turning point at (0, 0) and it is a point of inflection.
A sketch (Figure 7.8) shows what the function looks like.

300 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A

Engineering applications of differentiation n

~

Differentiation is useful when you need to optimise the values of variables. For
n-
c:
c:
example, you may want to maximise profits or minimise the costs of production. Vl

The following worked examples show how the techniques of differential calculus ~
I./)

can be used to solve engineering problems. 0

<
Ill
m
:::J
°-9.
:::J
Ill
Ill
:::::! .

The profit for a company (in £100,000 per year) is a function of the number ~ Figure 7.8 Graph of y = x3, with a
of components produced. The relationship between the number x of point of inflection at (0, 0)
components produced (in thousands per year) and the profit P is given by
P = 4 + 0.03x 2 - 0.001x 3
Find the production level that will maximise the profit, given that the
company has the capacity to produce, at most, 50000 components per
year, and calculate this maximum profit.

Solution
Step 1: Differentiate the profit function .

~: = 0.06x - 0.003x 2

Step 2: Find any turning points by looking at where the derivative is zero.
0.06x - 0.003x 2 = 0
x(0.06 - 0.003x) = 0

x = 0 or x = 0·06 = 20
0.003

Step 3: Determine the nature of the turning ints.

x =0 means zero production (not likely to maximise profit!).
d 2P
When x = 20, dx 2 = 0.06 - 0.006x = 0.06 - 0.006(20) = -0.06

The second derivative is negative, so the turning point at x = 20 is a

maximum.

Step 4: Check that the optimum solution found fits within the constraints
of the problem. p
The maximum capacity of the factory, 50 OOO components per year, 20
corresponds to x = 50, so the turning point at x = 20 fits within this capacity.
10 _1..,---'=-+""'""""- -
Step 5: Calculate the maximum profit. o of-'--+-~+---l""r-"T~-n--+~

When x = 20, P = 4 + 0.03(20)2 - 0.001 (20) 3 = 8 - 10

So the maximum profit is £800,000 per year.
-20
A graph as in Figure 7.9 confirms the solution.
-30
-40
-50
~ Figure 7.9 Graph of
P = 4 + 0.03x2 - 0.00l x3 for x
between 0 and 50, show ing the
maximum point at (20, 8)

301
 A sheet metal worker wants to make a simple box out of a rectangular sheet by
cutting an identical square from each corner and folding up the sides. If the sheet
measures 300 mm by 200 mm, what is the length of the cut-out square that will give
a box of maximum volume? What will the maximum volume be?

Solution

Step 1: Sketch a diagram to visualise the problem.

Figure 7.10 shows the sheet and the squares to be cut out from its corners,
together with the resulting box.

300mm x
(300 - 2x)

D
X

200mm

~ Figure 7.10 Diagram for the box problem

Step 2: Derive an equation for the volume, V. of the box.

Volume= length x width x height
V = (300 - 2x)(200 - 2x)x

Step 3: Differentiate V with respect to x to find any turning points.

In this case it is probably simpler to expand the brackets than to apply the
product rule twice.
V = (60 OOO - 400x - 600x + 4x 2)x
= (60 OOO - 1OOOx + 4x 2)x
= 60 OOOx - 1000x 2 + 4x 3
dV = 60 OOO - 2000x + 12x 2
dx
At any turning points, l 2x 2 - 2000x + 60 OOO= 0
This is a quadratic equation . It will not factorise easily, so use the quadratic
formula to solve it.
First, simplify by dividing through by the common factor 4.
3x 2 - SOOx + 15 OOO = 0
- b + .fb 2 - 4ac
x= - a witha=3, b=-500, c=lSOOO
2
f
-(-SOO)± (-500) 2 - 4(3)(15 OOO)
x= ~~~~~~~~~~~-

2(3)
x = 127. 4 or x = 39 . 2
The answer cannot be x = 127.4 as then the width of the box, (200 - 2x), would
be negative.
Therefore the only relevant turning point is x = 39.2.

Step 4: Check that the turning point found is a maximum.

d2V
When x = 39.2, dx 2 = 24x - 2000 = 24(39.2) - 2000 = -1059.2

The second derivative is negative, so this turning point is a maximum.

302 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim A [ uNIT7

n
Ill
n-
c
Step 5: Calculate the maximum volume.
cV'I
When x = 39.2, V = (300 - 2 x 39.2)(200 - 2 x 39.2)(39.2) = 1 056 305
c;-i
So the maximum volume of the box is 1.056x10 6 mm 3 , obtained when the V'>
0
length of each cut-out square is 39.2 mm. <
<D
m
::J
°-9.
::J
<D
<D
Research ) ~-
::J
C1Q
"I
""O
Investigate how the product rule can be extended to functions that take the form .....
0
of three factors multiplied together. Try using the three-factor product rule to Q:
<D
differentiate the volume function for the box in the worked example. 3V'I
\. ~

Assessment practice 7.1 A.P1 A.P2 A.P3 A.M1 A.01

Use differential calculus to answer the following For each of the questions in this assessment practice activity,
questions. It is important that you explain and show use the following stages to guide your progress through the
all the steps in your calculations clearly. task.
1 Differentiate the following functions with respect f~
to the independent variable. What techniques will be involved in answering the
question?
a) y = 4x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 b) y = sin4x
• How confident do I feel in my own abilities to answer
c) y = 3 cos2x d) y = ln3t e) T = e-2t
this question accurately? Are there any areas I think I may
2 Use the chain rule (function of a function rule) to struggle with?
differentiate these functions. Will a sketch help me to visualise the problem or check my
a) y = (x + 2)3 b) v = (sin3t)2 solution to it?
c) y =v'f+X d)R= ~x 2 +x+l Do
• I can organise my work logically and systematically,
3 Use the product rule to differentiate these
annotating the steps of my solution to explain my
functions.
approach.
a) y =et lnt b) v = sin3x cos4x c) s = t 4e- 3 t • I understand my thought process and can explain why I
4 Use the quotient rule to differentiate these have decided to approach the question in a particular way.
functions. • I can identify where I have gone wrong and adjust my
a) =x 2
+ 2x + 1 thinking to get myself back on course.
b) r= 6 cosB
y sin2x (}3 + 2 ll.eview
5 For the following functions, find any turning I can explain to others how best to approach similar
points and determine whether they are maxima, problems.
minima or points of inflection. • I can effectively review and check mathematical
calculations to prevent or correct errors.
a) y = x 3 - 6x 2 + 4 b) a =2t 3 + 3t 2 - 7
I can identify the type and style of questions that I find
6 Find the dimensions of a closed cylinder of volume most challenging and devise strategies, such as additional
1000cm3 that is made from a minimum amount of purposeful practice, that will help me to overcome any
sheet metal (ignoring any overlaps for seams). difficulties.
 b) The integrand is of the form sin(ax) with a= 3.
- cos(3x)
fsin(3x) dx = +c
3
c) The integrand is a polynomial with two terms. Integrate each term separately
and add the results.
x3 9x 2
j (x2 + 9x) dx = Jx 2 dx +f9x dx = + 2 + c
3
d) In this case the independent variable is t , and integration is w.r.t. this variable
t rather than x.
The integrand is of the form eax with a =-3.
e - 3r e - 3t
Je- tdt = --=3 + c = - 3
3 + c

There are two points of interest in part d) of the worked example.

~ The coefficient 9 multiplies the result of integrating the standard function x =x1:
xz
f9x dx =9 f x 1 dx =9 x 2
~ Although the two separate integrals should each have an arbitrary constant, only
one constant of integration is needed for the overall integral.

All of the above examples involve the indefinite integral - they include the constant c.
In the next worked example you will see how the value of c can be determined from
additional information.

The velocity v of a particle at time t is given by the equation v = 1Ot + 6t 2 .

Find the displacement as a function of time if the initial displacement is 5 m.

Solution
As velocity is the derivative of displacement w.r.t. time, displacement is the
integral of velocity w.r.t. time.

Step 1: Integrate the velocity function w.r.t. t to find the general formula for
displacement.
1Ot 2 6t 3
5= j(lOt + 6t 2) dt = - 2- + 3 + c
s =5t2 + 2t 3 + c
Step 2: Calculate the constant c by substituting the initial condition into the
general solution obtained in Step 1.
In this case the given initial condition is s = 5 when t = 0.
5 = 5(0)2 + 2(0) 3 + c
c=S

Step 3: Write down the formula for displacement with the particular value of c
you found.
s =5t 2 + 2t 3 + 5

Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim B

Definite integrals Note the different types of brackets used in the following
worked example. Try to use the same system in your own
As you have seen, an indefinite integral is a result of
work to make it easier to track the stages in your solution .
integration that contains the independent variable
and a constant c whose value is undetermined. In an
engineering problem the indefinite integral gives a general
solution to the problem, such ass= St 2 + 2t 3 + c in the
worked example. If the value of c can be worked out from Calculate these definite integrals.
additional information (such as initial conditions), then you
get a particular solution to the problem, likes= St2 + 2t3 + s
a) 12
5
3
e- t dt b) 1 2
4
IX dx
in the worked example. Note that a particular solution is
Solution
still a function involving the independent variable.

When solving engineering problems, you will often need

to substitute actual values of the independent variable
a) 1 5
3
t ~-~t]:
e- dt = [

Note that the indefinite integral (without c) is

into the solution, obtaining a definite numerical value.
enclosed in square brackets, with the limits of
This can be done directly within the integration process,
integration at the top and bottom of the right bracket.
and the result is called a definite integral. For instance, if
in the worked example above you were asked to find the Now substitute the limits into the integral and
displacement between the t imes t = 1 and t = 3, you could subtract:
write this as the definite integral (e~~5)) - (e~~2)) = (e~;5) - (~;)
3
[ (1 Ot + 6t 2) dt.
-3 3
The numbers 3 and 1 at the top and bottom of the/ sign "' 8.26 x i 0-4
are called the limits of integration - these are the values of b) To integrate IX, rewrite as a power and then use
the independent variable between which the solution is the formula for integrating xn.
evaJuated. The general fo rm of a definite integral is

J f(x) dx, w here a is the low er limit of integration, bis

1 2
4

IX dx = ft xJ. dx

a
[X23) •1 [2X!3] 4
the upper limit of integration , f(x) is the function being = 3/2 2 "' 3 ' 2

integrated and dx shows that you are integrating with

respect to the variable x. You will see in Section 82 that
={ {
2~)!} - 2~)1}
the definite integral is actual ly the area between the 2(8) - 2(2.828)
= 3 "' 3.448
graph of the function , the horizontal axis and the limits of
integration . For example,
3
2
[ (1 Ot + 6t ) dt is th.e area bounded by the graph of Integration by substitution
y = 1Ot + 6t 2 and t he x-axis between t =1 and t = 3. You can integrate a composite function (function of a function)
Calculating a definite integral by using a substitution. This is essentially reversing the chain
rule, and is most easily demonstrated through examples.
The steps of working out the numerical value of a definite
integral are:
1 Find the indefinite integral (but you can omit the
arbitrary constant c).
Calculate the following integrals by substitution.
2 Substitute the value of the upper limit into the integral.
a) y = j(2x + 3) 4 dx b) y = /cos(3x + 4) dx
3 Substitute the value for the lower limit into the integral.
4 Subtract your answer for the lower limit from you r Solution
answer for the upper limit. a) The integrand (2x + 3) 4 is a composite function,
You must carry out the integration to find the indefinite where the 'inner' function is 2x + 3 and the 'outer'
integral before you substitute the limits. function is ( )4.

You do not need to include the constant c because it will Substitute u = (2x + 3). Then (2x + 3)4 = u 4, which
be the same in steps 2 and 3 and will therefore cancel out looks simpler to integrate.
when you subtract the results in step 4.

30
 However, the integration variable must also be
converted from x to u; that is, you need to replace U=X dv=sin(x}dx
dx with an equivalent expression involving du. du = 1 V= Jdv
dx
u=(2x+ 3) => du =2 => dx= du = Jsin(x) dx
dx 2 du =dx
= -cos(x)
y= J(2x+ 3) 4 dx = Ju 4 du = l Ju 4 du
2 2 Substitute into the formula:
= l(_l:l_5_) + c = _l:l_5_ + c = (2x + 3)5 + c Judv=uv- Jvdu
2 5 10 10
y = Jx sin(x) dx = (x)(-cos(x)) - J(-cos(x)) dx
b) The integrand cos(3x + 4) is a composite function,
= -x cos(x) + sin(x) + c
where the 'inner' function is 3x + 4 and the 'outer'
function is cos.
Substitute u = 3x + 4, which gives ddu = 3 and
b} £ 2

x 2eXdx is a definite integral. You need to find

du x the indefinite integral first, and then evaluate at

so dx = the limits.
3 1
y = Jcos(3x + 4) dx = 3 J cos(u) du When one of the terms in the product is a power of
=lsin(u)+c= lsin(3x+4)+c x, it is usually a good idea to let that term be u.
3 3
In this case let u = x 2 and dv = e dx. Now find v and
du:

Integrating products u =x 2 dv =e" dx

This method is sometimes known as 'integration by parts'. I du= 2x V= fdv
The rule can be written in two ways - the second way dx
= fe"dx =e"
is more common and will be used in the examples that I du=2xdx
follow. In both forms, u and v are functions of x, although Substitute into the formula:
in the formulae they are written simply as u and v rather Judv=uv- Jvdu
than u(x) and v(x) for clarity. Jx 2 eX dv = (x 2)(eX) - J(ex) 2x dx
Ju(~~) dx = uv- Jv (~~) dx = x 2e - J2x eX dv
This does not seem to have helped a great deal, as
Ju dv = uv- Jv du
the final term is not a standard integral but still the
When using this method, the most important decision is
integral of a product. However, this term itself can
choosing which function in the product to use as u and
be integrated by parts.
which as dv. Looking at the rule, the function you choose
To integrate J2x eX dv by parts, let u = 2x and
as u must be relatively easy to differentiate, because you
dv=exdx.
need du in the second term on the right-hand side; and
whatever you choose as dv needs to be easy to integrate u =2x dv = e>< dx
since you also need v in the right-hand side of the formula.
du =2 Iv= fdv
dx
= Je xdx = e"
du= 2 dx
Then , substituting into Ju dv = uv - J v du gives
Use integration by parts to find the following
integrals.
J2x ex dx = (2x)(ex) - Jex 2 dx
=2xeX-2Jexdx
a) y = Jx sin(x) dx =2xeX- 2eX
Combine the results from the two integrations by
Solution
parts. You can omit the constants of integration as
a) The integrand is a product of two terms, x and you are going to calculate the definite integral.
sin(x).
f x 2eX dx = x 2 eX - J2x eX dv
Let u = x and dv = sin(x) dx. Find the terms v and du
= x 2 eX - (2x eX - 2eX} = ex(x 2 - 2x + 2)
appearing in the right-hand side of the formula:

08 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim B 1•u1;11
1 0
2xze dx =[e(x z -
= {e 2((2) 2 -
2x + 2)]2
0
2(2) + 2» - {e 0((0) 2 - 2(0) + 2»
= 2e 2 - 2 "' 12.78

B2 Integration as a summating tool

Area under a curve
In engineering and science, there are many situations in which an area beneath a
graph represents the magnitude (size) of a physical quantity. For example, the work
done (W joules) by an object moving against a constant force of F newtons through a
distance of s metres in the direction of the force is given by W = Fs.

A work diagram is a graph of force plotted against distance moved. The area under the
graph in the work diagram is equal to the work done.

1 Calculate the work done by a machine applying a constant force of 10 N to

raise an object through a height of Sm.
12
lO -r--t--+--+---+--i~;--+--+--t---1---1

z-s
~ 6
.....
~ 4
2

2 3 4 5
Distance (m)
~ Figure 7.11 Area under a constant (horizontal} force-distance graph

Solution
For a constant force, the force-distance graph is a horizontal line (see Figure 7.11).
The work done in moving the object a certain distance is the area between
the line of the function and the x-axis up to the x value corresponding to the
distance moved - that is, the area of the rectangle with base x and height 10.
The work done in moving the object Sm is W = 10 x S = SOJ.
2 Calculate the work done by a force of 8 N in stretching a spring by 2 mm
(see Figure 7.12). The spring constant is 4 N mm-1.
12
10
~
8
u 6
Q)
.....
u.. 4
0

2
0
0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
Extension (mm)
~ Figure 7.12 Area under a linear force-distance graph

305
 In Figure 7.14, the area of the shaded region under the
The work done is equal to the area of the shaded function between the limits a and b is jgf(t) dt.
region. This can be calculated simply as the area of
the triangle:
W = tbase x height= t x 0.002 x 8 = 8 mJ

Integration from first principles

The areas in the two examples above are easy to calculate
as they are simple geometric shapes. How can you calculate
~ Figure 7 .14 Graphical interpretation of the mean value - the
the area if the function is non-linear? The summation
area under the curve in the left diagram is equal to the area of
method is based on splitting up the area under a graph into the rectangle in the right diagram
thin strips of equal width. You find the area of each strip and
then sum all these areas to give the total area. If m is the mean value of the function over the same
range (from t = a tot= b), then by definition of the mean,
y
f- the area of the shaded rectangle of height m in the right
diagram should be the same as the shaded area under the
curve in the left diagram:

1-
m(b - a) = jt{(t) dt

oA Therefore, the mean value of the function f(t) in the

1
interval a ,,s; t ,,s; b ism = -(- - ) fgf(t) dt
b-a
)oxl
~ Figure 7.13 The area under the curve can be approximated by
summing the areas of rectangles
Calculate the mean value of the current
Integration extends this summation idea to make the strips
so narrow that the top of each strip is almost flat - so i(t) = 4 - cos(f) over the time interval 0 ,,s; t ,,s; 10.
each strip can be considered a rectangle. The area of each
rectangle is 8A = y ox, where y is the height and ox is the Solution
width of each thin rectangular strip (see Figure 7.13). The 1
Mean current T= -( - -)/tf(t) dt
total area under the graph is approximated by the sum of b-a
the areas of all the strips in the region. As oxgets smaller,
= (101_ O)fo104 - cos(f) dt
you use more strips to cover the region, and the calculated
area will become a closer approximation to the actual area. Evaluate the definite integral:
In other words, the actual area is the limit approached by
the calculated area as ox-+ 0 (ox tends to zero). Following
JJ 0
(4 - cos(f)) dt

the notation used in Section A2 for differentiation and =[4t-;3 sin(f)J:°

using L:; to represent 'sum', the actual area A under a graph
between x = a and x = b can be written as = [4t-3sin(f)[°
x=b
A= lim LY(x) ox
8x-+0 x=a
= {4(10)- 3sin(1 °)}-{4(0)- 3sin(%)}
3
This is defined to be the definite integral
A = faby(x) dx = 40 - 3sin(1 °) "' 40.57
3
(Make sure your calculator is set to radian mode for
Mean and root mean square values of a
the last calculation.)
function
The mean current is
Physical quantities such as distance, velocity, acceleration,
4 7
current and voltage often vary with time. As an engineer, T= J__
10
fo 0(4 - cos(i)) dt = o.s = 4 057 A
3 10 .
you may need to find the mean value of such a function
over a certain period of time.

10 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim B

The area defined by an integral is the area between the graph of the function and n
~
the x-axis. If the graph is below the x-a xis, the integral will have a negative value. n-
c
This means that for an alternating function such as a sine wave, the integral over a cVI
complete cycle will be zero, as the function is symmetrical above and below the x-axis Qi
V'I
so that the positive and negative areas cancel each other out. 0
<
ro
If you need to calculate the mean magnitude of an alternating periodic function over m
::::l
a cycle, you could calculate the total integral by breaking it down into separate areas Cl_9.
::::l
above and below the x-axis, or you could calculate the integral over a positive half- ro
ro
cycle and double the result because of the symmetry. With each method you need to ::::!.
::::l
()'Q
take great care in choosing the limits for the integrals that you calculate. A sketch of -0
the function will help you see which parts of the graph are above the x-axis and which 0
a-
are below. m
3VI
Alternatively, to get around the difficulty with negative areas, you can calculate the
root mean square (RMS) value of the function (see Figure 7.15). This involves squaring
the function so that all values become non-negative. The steps are as follows.

0.5
0 -f-~-+-+--H-~--<>4--+-+I

-0.5
-1 .0
-1.5

v
1.5
1
0.5
O +----+-->j'-,f---H'--+-'l'+--+--+i

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5 ~- ~-~~. ~~~~~'

~ Figure 7.15 RMS value of a sine wave

1 Square the function to make all the values positive: (f(t)) 2

1
2 Find the mean of the squared function: -( - -fab!f(t)) 2dt
b-a)
3 Take the square root of the mean of the squared
1
function: -, - - /f/J(t))2 dt
b - a)
The RMS value of the function f(t) in the interval a ~ t ~ b

is f RMS = (b ~ a) fabf(t) 2dt

311
 Calculate the RMS value of the voltage v = 240 sin(l OOnt) over the time interval
0 :;;;; t :;;;; 20 ms.

Solution

fRMS =11/- 1
\(b -
2
- / /)f(t) dt
a) a
20• 10"
vRMs = 1
(20 x 10-3 - 1
O) o
20x1Q-l
(240sin(100nt))2dt

240
20 x 10-3
2

1 0
sin 2(1 OOn t) dt

First, evaluate the definite integral. sin 2 (x) is not one of the standard integrals.
Use a trigonometric identity to change it into a for m involving standard
1 - cos(2x)
integrals: sin 2(x) =
2
20 ~ 10- 3

1 sin 2(1 OOnt) dt

0
-1
-
2
0xl0-' (1 - cos(200nt))
2 dt
0
20xl0-' _!_ _ COS (200nt)
=
=
1[.!- 2

sin (2007rt)]
20
2

xi o-J
dt

2 2(200n) 0

= {20 x 1o-3 _ sin(200n x 20 x 10-

3
)} _ {Q- sin(200n x O)}
2 2(200n ) 2 2(200n )
sin(4n)
= 10-2 - 400n = 0.01
Therefore
240 2
x 0.01 = 169.7 v
20 x 10-3

B3 Numerical integration
In engineering you will sometimes need to calculate the integrals of functions that
cannot be expressed in terms of the standard functions in Table 7.4 or cannot be
integrated using standard techniques such as substitution or integration by parts.
You may also have a graph of the function plotted from a collection of data points but
not be able to write it as a mathematical equation. In such cases you could use the
summation method to estimate the area represented by the integral. This method -
based on splitting up the area under the graph into thin strips - generates
several numerical integration rules that give different degrees of accuracy, depending
on the shape of the function .

Trapezium (trapezoidal) rule

If you divide the area into narrow strips, where the top edge of each strip is a line
joining two points on the function's graph (as shown in Figure 7.16), then each strip is
a trapezium.

312 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim B

50 n
~
n
45 Yi c
40 _,.,..._,H+H+H-•-++++>'+l+H-<· c
tYi - Yo
Vl

a1
35 Vl
z 30 Yo -- - --- - - + 0
<
ro
Q)
...
u
0
m
:::J
LI.. o.:9.
:::J
ro
ro
~­
:::J
O"Q
""CJ
--,
-h-- 0
CT

2 3 4 5 ro
3
Vl
Distance (m)

~ Figure 7.16 Dividing the area under a curve into trapezia

Suppose that you are using n strips of equal width h, and they values of the end points
of the top edges of the trapezia are Yo. Yi, Y2· ... , Yn-i • Yn from left to right.

A trapezium is made up of a rectangle and a triangle.

So the area of the first trapezium is Ai = y0 h + }h(yi - y0 ) which simplifies to

Ai =}h(Yo +Yi)·
The area of the second trapezium is A2 =}h(Yi + y 2)

If you were using only two strips as in Figure 7.16, then the approximate area under
the curve obtained by adding together the two strips is
A= }h(Yo +Yi)+ }h(Yi + Y2) = }h(Yo + 2yi + Y2)
Notice that the 'end values' (y0 and y 2 ) are only used once, but 'middle values' (Yi in this
case) appear twice (as the end of one strip and the start of the next).

In general, for n strips of width h, the trapezium rule estimates the area as
A= 1h(yo + 2yi + 2Y2 + 2Y3 + 2 Yn-i + ... + Yn) =1h(Yo + 2(Yi + Y2 + ··· + Yn-i) + Yn)
You will get a more accurate estimate of the area if you make the width of the strips
smaller and use more strips (that is, decrease h and increase n). The choice of strip
width should strike a compromise between being small enough to give an accurate
result but not so small as to have too many values to calculate.

Use the trapezium rule to estimate the area between the graph of f(x) = ex'and
the x-axis for values of x between 0.5 and 1.3, using a strip width of h = 0.1.

Solution

Step 1: Calculate values of y for x values from 0.5 to 1.3 at intervals of 0.1 .
These are shown in Table 7.S.

313
 ~ Table 7 .5 Values of f(x) = ex' for x between 0.5 and 1.3

x y
0.5 1.284025 =Yo
0.6 1.433 329 = Y1
0.7 1.632 316 = Y2
0.8 1.896481 =y3
0.9 2.247908 = Y4
1.0 2.718282 = Ys
1.1 3.353485 = Y6
1.2 4.220696 = Y.1
1.3 5.419481 = Ys

Step 2: Substitute the values into the trapezium rule, rounding to a reasonable
degree of accuracy.
A = 1h(Yo + 2(Y1 + Y2 +··· + Yl) + Ys)
=1(0.1 )(1.2840 + 2(1.4333 + 1.6323 + ... + 4.2207) + 5.4195)
= 2.085

Remember that the result obtained by the trapezium rule is only an approximation, as
the trapezia do not match the strips under the graph precisely - some are a little high,
some a little low.

You could simplify the calculations by using a spreadsheet, since you need only write
the equation for the function once. The screenshots in Figure 7.17 show the equations
used in Microsoft Excel® 2013.

IB2 T J I )< ./ fx II =EXP(Bl "2)

..ii A B l c D
1 x 0.5 10.6 0.7
2 y
3
=EXP(Bl "2)
II
4 I

ID4 TI [ )< ./ fx II ~(O.l/2)'(B2+2'(Q.,.D2.,.E21· F2•Cil+H 2+1 2)+J2)

.<Ill A B c D E F G H I J
1 x 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
2 1Y 1.284025 1.433329 1.632316 1.896481 2.247908 2.718282 3.353485 4.220696 5.419481
3
4 2+12)+J2 •
5 I

~ Figure 7.17 Calculating an area using the trapezium rule in a Microsoft Excel® workbook

Simpson's rule
Another summation method for calculating areas, known as Simpson's rule,
uses a quadratic curve as the top edge of each strip. This gives a more accurate
approximation to the actual area under the function's graph. Simpson's rule
requires an even number of strips - and therefore an odd number of y values.
The values are used in a similar way to those in the trapezium rule. Simpson's
rule states:
h
Area "' 3\Yo + 4{y1 + Y3 + Ys + ... ) + 2{y2 + Y4 + Y6 + ... ) + Yn)

314 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim B

Using Simpson's rule on the worked example above gives (')

p.l

A = .Qf{l .2840 + 4(1.4333 + 1.8965 + 2.7183 + 4.2207) n-

s._
c
+ 2(1.6323 + 2.2479 + 3.3535) + 5.4195} "'
=2.075 ci
VI
0
Note that there is always one fewer value in the 'even-numbered y values' group than <
<!>
in the 'odd-numbered y values' group.
,.,.,
::::>
O'Q
s·
<!>
Mid-ordinate rule Cl)
.....
5·
The mid-ordinate rule is a summation method that splits the area into rectangular O'Q
-0
strips. But rather than using the end points, the height of each strip is they value at the a
0-
middle of the strip. The first value is labelled y 0•5 , the second Yi .s and so on, as shown in ro
Figure 7.18. 3
"'
y

0 a b x
~ Figure 7.18 Dividing the area into rectangular strips for the mid-ordinate rule

In general, for n strips of width h, the mid-ordinate rule estimates the area as
A = h(Yo.s + Y1 .s + Y2.s + · · · + Yn-o.s)
These summation methods for estimating the numerical value of an integral are
fine when actual values of the functions are known - or can be calculated - at given
intervals, but remember that they provide only an approximate answer and do not
give a general mathematical way of integrating any function .

G PAUSE POINT
Water flows at a constant rate through a venturi (constricted section of pipe). You
measure the pressure at various points along the venturi , using a series of pitot tubes
set at equal distances. You note the height of water in each tube, which represents
the pressure at that point. The data is shown in Table 7.6. You plot a graph of the
height against the horizontal position of each tube. Use the readings to calculate the
area under the graph.
~ Table 7.6 Height of water in tubes at a series of horizontal distances along the venturi

Distance (mm) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Height(mm) 800 780 760 760 780 800

•=@• Use the heights as they values and the spacing between consecutive tubes ash in
the trapezium rule.
Is it possible to use Simpson's rule? If it is, then compare the answers. If not, then
explain why.
ltlMf·I Set up a spreadsheet to calculate the area.

315
 Assessment practice 7.2 B.P4 B.Ps B.P6 B.M2 s.02

Use differential calculus to answer the following For each of the questions in this assessment practice activity,
questions. It is important that you explain and show use the following stages to guide your progress through the
all the steps in your calculations clearly. task.
l Integrate the following functions with respect to (>~
the independent variable. • What techniques will be involved in answering the
question?
a) 3x + cos4x b) 4et + cos (f)
How confident do I feel in my own abilities to answer
c) 2~ d)
3~ + 7 this question accurately? Are there any areas I think I may
struggle with?
2 Find each of these integrals using a suitable Will a sketch help me to visualise the problem or check my
substitution. solution to it?
a) /cos (x - 3) dx b) /e 9t-7 dt Do
1 I can organise my work logically and systematically,
c) /xv'4x - 4 dx d) fs (v - 2)4 dv annotating the steps of my solution to explain my
approach.
3 Calculate the following integrals using integration
I understand my thought process and can explain why I
by parts.
have decided to approach the question in a particular way.
a) Jxe-xdx b) fa xexdx • I can identify where I have gone wrong and adjust my
thinking to get myself back on course.
4 The velocity of a decelerating particle at time t
seconds is given by v = e-(t'+ll. Use a numerical fl.evuw
I can explain to others how best to approach similar
method to calculate the distance travelled by the
problems.
particle in the time interval 0 to 2.5 seconds.
• I can effectively review and check mathematical
5 Calculate the area between the curve y =x(x - 3), calculations to prevent or correct errors.
the x-axis and the limits x = 0 and x =5. (Hint: I can identify the type and style of questions that I find
Sketch the curve first to see where the area lies.) most challenging and devise strategies, such as additional
purposeful practice, that will help me to overcome any
6 Calculate the RMS value of the voltage waveform difficulties.
v =12 sin (4t + 2) in the interval 0 ,,;;; t,,;;; 2.

Investigate the application of calculus to the solution of

a defined specialist engineering problem
Cl Thinking methods
Reductionism
Do you find solving problems difficult? This may be because you try to tackle the
whole problem in one go. A better approach is to break the problem down (reduce
it) to a fundamental level to make it easier to solve. This approach is known as
reductionism. In other words, if you want to solve a complex problem, first try to
simplify it as much as possible. In order to do this, you may have to learn some new
skills and techniques.

r Keyterms )

316 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim C

Synectics C2 Mathematical modelling of n

PJ
r>
Synectics is a type of creative problem -solving (CPS) c
technique that brings the creative process into activities
engineering problems cVl

such as 'brainstorming' and 'lateral thinking'. You are In engineering design it is useful to be able to predict how oi
!./>
encouraged initially to 'suspend disbelief', to set aside a product will perform in service. Investing resources in 0
<
concepts of what is a 'good' or 'correct' idea and to think setting up manufacturing machinery and supply chains <1l
m
of alternative ways of looking at the problem. This leads is expensive, so if engineers can use mathematical or ::i
CJ.9 .
to 'springboards' for ideas. In this approach, 'absurd' ideas computer methods to simulate the characteristics of a ::i
<1l
<1l
are positively encouraged as a way of broadening your product or to conduct cost-benefit analyses, this will save ~­
::i
understanding of the problem. The 'springboards' generated time and money as well as aid decision -making. Using (JQ
"D
mathematical tools in this way is called mathematical .....
are intended to be new starting points for exploration of 0
er
the problem, rather than finished new solutions. You may modelling. It allows engineers to determine optimal (or <1l

identify new approaches that are not yet practical and then near optimal) solutions before making important decisions 3
Vl

develop them into feasible courses of action. Alternatively, and investing significant resources.
you may decide to abandon a particular approach and As part of this unit's assessment, you will need to model
follow another 'springboard'. The aim is to come up with and solve a complex engineering problem from your
a way of tackling the problem that you feel confident in specialist area of study.
because you have investigated it in depth.
First, you need to investigate a suitable problem that will
P61ya's problem-solving method require the application of calculus methods in its solution.
George P61ya was a Hungarian mathematician whose book This could be a case study from a local engineering
How to solve it was published in 1945. In his book P61ya organisation, or a problem that you have researched using
identified four stages in problem-solving. books or the internet.
1 Understand the problem - This sounds obvious, but it The problem-solving process begins with defining the
is exactly where you may be blocked. Make sure you problem , setting out all the relevant information gathered
understand the words used to describe the problem . on it, and producing a proposal for how to solve it. You
Do you know what you have to do? Can you put the can use the thinking methods from Section Cl to break
problem into your own words? Would a sketch help the problem down into a series of manageable steps to
you visualise what is going on? Do you have enough obtain a solution. In each step you should be able to apply
information to start generating a solution? appropriate calculus methods that you have learned. These
2 Devise a plan - This is the stage where you can use may include both analytical and numerical techniques.
thinking methods such as reductionism and synectics.
In the next two sections {C3 and C4), we will use a single
Have you met this type of problem before? Can
worked example to illustrate the process you should follow
you break it down into simpler parts? What are the
for your chosen engineering problem .
possible paths of solution to be followed? What are the
processes involved? What are the relationships within
the problem? Can you eliminate some possibilities? C3 Problem specification and
Which path and process promises the greatest proposed solution
likelihood of success? Decide which mathematical tool
Here are a number of questions to ask yourself when
best suits the problem. What equations might be useful
specifying the engineering problem that you intend to solve.
in solving the problem?
3 Carry out the plan - Work carefully, following the plan ~ What is the problem? In your own words, say who needs
you made in the previous stage. Use paper and pencil, what and why.
calculator and computer tools where appropriate. ~ Can you find more than one source of information to
Constantly check your solutions. Are they realistic? help you?
Do they make sense? Is your answer the right order of ~ Can you find an existing method to solve the problem?
magnitude? If it is not, then think about any changes Can you think of a better way?
that you can make. Do you get the same answers if you
~ How will you know if your solution is reasonable?
use alternative methods? Be persistent.
4 Look back - Reflect on what you have done. What went ~ How will you determine what went well and what could
well? What did not go so well? What can you use to be improved?
help solve future problems? ~ What will be in your final report?

317
 Statement of the problem
Water flows from a river into a reservoir. The amount of water in the river
depends on the season.
The flow of water in the river, w, has been modelled by the equation
w(t) = 2 +sin ( ; t)
1 0
where t is measured in days, with t =0 corresponding to 1 January, and w is
measured in thousands of cubic metres (10 3 m 3) per day.
Water is released from the reservoir at a constant rate of 2000 m 3 per day.
At the beginning of the year there is 200 x 103 m 3 of water in the reservoir.
a) Write a function f(t) for the amount of water in the reservoir on any day.
b) Determine the amount of water in the reservoir on 1 May (t = 120).
c) Find the rate of change of the volume of water in the reservoir on
1 September (t = 240).
d) Determine at what time there will be a maximum volume of water in the
reservoir.
e) Calculate the maximum volume of water in the reservoir.
f) Find the average amount of water in the reservoir in the first three months of
the year.

Ideas to solve the problem

What is the problem?

Calculate how much water is in the reservoir on any day. This can be broken
down into:
Find a way to work out the difference between what enters and leaves the
reservoir each day.
Use that to work out how much water there will be at the end of the day.
What do you need to know?
There are three variables that affect the amount of water in the reservoir:
• what you start with
• how much enters
• how much leaves.
How can you calculate the three variables?
You are given that 200 x 103 m3 of water is in the reservoir at the start (t = 0).
How much water enters the reservoir each day depends on the flow of water
from the river that day. You are told that the water in the river flows at a rate
of w(t) = 2 +sin ( ; t) thousands of m 3 per day.
1 0
You know that water leaves the reservoir at a constant rate of 2000 m 3 per
day.

318 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim C

n
!'.I>
r;
How can you find the amount on any day? c
cVI
The amount on any day is the sum of the changes for all the days up to that point.
~
The 'sum of' tells you to integrate - you need to integrate a function to get the total. [/)
0
Can you make any approximations or simplifications? <
C1l
365 days in a year is an awkward number. You could approximate the length m
::::l
of a year to 360 days, since 360 is a multiple of 180. That would simplify the o:9 .
::::l
C1l
C1l
sin ( ; t) term. Remember to set your calculator to radian mode. ~.
1 0 ::::l
O'Q
Keep numbers simple by taking all volumes in 103m 3 rather than m 3. -0
0'""'
How can you find the maximum volume? rr
The clue is in the question. You find a maximum by differentiating and
ro-
3
VI
calculating when the derivative equals zero. You can use the second derivative
to check whether you have a maximum or minimum.
How can you calculate the mean volume?
To find the mean volume of water in the reservoir, calculate the total amount of
water that has been in the reservoir over the period and divide by the number
1
of days. Use the formula m = -(- - ) j}f(t) dt.
b- a a

Make a plan for the solution

Write an equation for how the volume of water in the reservoir changes each
day.
Use the answer to write a function for how much water is in the reservoir on
any day.
Substitute t = 120 into the function to calculate the volume in the reservoir
that day.
Substitute t = 240 into the equation for the rate of change of water per day.
Differentiate the equation for the amount of water in the reservoir with
respect to time.
Calculate when the rate of change (first derivative) equals zero.
Find the second derivative and check whether this point gives a maximum or
minimum.
Calculate the maximum volume.
Use the formula for the mean value in the first three months (t between 0
and 90).
Check whether the answers are sensible using another method (e.g. graphical).

C4 Solution implementation

Solution
a) Net rate of change of water in reservoir= water entering per day - water
leaving per day
In units of 103m 3 per day: r(t) = w(t) - 2

=(2+sin( ; t))-2
1 0
r(t)=sin( ; t)
1 0

319
 The total change in the amount of water in the reservoir up to the Tth day after
the start of the year is the integral of r(t) with respect tot between the limits 0
and T J;sin( ,; t) dt
0
So the amount of water in the reservoir on any day T is the original
volume+ the change up to day T:
f(T)=200+ J/ sin( ; t) dt
1 0
The definite integral is a standard integral. Evaluating it gives
180 ]T
f(T) = 200 + [ - ---:n:- cos ( ; t)
1 0 0

= 200 + { (-
1
~o cos ( 1; 0 m)) -(- 1~o cos ( 1; 0 (OJ)) }
= 200 + (- 180 cos(
7r
nT) + 180)
180 7r

f(T) = 200 +
1
~o (1 - cos ( r:a))
b) When T = 120:
1 0
f(120)=200+ ~ (1-cos(n ;~020 ))
1 0
=200+ ~ (1-cos( 237r))"'285.94
On 1 May there will be 285.94 x 103 m 3 of water in the reservoir.
c) The rate of change of volume of water in the reservoir was found in part a)
to be
r(t) =sin ( ; t) x 10 3 m 3/ day
1 0
When T = 240:
r(240) =sin ( ; (240)) =sin ~n
1 0
= - 0.866 x 10 3 m 3 per day
This is a negative value, so on 1 September the volume is falling by 866 m 3 per
day.
d) To find the maximum of the volume function f(t), look for where its derivative
is zero.
But the derivative is the rate of change of the volume, which we know is r(t), so
3 3
f'(t) = r(t) =sin( ; t) x 10 m per day
1 0
The derivative is zero when sin ( ; t) = 0, which happens when t is a multiple of
1 0
180.
Within one year the possibilities are day 0, 180 or 360.
Common sense says it will be mid-year (day 180), but you need to verify this.
Check the second derivative:

f"(t) = r'(t) = ~t(sin ( 1; 0 t)) = 1; 0 cos( 1; 0 t)

At t = 180, f'(l 80) = ; cos ( ; (180)) = ; cos(7r) = - ;
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
This is negative, sot= 180 gives a maximum.
There will be a maximum volume of water in the reservoir on day 180.

320 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

 Learning aim C

(")
PJ
n
c:
e) f(180) = 200 + (
180
7r
-
180
7r
cos(~(180)))
180 = 200 + (
180
7r
+
180
7r
) = 314 . 6 c:
VI

The maximum volume of water in the reservoir is 314.6 x 103 m 3 .

d
VI
0
f) Over the first 3 months (t between 0 and 90): <
(l)
m
= (b ~ a) fabf(t) dt
:J
m <1.9.
:J
(l)
CD
1
~ (1 - cos( 1; 0 t)) dt
1 90 0 :::! .
= (90 _ O) fo 200 + :J
O"Q

=_!__ (90200 + 180 - 180 (~t) dt

".....
0
er
90 lo 7r 7r cos 180 (I)

3
~t- (~)
2
(~t)]
90 VI

=_!__
90 (2oot + 7r 7r
·
Sin 180
0

=~
0 ~o(90) - (1~ )
1 0 2

{ ( 200(90) + sin ( ; (90)))

1 0

-(200(0)+
1 0
~ (o)-(1~0 f sin( 1; 0(o)))}
= 200 + 180 - 360
7r 7r2

= 220.8
The average volume of water in the reservoir in the first 3 months is
220.8 x 103 m 3

Do the answers seem reasonable?

All the answers are of the same order of magnitude as the values given in the
problem. You could check the results by drawing graphs of r(t) and f(t) over
the year and comparing the values. Figure 7.19 shows the graph of f(t), with
estimation of the gradient at t = 240.

150
100 -l~tHtt+lf!'!HB=J.fffl
50
O+-~-t-~~r---'"'--+--'+---+--'~: -t--~-1--------;__,
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
180 240
Time (days)

~ Figure 7.19 Check the results for the reservoir question by plotting the graph of the
volume function

You could check the mean value by using a numerical method to calculate the
area under the curve, and then divide by the number of days.
The values in Table 7.7 were calculated in Microsoft Excel®. The area was
estimated using the trapezium rule, and then the mean was obtained by
dividing the area by the number of days (90).

321
 ~ =200 + 1~O ( 1 - cos( ~~)) calculated at equally spaced t values
Table 7.7 Values of f(t)
1
Day 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Volume 200.0 200.87 203.46 207.68 213.40 220.47 228.65 237.70 247.35 257.30
Area= 19882
Mean= 220.9
You should give reasoned explanations for any differences between the values -
remember that you are critiquing the methods. For example, the trapezium rule
and graphical methods only give approximate values. How accurate would you
expect them to be? Are they in the same ball-park as the values you calculated
using analytical approaches? What are the percentage differences? Are these
differences acceptable?

Assessment practice 7.3 c.P7 c.Ps c.M3 C.M4 c.03

Your boss has provided you with p~

a power supply of fixed voltage What is the task? What am I being asked to
output and output resistance do?
and set you the task of finding • What information will I need? What tools
the value of load resistance that and methods can I use to help me complete
will provide the maximum power the task?
transfer to the load. The simple ~ Figure 7.20 Diagram of circuit
How confident do I feel in my own abilities
circuit is shown in Figure 7.20. to complete this task? Are there any areas I
You have heard that the load should match the output resistance, think I may struggle with?
but need to prove this to your boss mathematically.
Do
After some thought you decide to carry out the following steps. I know what I'm doing and what I am aiming
1 Write equations for: to achieve in this task.
• the current in the circuit, /, in terms of V5 , R5 and RL • I can identify the parts of the task that I find
• the power PL dissipated in the load in terms of IL and RL. most challenging and devise strategies to
2 Show that the maximum power transfer with respect to RL overcome those difficulties.
occurs when RL =R5. fl.eview
3 Compare the result with a graph of PL against RL for V5 = 24 V I can explain what the task involved and
and R5 = 1200 0 over the region 0 0 ,:;;; RL ,:;;; 1800 0. how I approached its completion.
• I can explain how I would deal with the hard
4 Calculate the power dissipated in the matching load in a time
elements differently next time.
of 2 minutes.
I can identify the parts of my knowledge
Write a short reflection on the activity, identifying what went well
and skills that could benefit from further
and not so well. What would you do differently if faced with a
development.
similar problem in the future?

Further reading and resources )

Websites
Maths is Fun: www.mathsisfun.com
A lot of useful skiffs and knowledge organised into categories that are easy to find.
mathcentre: www.mathcentre.ac.uk/students/topics
A set of resources split into topics designed to support self-study.
Book
Croft, T. and Davison, R. {2015) Mathematics for Engineers: A Modern Interactive
Approach, Pearson.
\.

322 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems

'
UNIT7

THINK
FUTURE
Gary Capewell Aerospace engineer

I have worked in the aerospace industry for over 30 years, initially within the airframes precision sheet metal sector. I was part of
a team tasked with building one-off projects, ranging from components for use in space programmes to the latest Euro fighter,
always taking a 'hands-on' approach. The work was varied and exciting, and calculations were at the heart of everything I did - from
calculating material requirements to CNC programming to pattern development - so each day would add further experience.

When I moved from an airframes business to Rolls Royce, the leading aero-engine manufacturer in the world, my role changed. I was
looked on as a company expert, making critical decisions on a daily basis. I had to ensure that standards were adhered to, but at the
same time I was always looking to challenge by using process innovation.
I could only move to the next level of my career through further education, by refreshing and updating my knowledge and skills.
Engineering is constantly changing, and a business has to evolve in order to stay competitive. Successfully completing a part-time
degree course changed my career almost overnight. I now manage a team of people in planning and control, guiding the company
on production-rate readiness for all global projects - 'can we deliver, on time, to the customer'. Since moving to Rolls Royce, I have
been learning a new set of skills: the theory behind what helps a company survive, cash flow, lead time, takt time, value stream
mapping and lean management principles, as well as applied science, which taught me how the machines I had used over many years
actually worked. Acquiring these new skills involved learning new maths concepts and techniques. Calculus made me want to learn
more - I could predict an outcome by using data to calculate rates of change and the cumulative effect of small changes. I could hold
conversations at a higher level with greater confidence and got more respect from my peers ..

Focusing your skills

Become confident in the mathematical tools you need to
Using mathematical skills to solve engineering
use - such as arithmetic, algebraic, statistical, estimation
problems
and approximation skills. Practise the techniques to build
It is important to be able to apply mathematical methods confidence.
to solve engineering problems. Here are some simple tips Develop a plan to solve the problem.
to help you do this. Critically analyse the solution obtained.
Gather all the information you can to understand the Reflect on the problem-solving process and the solution
nature of the problem - for example, inspection and obtained and make refinements if necessary.
quality assurance, calculation of central tendencies Repeat the process until you are happy with the
and dispersion, forecasting, reliability estimates outcome.
for components and systems, customer behaviour, Present and explain the solution to the problem in a
condition monitoring and product performance. clear and logical way.
Use critical thinking when extracting information from
the description of the problem, and identify appropriate
mathematical methods to solve the problem.

323
 Kuldeep is working towards a BTEC National in Engineering. He was preparing to carry
out the assignment for Learning aim C. He knew that in the assignment he would have
to use different calculus techniques to solve an engineering problem. Kuldeep shares
his experience below.

How I got started words. I got used to having to work out what to do. I found
First, I looked through all my notes on differentiation the questions in textbooks useful because they gave the
and integration. I paid particular attention to the worked answers at the back, but they tended to be more maths-
examples in the notes. I used the examples to identify based and not so much related to engineering. Some of the
the main skills, such as the rules for differentiating and problems I found on the internet were more complicated
integrating standard functions. than anything I was likely to do, so I had to choose carefully.

Once I worked out what the problem in the assignment

How I brought it all together meant, and how calculus fitted in, I was able to plan a series
~ I went through the worked examples carefully, writing of steps to solve it. Getting lots of practice with the basic
out the solutions myself. skills really helped.
~ I then tried answering the same questions myself,
without looking at the example.
~ I then changed the numbers slightly and tried again Think about it
until I was confident in solving the problems.
~ Have you identified the key methods that you could
~ Once I was confident with the basic rules, I attempted use for differentiating and integrating routine and
questions that involved more complicated rules such as non-routine functions?
the product rule.
~ Do you fully understand the problem you are
~ When I was happy with the examples in my notes, I investigating?
found other questions in textbooks and on the internet
~ Do you know where to look for help?
so I could practise using calculus to solve engineering
~ Have you planned your time?
problems.
~ Are you keeping track of your progress? Do you need
What I learned from the experience to find any more information to help you complete
I was pretty sure that I knew how to answer the basic your solution?
differentiation and integration questions, but I was ~ Does your solution seem reasonable?
worried that I would not understand when and how to ~ Have you reflected on what you have done? What
use the different techniques in real problems. I think went well? What did not go so well? What can you
practising on questions taken from different books and use to help solve future problems?
websites helped because they did not all use the same

324 Calculus To Solve Engineering Problems