MEKDELA AMBA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTITION SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY/EARTH SCIENCE

GROUP ASSIGNMENT

Course title; History of Ethiopia and the Horn

Group members…………………………………………ID NO

1. BEI GATWECH…………………….….……MAUR1300296
2. Almaz Afework…………………………..…MAUR1200133
3. Hayimanot Fikade……………………..…..…MAUR1200693
4. Aregewan Beka…………………………….…MAUR1200175
5. UGUI
6. YFYUF

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Submmitted To Tefer (Msc) SUBMISSIONDATE; 12/05/2015 E.C

TULU AWULIYA, ETHIOPIA 2023

This teaching material is prepared for a common course given to Students of Higher Learning
Institutions. The purpose is to help students understand a history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient
times to 1995 as a base for shaping and bettering the future. The module generally focuses on major
topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic, and political
developments and their interrelations.

The contents of the module consider the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space.
To make this course inclusive and representative, the module also includes regional histories across the
period. The module is divided into seven units each of which has its own specific objectives. The first
unit defines history, describes why history is important, how history is studied and introduces the region
of Ethiopia and the Horn. The second unit seeks to explain peoples and cultures in the region. The major
topics treated in the unit are human evolution, Neolithic Revolution and settlement patterns, as well as
religion and religious processes. Based on these historical backgrounds, the third unit describes states,
external contacts, economic formations and cultural achievements in terms of architecture, writing,
calendar, and others to the end of the thirteenth century. Unit Four treats political developments,
evangelization and religious movements, trade and external relations of the region from the late
thirteenth to the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. It explains how the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim sultanates evolved in the region and how their interactions shaped the history of the region in
the pre-sixteenth century. Unit Five discusses a history of the region from the early sixteenth to the end
of the eighteenth centuries. It deals with interaction between states, foreign interventions, religious
controversies, population movements, and how these contributed to the integration of peoples across
ethnic and religious diversities to the end of the eighteenth century. Besides, the unit describes peoples
and states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The unit ends up its discussion depicting major
conditions and achievements of the Gondarine period, and the Zemene -Mesafint (Era of Princes) in
which the Yejju lords played a dominant role

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1. Why did the External force of Portuguese and Ottoman Turkey involve in the
domestic affaires of the horn of Africa in the sixteenth century

The Ottoman-Portuguese conflicts (1538 to 1559) were a period of conflict during the Ottoman–
Portuguese confrontations and series of armed military encounters between the Portuguese Empire and
the Ottoman Empire along with regional allies in and along the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea

2. Explain the advantage and disadvantage of Oromo, Argoba, Afar and

The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late fifteenth and
the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement of the Argoba, Afar
and Somali. In addition, the demographic pressure on environment gave background for the population
movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and hence were affected by the
consequences of the military conflict. These peoples moved back and forth in response to the ongoing
military conflict.

 The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the
Hist.102 83 Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively. Towards the end of the
thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further to the east as the result of the
pressure from the Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant,
became the center of Muslim resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the
Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area inhabited by the
Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of
conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba territory. As a
result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the destruction of sultanates
and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict can be observed from the
fragmented settlement patterns of the people.
 The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until
they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being actors in the
conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different directions to avoid
the risk of the conflicts. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral economy helped them to survive
the destructive effects of the wars.
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  The Somali: their territory laid in the medieval competition for the control of trade routes.
Likewise, prior to the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, there was strong demographic pressure
from the Somali. The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military
strength of the Imam. However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as
they returned to their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.

 The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system. The Gadaa system was an institution through which the
Oromo socially organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories,
maintained law and order, and managed their economies. This section reflects on Hist.102 84
the operation of the Gadaa system in relation to the Oromo population movement of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa
system emerged. However, it is clear that for long the society organized their politics, economy,
social, cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa institution. The account by Abba Bahrey
indicates that during the early sixteenth century, the system fully functioned because of which
the Oromo were well organized. Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced
the Gadaa system long before the sixteenth century movement of the Oromo.

3. Analyze the process of territorial Expansion and the formation of modern Ethiopian
Empire?
Territorial Expansion

Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohanne IV and others made statebuilding their mission and struggled
their ways. Yet, the most successful was Menilek ofShewa.

This was because Menilek had, among other factors, access to modern firearms. Thecontrol of resource
rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military muscle as well as thedetermination of his generals
counted for his successes. The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in three
phases i.e. when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from1889-96 and the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).

 Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha
Oromo territories after controlling local leaders notably Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e
of Gullale, Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and others. Meanwhile, other
Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde,
DejjachBalchaSafo (Abba Nefso) and others worked towards the formation of the
modern Ethiopian state.
 In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek because
oftheir religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, and for
fear oftheir local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo. On the other hand, the western

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 Gurage, ledby Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition
stronglyresisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in 1888.
 .Menilek's territorial expansionto western and southwestern regions were concluded
throughboth forceful and peaceful submissions. In the regions south of the Abbay River,
particularlyin Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam had already established his
control over theregion since the mid1870s. Although he faced stiff resistance from Moti
(King) Abishe Garbaof Horro, Adal’s force ambushed Abishe and his entourage at a place
called Kokor. Thus,Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle Haymanot since 1881) controlled the region
until 1882, when he was defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana.

 formation of modern Ethiopian Empire

 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and
technology by Ethiopian monarchs. Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were
interested in European technologies, Emperor Tewodros had preferable degree of
information/contact about western technologies than his predecessors. He was well
aware of the importance of European technologies to transform his people and country.
For this purpose, he attempted to approach Europeans for the introduction of western
science and technologies.
 It is apparent that, Kasa’s defeat by the well-trained and equipped Egyptian troops at
the Battle of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think putting the country “on an equal
footing with European powers.” As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military,
administrative and socio-economic reform measures. As regards the army, Tewodros
introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa. Besides, he
tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried
national army. Furthermore, he tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat
(near Debre Tabor) with the help of European missionaries and artisans. At Gafat, about
35 cannons were produced of which the biggest administrative reforms of Tewodros
were focused on the centralization of power and securing financial base. He introduced
a policy of “general pacification”, warning everyone should return to his lawful
avocation, the merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough. He tried to separate
church and the monarchy. He reduced the church land and the number of priests and
deacons that brought him into conflict with the EOCwhichprecipitated his downfall.

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4. Discuss about the foreign relation of Ethiopia during the Derg regime (1974-
1991)?

The Derg aligned itself with Soviet bloc—had similar Marxist Leninist policy on Ethiopia. The Derg
suffered from internal insurgency and ambivalent relations with neighboring countries such as Eritrea
and Somalia. In 1977, the Ogaden War was fought between the Derg supported by Cuba, Soviet Union
and South Yemen, and Somalia with the United States and Egypt. Although ending on 15 March 1978,
the relations between Ethiopia and Somalia marred with political dispute with involvement of the
Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) in relations of the disputed Ogaden region.

Mengistu Haile Mariam (fifth in row) at SED Party Congress in Berlin, April 1986

By the 1990, the Derg and Soviet Union relations was deteriorated after Mengistu Haile Mariam banned
the Ethiopian media to use the term glasnost and perestroika, defying Mikhail Gorbachev who was
believed has not fondness for him. By early 1990, Mengistu helped emigration of the Ethiopian Jews to
Israel .by which many Jewish organizations and US Congress discerned Mengistu's task in the lobbying
effort.

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5. Elaborate the role of long distance trade in Ethiopia and the horn of
Africa?
caravans, chiefly composed of Arabs and Ethiopian Muslims who controlled long
distance trade, including the import-export business, and travelled from.

 Start an import export business using these steps:

Indian trade with Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, though harder to document
historically, was doubtless by this time also well established. This commerce owed
much to the famous Trade Winds, which at various seasons of the year blew either
to or from the sub-continent, thus facilitating commercial sailings with Africa.
 AKSUM
The dawn of the Christian era coincided approximately, with the rise in what is now
northern Ethiopia, of the renowned Aksumite kingdom. This was an important
commercial realm, which issued its own currency, in gold, silver, and bronze. The
Aksumites, who constituted the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman
Empire and Persia, included both resolute merchants and skilled craftsmen.
The Aksumite realm, which had its own port at Adulis, near present-day Massawa,
traded widely with Egypt, Arabia, Persia, India, and even far-away Ceylon. Aksumite
exports, as evident from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greek manual
probably written by an Egyptian trader around the first century AD, consisted
largely of ivory, rhinoceros, tortoise-shell, and obsidian stone. Imports comprised
cloth, raw metal, and a wide range of manufactured and luxury goods, including
even lacquerware, wine and olive oil.
The artisans of Aksum were particularly able. This is apparent from the city;
archaeological remains, which include fine temples and tombs, as well as the
famous obelisks of Aksum. The second largest, looted by Mussolini in 1937, is
currently in Rome due for repatriation, as soon, we are assured, as circumstances

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permit. Yes, I know it should have been dismantled many months ago, but some
countries are slower than others in meeting international obligations.
 CURRENCY
Though the Aksumites minted their own coins, many of which have been found in
Egypt, Palestine, Arabia and India, when trading with the interior they also engaged
in what is termed “silent trade”. This was reported by Kosmos Indikopleustes, an
early sixth century Egyptian merchant-cum-monk. He states that Aksumite traders,
when travelling to the Blue Nile area to obtain gold, would take with them cattle, as
well as pieces of salt and iron.
They would then make a large hedge of thorns around their camp, after which they
would slaughter some of their livestock, and place portions of the meat, together
with pieces of salt and iron upon the fence, before withdrawing into their camp.
The local people would then come and put gold beside the meat, salt and iron, they
wished to obtain in exchange for the gold and would then withdraw.
The traders would then approach. If satisfied with the quantity of gold offered they
would take it, and go back to their camp, whereupon the locals would pick up the
meat, salt and iron offered in exchange, but if unsatisfied, would return, and
recover their articles.
“Such”, Kosmos writes, was “the mode in which business is transacted… because
the language is different and interpreters are hardly to be found”.
 THE MIDDLE AGES: MARKETS AND CARAVANS
Ethiopian trade in the Middle Ages was based largely on two institutions: local
markets and long distance merchants caravans.
Markets were to be found in all major towns, but more commonly in the
countryside, where fairs were usually held weekly at some distance from inhabited
settlements. Such markets would be attended by local people coming to buy and
sell their produce, as well as to exchange gossip, but also by travelling merchants,
in many cases handling imported articles. Such traders would probably attend a
different fair each day.
Merchants, who for security often travelled together in large caravans made their
way across the length and breadth of the country. Those seeking ivory, gold, civet
musk, and slaves would journey to the rich lands of Ethiopia’s south-west. If
engaged in the import-export trade they would, however, make their way to the
Red Sea port of Massawa, the Gulf of Aden ports of Tajurah, Zeila and Berbera, or
to the Sudan frontier in the far west. Imports in this period, as earlier, consisted
largely of cotton and manufactured goods.

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  “PRIMITIVE MONEY”
Currency, which had come to an end in Aksumite times, was no longer used in this
period. Gold measured by weight, was, however, employed by the merchants for
large-scale transactions, but most people made use of barter, or so-called “primitive
money”. The latter is the name given to articles which were used for exchange
purpose instead of money. They consisted, in Ethiopia, of amoles, or bars of rock
salt mined in the Danakali, or Afar, depression; pieces of iron, to be used for the
local manufacture of spear-heads, sickle-blades, sword-blades, etc.; and pieces of
cloth, to be later worn as clothing. After the coming of fire-arms, bullets or
cartridges, were also much used as “primitive money”.
Trade in those days was largely in the hands of Ethiopian Muslims, or foreigners,
including Arabs, and Armenians, though Greek and Indian merchants later came to
the fore.

Officially recorded information suggests that trade is underperforming as a driver of growth, job
creation and poverty reduction in the Horn of Africa. The degree of integration with the global economy,
as measured by the ratio of exports and imports to GDP decreased between 2013 and 2019 in four out
of the five HoA countries for which data are available.4 The largest declines were in Djibouti (-50
percentage points of GDP). However, Djibouti still remained the country with the highest trade-to-GDP
ratio, at 298% in 2019, due to the magnitude of port related services (Figure 1A). Low-value products are
dominate the structure of trade in the region. Except for Kenya, exports from HoA countries have a
relatively high proportion of raw materials.

6. What were the contribution of Ethiopian patriots focusing on their

The Patriot movement was mostly based in the rural Shewa, Gondar and Gojjam provinces, though it
drew support from all over occupied Ethiopia. Several hundred Eritreans also participated.[1] Small cells
operated in Addis Ababa and other towns, known as Wust Arbagna (Insider Patriots).[3] The Black Lions
took part in the movement.[4] In 1937/1938, there were an estimated 25,000 active Patriots in Ethiopia.
The average band of resistance fighters was estimated in 1938 to have included 400 to 500 members,
depending on the agricultural season.[5] The Arbegnoch or Patriots were characterized as being a Shifta.

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  Christians
The Patriots had the near-total support of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[4] The majority of
participants were Christian highlanders. Ethiopian Muslims were less involved in the Italo-Ethiopian
conflict and sometimes considered the Christians as much their enemies as the Italians. Relations
between the two religious groups were tenuous throughout Italian occupation and in one instance
Muslim Oromo attacked and killed retreating Patriots in Wollo Province.[6]

 Women
A number of women participated in the Patriot movement, many of whom had been raped by
Italian soldiers.[7] Ethiopian women fought in combat against the Italians and took on support roles,
made possible through organised women's groups. The Ethiopian Women's Voluntary Association,
established in 1937, coordinated its members' work against the Italians, many of whom fought
alongside the Patriots. Another organisation, the Ethiopian Women's Patriotic Union, directly aided
regular Patriot forces. As co-conspirators with the Insider Patriots, members provided the resistance
with food, medicine, clothing, arms and ammunition and intelligence. During Ethiopia's liberation,
many women from the union took up arms. Others acted as lookouts, cleaned weapons on the
battlefield or managed first aid stations.

conclusion
The social, cultural, economic, and political experiences of Ethiopia and the Horn in the nineteenth and
the early twentieth centuries that played significant role in shaping the Hist.102 5 modern history of the
region are given space in unit six. Historical processes including state formation and power rivalry, trade,
external relations, foreign threats and major battles, centralization and modernization attempts, Italian
occupation, and socio-economic conditions from 1800 to 1941 make central position in the modern
history of the region. It also underlines how personalities helped change the setting, how societies
interacted, and its implication for history of Ethiopia and the Horn. The last unit discusses about the
historical developments in the region from the period of liberation from the Italian occupation (1941) to
the period of the ratification of the FDRE Constitution (1995). Important issues discussed in this regard
include consolidation of Imperial Power and socio-economic conditions, oppositions made by various
social groups, national questions, reforms, and political developments. During its preparation, despite
serious attempts made, the module is far from being comprehensive in terms of coverage of themes and
issues across time and spaces in the region. Certainly, however, the topics and approaches considered in
the module derive attention of learners and instructors of higher institutions.

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 References

 Abir, Mordechai. Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the ReUnification
of the Christian Empire 1769-1855. London: Green and Co Ltd, 1968.
 _____. “Southern Ethiopia”. In Richard Gray ed. Pre-Colonial African Trade in Central and
Eastern Africa Before 1900. New York, 1970.
 Alexander Naty. The Culture of powerlessness and the spirit of rebellion among the Aari people
of Southwest Ethiopia. Stanford University, 1992
 . Almeida Manoel de.C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford trans. and eds.
 Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-1646. London: Hakluyt Society, 1954. Asmerom Legesse. Gada:
Three Approaches to the Study of African Society. New York: The Free Press, 1973.

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  _____.Oromo Democracy: An indigenous African Political System.The Red Sea Press, 2000.
Ayalew Keno Trans.The Oromo: An Ancient People of the Great African Nation. 2007. Bahru
Zewde. A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn, Addis Ababa, 1998
 . _____. Society, State and History: Selected Essays. AAU Press, 2008. Darkwah, H. R.Shawa,
Menelik and the Ethiopian Empire, 1813-1889. London, 1975. Dinsa Lapiso Abba Jobir. “The
Gada System of Government and Sera Chafe Oromo.” Addis Ababa: National University, 1975.

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