Aviation

ISSN: 1648-7788 (Print) 1822-4180 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tavi20

Analysis of calculation results of lift and drag

forces for several wings using nonlinear section
data

E. Pakalnis , E. Lasauskas & J. Stankūnas

To cite this article: E. Pakalnis , E. Lasauskas & J. Stankūnas (2005) Analysis of calculation
results of lift and drag forces for several wings using nonlinear section data, Aviation, 9:1, 26-31,
DOI: 10.1080/16487788.2005.9635893

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 ISSN 1648-7788 AVIATION, Vol IX, No 1, 2005
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTH INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR ON
“Recent Research and Design Progress in Aeronautical
Engineering and its Influence on Education“ – Riga, Latvia

ANALYSIS OF CALCULATION RESULTS OF LIFT AND DRAG FORCES

FOR SEVERAL WINGS USING NONLINEAR SECTION DATA

E. Pakalnis, E. Lasauskas, J. Stankūnas

Antanas Gustaitis Aviation Institute of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Rodūnės 30, LT-02187, Vilnius-38,
Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Received 17 01 2005, accepted 17 03 2005

Egidijus PAKALNIS was born in 1974, in Biržai. In 1996 graduated Aviation Institute of Vilnius Gediminas
Technical University. In 1998 received master’s degree of aviation mechanics. From 1997 to 2002 worked in Antanas
Gustaitis Aviation Institute as chief engineer. At present doctoral student of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University.
Interest of research – low speed nonlinear aerodynamics. Author and co-author of eight scientific articles.

Eduardas LASAUSKAS, Assoc Prof Dr

Date and place of birth: 1952 in Shvenchioneliai, Lithuania.
Education: 1976 - Kazan Aviation Institute, an Aeronautical Mechanical Engineer.
Affiliations and functions: Since 1973 - Prienai factory “Sportinė aviacija”; since 1998 - Research assistant in
Aviation Mechanic Department of Antanas Gustaitis Aviation institute of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University;
2000 – scientific degree of Doctor; since 2001 - Associate Professor and a Head of the Aviation Mechanics
Department.
Experience: design of sailplanes: LAK-5, LAK-9, LAK-9M, LAK-10 LAK-11, LAK-12, LAK-12E, LAK-15, LAK-
17, LAK-17A, LAK-19 and LAK-20. He leaded the design of the test bed SL-2P for the wing section testing in free
flight. He designed the wing sections for the sailplanes LAK 17A, LAK-19 and LAK-20; he has a glider pilot licence,
his flight experience with sailplanes is over 1300 hours.
Teaching: Aerodynamics and Flight Dynamics.
Professional memberships: Member of International Scientific and Technical Organisation for Soaring Flight OSTIV.
Research interests: Low speed aerodynamics and Flight mechanics. He is the author of 14 scientific articles.
Present position: Head of the Aviation Mechanics Department at Antanas Gustaitis Aviation Institute of Vilnius
Gediminas Technical University; Rodūnės k. 30, LT - 2038 Vilnius, Lithuania; Tel. 370 5 2739 039, fax. 370 5 2329
321, e-mail: [email protected]
Jonas STANKŪNAS, Prof Dr Habil
Date and place of birth: 1949 in Pakenė, Rokiškis Distr., Lithuania.
Education: 1970 - Krivoj Rog Civil Aviation School, Ukraine; 1976 - Faculty of Automation at Vilnius Institute of
Civil Engineering; 1981 - post - graduated studies at Vilnius Institute of Civil Engineering.
Affiliations and Functions: 1970 - 1972 – Aviation Technician, Vilnius Joint Aviation Platoon; 1972 - 1975 –
Expert, Radio Apparatus Technology Dept., 1975 - 1978 – Sr. Eng., Sector of Science Research; 1982 - 1987 – Head
of Science Laboratory of Slow Wave and Deflecting Systems, Vilnius Institute of Civil Engineering; 1988 - 1993 –
Assoc Prof, Radio Apparatus Technology Department, Vilnius Technical University (formerly, Vilnius Civil Eng.
Institute) and Kaunas University of Technology (formerly, Kaunas Polytechnic. Institute.). Since 1993 – Director of
Antanas Gustaitis Aviation Institute (AGAI) of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University; 1993 - 1995 – Assoc Prof,
1995 – Habilitated Doctor; 1995 - 1997 – Prof, Air Traffic Control Department (AGAI); since 1997 – Prof, Avionics
Department (AGAI); since 2002 – Director of the Defense Technology Center of Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University.
Awards: Laureate of Lithuanian Award in Technology Sciences, 1997.
Publications: Author or co-author of 104 scientific articles, 2 monographs, 28 reports, 97 scientific reports, and 9
education methodological publications.
Inventions: Author or co-author of 14 inventions.
Training: Advancement training in Great Britain, Canada and Sweden. 370 5 2329 321, e-mail:
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract. Calculation results for 11 different finite span wings are presented. Calculations were made by a combination of a
numerical solution of lifting line theory with a technique developed to evaluate nonlinear section lift data. Aerodynamic coefficients
for these wings are compared to the research results of other authors and to experimental data.

Key words: lift, drag, wing, non-linear aerodynamics.

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 E. Pakalnis, E. Lasauskas, J. Stankūnas / AVIATION, Vol IX, No 1, 2005, 26–31

between the potential flow solution and the viscous Cl

Introduction from the nonlinear section Cl-a curve.
Aerodynamic coefficients were determined for 11 In all methods using nonlinear section data the, main
different finite span wings. Comparisons to experimental objective is that for the final solution of the three-
data and to with results of calculations of other authors dimensional flow, the G distribution across the span is
are presented. The calculations were made by a consistent with the distribution of the effective a for each
combination of the Vortex Step Method with a technique section, and the Cl and Cm for each section is consistent
developed to evaluate nonlinear section lift data. Results with the effective a for that section and the section Cl-a
include various flow conditions from Re=4000 for a and Cm-a data. Mukherjee R., Gopalarathnam A., and
straight plate to Re=2,7x106 for a swept wing. Wings Kim S W. [9] achieve that condition by finding the
were chosen according to available experimental data. effective reduction in the camber distribution for each
section along the span.
Review of methods using non-linear section Another possibility to take into account is the non-
lift data for calculation of lift and drag force linear section data in wing calculation presented in the
along a wing span research of K. Jacob [6]. His method combines an
inviscid 3d-lifting surface theory with a 2d-airfoil theory
Prandtl’s Lifting Line Theory is the basis for most that includes boundary layer calculations and a
methods used to calculate change of lifting force of flat, displacement model for rear separation
low sweep angle and moderate and high aspect ratio In this research the vortex step method, which
wings. Tani developed the first successful technique in differs from the methods mentioned above by the
1934 for handling nonlinear section lift-curve slopes in nonlinear section data implementation technique, was
the formulation of Prandtl’s Lifting Line Theory [17]. used. Here an idea of E. Lasauskas was developed into a
This method was made popular by the 1947 NACA separate method for wing lift and drag force calculation
(National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) report of using nonlinear section characteristics [7].
Sivells and Neely that provides a detailed description of
the method for unswept wings with arbitrary planform and Model of a finite wing
airfoil lift-curve slopes [15]. They apply this method for
analysis of wings up to stall, i.e., until a wing angle of The wing model used is described in reference [11].
attack at any section on the wing has Cl equal to Clmax. The method combines numerical solution of lifting line
Numerical solutions of Prandtl’s Lifting Line theory and a special approach to evaluate nonlinear
Theory were also developed and are still in use. The most section lift data. The iterative procedure allows wing lift
well known works using these methods are the research of at critical and post critical angles of attack to be predicted
McCormick and Anderson et al. [8, 1]. The method is for the wings with moderate sweep and high aspect ratios.
also reflected in resent research of W. F. Phillips and D. Results
O. Snyder [13].
The research of Mutteperl] and Weisinger [19] made Figures 1 to 4 present calculation results of a
a base for the so-called Finite-Step Method or Vortex rectangular flat plate of aspect ratio three at two different
Step Method, which also was developed from Prandtl’s Reynolds numbers. Experimental results, presented in
Lifting Line Theory. Later Campbell and Blackwell reference, were used as a section data [12]. These results
simplified their method [10, 4, 3]. These methods were obtained in a low-speed, low-turbulence wind tunnel
presented the first attempts to couple sectional (two- with a test section of 61 x 61 cm. Aluminium end plates
dimensional) viscous results with inviscid wing (three- were mounted in the test section. All wings tested were
dimensional) theory. The most resent research reflecting held at quarter-chord point, and a streamlined covering
their work has been made by Barnes J.P. [2]. He presents covered the sting. The gaps between the wing and the end
the Semi-Empirical Vortex Step Method, which includes plates were adjusted to approximately 0.8 mm.
empirical adjustments in lifting line position and shape. Uncertainty in the angle of attack was determined to be of
Piszkin and Levinsky] developed a nonlinear lifting- 0.2 – 0.3 deg and 6% for CL and CD.
line method based in part on the iterative method Figures 1 and 2 present lift and drag for a
originally conceived by Tani [14, 17]. Their method rectangular wing of a flat plate at Reynolds number 8000.
differs from Prandtl’s classical LLT in the Here it could be found that calculated curve presents the
implementation of the boundary condition. Tseng and Lan effect of finite wingspan compared to two-dimensional
developed an entirely different approach to the use of case. The results obtained are very close to the
nonlinear section data [18]. In their method, the reduction experimental results presented in ref. [12].
at any given wing section is determined by the difference

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 E. Pakalnis, E. Lasauskas, J. Stankūnas / AVIATION, Vol IX, No 1, 2005, 26–31

Fig 1. Lift coefficient of a flat plate rectangular wing of aspect

ratio 3, at Re=80000. For calculation, section experimental Fig 3. Lift coefficient of a rectangular wing of aspect ratio 3 at
results were used Re=140000. For calculation, section experimental results were
used

Fig 2. Lift-drag characteristics for a flat plate rectangular wing

with aspect ratio 3 at Re=80000. For calculation, section
experimental results were used Fig 4. Lift-drag characteristics for a rectangular wing with
aspect ratio 3 at Re=140000. For calculation, section
Figures 3 and 4 present the results for the same wing experimental results were used
at Reynolds number 14000. It should be mentioned that
the method itself does not account for the effect of the The following Figures 5-8 present another
Reynolds number on the calculated wing characteristics. calculation attempt for a rectangular wing at ultra-low
Here the change in the Reynolds number is evaluated in Reynolds numbers. Results are presented for several
the 2D (sectional) characteristics, what means that a wing airfoils used for a wing of aspect ratio 7.25. Since
could be calculated for any Reynolds number for which experimental results were not available for such airfoils at
2D data is available. Compared to the results at Re=8000, Re=4000, section calculation results were made by means
bigger differences are noticed between calculated and of X-FOIL [5]. As can be seen from the figures,
experimental results. However, the lift curve slope over 5 calculation results are quite far from the experimental
degrees of angle of attack is still very close. results, which are presented in ref. [16].

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 E. Pakalnis, E. Lasauskas, J. Stankūnas / AVIATION, Vol IX, No 1, 2005, 26–31

Fig 5. Lift coefficient of FX 63-137 rectangular wing AR=7.25 Fig 7. Lift coefficient of NACA 0009 rectangular wing with
at Re=4000. X-FOIL calculation results were used as 2D AR=7,25 at Re=4000. X-FOIL calculation results were used as
section data 2D section data

Such a situation was expected and is explained by

the possibilities of X-FOIL. For such low Reynolds
numbers X-FOIL cannot give suitable section
characteristics.

Fig 8. Lift coefficient of NACA 0012 rectangular wing with

AR=7.25 at Re=4000. X-FOIL calculation results were used as
2D section data
The results presented above make a proposal for
more thorough research in the application of the method
in the area of low Reynolds numbers. Due to lack of
experimental data, it is not available at present time.
Figure 9 presents other calculation results for a
Fig 6. Lift coefficient of NACA 0006 rectangular wing with rectangular wing with the use of X-FOIL sectional data.
AR=7.25 at Re=4000. X-FOIL calculation results were used as Here the results are compared with the results found by K.
2D section data Jacob and with experimental results [6].

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 E. Pakalnis, E. Lasauskas, J. Stankūnas / AVIATION, Vol IX, No 1, 2005, 26–31

For the clarity here the difference from Klaus

Jacob’s method should be explained. Jacob [6] uses the
following, which is different from that one used in the
present method, procedure to calculate the effective angle
of attack [11].
Induced flow angles for each wing section are
computed with 3-d lifting surface theory. Effective angle
of attack is determined in that way:

a e = a g - Da
Here:

Da = F × Da ** + (1 - F )Da * ; F=0.33

Da * = a * - (a * ) 2 - d
Fig 9. Lift-drag characteristics for a NACA 2412 rectangular
wing with AR=5 at Re=2.7x106. X-FOIL calculation results Da ** = a ** - (a ** ) 2 - d
were used as 2D section data
As seen in Figure 9, there is good agreement Whereas induced angles of attack of the 3-d flow
* **
between calculated and experimental results up to CLmax, a and a are calculated from the system of linear
but beyond it the experiments show a rapid decrease in equations based on the 3-d lifting surface theory, 2-d
lift. As this airfoil at calculated conditions develops a angles of attack are calculated in the following manner:
short bubble near the nose, this may be caused by the
disappearance of the bubble [6]. Comparing the (a * ) 2 - d = (Cl - Cm ) / 2p ;
calculation results it is evident that the calculated lift
curve slope is slightly higher than that obtained by K.
Jacob, which results in higher CLmax. As previous research
(a ** ) 2- d = (Cl + 8Cm ) / 2p
shows, the problem is in the different section data used
[11]. K. Jacob used experimental section data whereas X-
FOIL results were used in the present research. With the
same source of section data, both methods present very
close results. Such a situation can be noticed in figures 10
and 11, where the same experimental data were used by
both methods.
Figure 11 presents the wing sweep evaluation
results. Here calculation results for non-tapered NACA
4415 wing with 20 deg. of sweep back are presented.
Close agreement with K. Jacob’s results should be
noticed.

Fig 11. Lift-drag characteristics for a NACA 4415 not tapered

swept wing (20 deg.) with AR=6.2 at Re=2.1x106.
Experimental airfoil results were used as 2D section data

Conclusions
1. Despite some results obtained for a flat plate at very
low Reynolds numbers, the limits of the calculation
method used depends on the availability of reliable
section data.
2. Low Reynolds number experimental data is needed
in order to evaluate the capabilities of the method at
Fig 10. Lift-drag characteristics for a NACA 4415 rectangular a very low Reynolds numbers.
wing with AR=6.2 at Re=2.1x106. Experimental results were 3. For the moderate and high aspect ratios of
used as 2D section data
rectangular wings the method provides results that

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agree with the calculation results of K. Jacob and January 6–9, 2003/Reno, Nevada, AIAA. – 2003. –
with experimental results. P. 1097.
4. Agreement with Jacob’s results appears in the 10. Mutteperl W. The Calculation of Span Load
calculation of a sweptback wing, but comparison Distributions on Swept-Back Wings / NACA TN 834.
with experimental results is needed in order to – 1941 Dec.
evaluate the reliability of such results. 11. Pakalnis E., Lasauskas E, Stankūnas J. Method to
Evaluate Nonlinear Effect in Calculation of a Finite
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