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238 W. Tang et al.
/ Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 233–247
Fig. 5. Spectroscopy techniques: (a) X-ray spectroscopy; (b) infrared spectroscopy; (c) Raman spectroscopy; (d) X-ray diffraction analysis.
self-healing mechanism by UT. This is of particular significance in

case of autogenous healing where presence of water is always
required [106]. Corrosion test is an established testing method
for concrete which allows monitoring and detection of corrosion,
or areas where corrosion is likely to take place, inside the concrete
matrix and, as a result, evaluates the vulnerability of the concrete
against corrosion. Finally, frost/salt scaling refers to the
vulnerability of concrete to deterioration due to freeze–thaw
phenomenon or upon contact with de-icing salt. This is of
Fig. 6. Ultra-sonic testing of concrete (echo analysis) (detection of defects). particular significance in road and marine structure.
Unlike assessment methods for transport properties, resistivity
Improved autogenous self-healing of fiber reinforced concrete was and continuity examinations have not been popular test methods
also investigated by assessment of transport properties in a num- to evaluate efficiency of self-healing approaches. Abd-Elmoaty
ber of studies [6,16–19]. These class of test methods have also been employed UT to evaluate the efficiency of autogenous healing in
utilized to examine the efficiency of the improved autogenous polymer modified concrete [49]. UT has also been used to investi-
healing thorough ongoing hydration [105] as well as ongoing crys- gate the improved autogenous self-healing effect through ongoing
tallization by use of some type of Pozzolan [32,35] or expansive crystallization using some type of Pozzolan [35,106]. In addition,
additives, geo-materials and chemical agents [40,45]. As for auton- corrosion test has been employed to investigate improved autoge-
omous self-healing, assessment of transport properties have been nous healing by addition of calcium nitrate fibers to the matrix by
used to investigate the autonomous self-healing capability of con- Dry and Corsaw [107]. Pelletier et al. investigate the autonomous
crete containing two-component healing agents in two different healing effect triggered by encapsulated sodium silicate using
sets of capsules [77,78,80]. The capsule-based autonomous self- corrosion test [72]. Finally, the efficiency of improved autogenous
healing in bacteria-based concrete has also been investigated self-healing through ongoing hydration has been evaluated using
through examination of transport properties [68,73]. This class of frost/salt scaling test by Sisomphon et al. [105].
test methods have also been employed to investigate other cap-
sule-based [2,87] as well as tubular [65] autonomous self-healing 3.3. Assessment of regained mechanical properties
approaches.
One of the main reasons why concrete is the most widely used
3.2.2. Resistivity and continuity construction material worldwide is that it possesses outstanding
Another important set of properties of concrete which associ- mechanical properties, such as high strength and stiffness. Howev-
ates directly to the durability of concrete structures is the continu- er, existence of cracks in the concrete matrix may significantly
ity of the matrix as well as its resistance against degradation. weaken these properties. For this reason, one of the major
Popular test methods in this class are ultrasonic measurements, approaches to investigate the efficiency of self-healing effect in con-
corrosion test and frost/salt scaling. In ultrasonic testing (UT) of crete is to assess mechanical properties of concrete after the healing
concrete (Fig. 6), very short ultrasonic waves are transmitted into process has occurred. In this way, comparison of regained mechan-
the concrete matrix to detect internal flaws and discontinuities. ical properties with those of a reference sample specimen provides
High penetrating power and sensitivity of ultrasonic waves allow some information on the efficiency of the healing mechanism. The
detection of extremely small flaws deep inside the material. UT most common test methods for assessment of regained mechanical
can also provide some estimation of the size, orientation and shape properties in self-healed concrete comprises some popular
of the defects. However, one drawback of UT is that it is very mechanical test methods such as 3-point and 4-point bending tests,
sensitive to the existence of water in the matrix. In fact, water compression test, tensile test, horizontal deformation and impact
absorption through micro-cracks may be falsely attributed to the loading test. There are also two non-mechanical test methods

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238 W. Tang et al.

/ Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 233–247

self-healing mechanism by UT. This is of particular signiﬁcance in

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