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The origin and early evolution of plants on Land

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DOI: 10.1038/37918

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 review article

The origin and early evolution of

plants on land
Paul Kenrick & Peter R. Crane
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The origin and early evolution of land plants in the mid-Palaeozoic era, between about 480 and 360 million years ago,
was an important event in the history of life, with far-reaching consequences for the evolution of terrestrial organisms
and global environments. A recent surge of interest, catalysed by palaeobotanical discoveries and advances in the
systematics of living plants, provides a revised perspective on the evolution of early land plants and suggests new
directions for future research.

The origin and early diversification of land plants marks an interval Eoembryophytic (mid-Ordovician [early Llanvirn: !476 Myr] to
of unparalleled innovation in the history of plant life. From a simple Early Silurian [late Llandovery: !432 Myr])3. Spore tetrads (com-
plant body consisting of only a few cells, land plants (liverworts, prising four membrane-bound spores; Fig. 2d) appear over a broad
hornworts, mosses and vascular plants) evolved an elaborate two- geographic area in the mid-Ordovician and provide the first good
phase life cycle and an extraordinary array of complex organs and evidence of land plants3,26,29. The combination of a decay-resistant
tissue systems. Specialized sexual organs (gametangia), stems with wall (implying the presence of sporopollenin) and tetrahedral
an intricate fluid transport mechanism (vascular tissue), structural configuration (implying haploid meiotic products) is diagnostic
tissues (such as wood), epidermal structures for respiratory gas of land plants. The precise relationships of the spore producers
exchange (stomates), leaves and roots of various kinds, diverse within land plants are controversial, but evidence of tetrads and
spore-bearing organs (sporangia), seeds and the tree habit had all other spore types (such as dyads) in Late Silurian and Devonian
evolved by the end of the Devonian period. These and other megafossils16,30, as well as data on spore wall ultrastructure25 and the
innovations led to the initial assembly of plant-dominated terres- structure of fossil cuticles31, support previous suggestions of a land
trial ecosystems, and had a great effect on the global environment. flora of liverwort-like plants (Fig. 1c)3. Some early spores and
Early ideas on the origin of land plants were based on living cuticles may also represent extinct transitional lineages between
groups, but since the discovery of exceptionally well-preserved fossil charophycean algae (Fig. 1a, b) and liverworts (Box 1), but precise
plants in the Early Devonian Rhynie Chert, research has focused understanding of their affinities is hindered by the dearth of
almost exclusively on the fossil record of vascular plants1,2. During associated megafossils.
the 1970s, syntheses of palaeobotanical and stratigraphic data Eotracheophytic (Early Silurian [latest Llandovery: !432 Myr] to
emphasized the Late Silurian and Devonian periods as the critical Early Devonian [mid Lochkovian: !402 Myr])3. The early Silurian
interval during which the initial diversification of vascular plants (latest Llandovery) marks the beginning of a decline in diversity of
occurred1,2, and identified a group of simple fossils (rhyniophytes, tetrads and a rise to dominance of individually dispersed, simple
such as Cooksonia and Rhynia) as the likely ancestral forms2. They spores, which are found in several basal land plant groups (such as
also supported earlier hypotheses of two main lines of evolution: hornworts, some mosses, and early vascular plants)3. Although
one comprising clubmosses (Fig. 1f) and extinct relatives, the other tetrads remain dominant in some Early Devonian localities from
including all other living vascular plants (ferns, horsetails and seed northwestern Europe32, the elaboration of simple spores and turn-
plants; Fig. 1g–j) and related fossils1,2. During the past two decades, over of spore ‘species’3 provide evidence of increasing land plant
the discovery of fossil spores from as far back as the mid-Ordovician diversity and vegetational change. Although spores have been
period3, improved knowledge of living green algae4,5, renewed observed in Silurian megafossils, the affinities of most dispersed
interest in the phylogenetic position of other relevant groups such forms remain unknown, indicating that substantial land plant
as mosses and liverworts5, and advances in molecular systema- diversity is currently undetected in the megafossil record30.
tics5–14, together with unexpected new data on the structure and The earliest unequivocal land plant megafossils are from the mid-
biology of Silurian and Devonian fossils15–25, have provided a Silurian of northern Europe33, and lowermost Upper Silurian of
broader perspective on the origin of a land flora26. These new data Bolivia34 and Australia35, and the uppermost Silurian of north-
indicate that the early diversification of land plants substantially western China36. Early assemblages include clubmosses (such as
pre-dates the Late Silurian to Early Devonian, and suggest that the Baragwanathia) and related early fossils (such as zosterophylls,
main basal lineages originated over a period of more than 100 some species of Cooksonia), and various other plants of uncertain
million years (Myr). affinity (such as Salopella and Hedeia; Fig. 3). These data document
an influx into land plant communities of diverse but generally small
Patterns in the early fossil record (usually less than 10 cm tall) organisms related to vascular plants
Evidence on the origin and diversification of land plants has come (Fig. 3). Exceptions to the generally small size include the clubmoss
mainly from dispersed spores and megafossils. Gray recognized Baragwanathia37 and the large and much-branched Pinnatiramosus
three new plant-based epochs (Eoembryophytic, Eotracheophytic from the early Silurian of China38. The habit and branching of
and Eutracheophytic) spanning the origin and early establishment Pinnatiramosus is similar to that of green algae in the Caulerpales,
of land plants: each is characterized by the relative abundance of but the presence of tracheid-like tubes is inconsistent with this
spore types and megafossils3. This synthesis highlights diversifica- interpretation39. Additional details, including conclusive data on
tion and floral change in the Ordovician and Silurian3,27,28, and reproductive structures, are needed to clarify the relationships of
emphasizes a major discrepancy between evidence from spores and this enigmatic plant.
megafossils: unequivocal land plant megafossils are first recognized Data from northern Europe, Siberia, Podolia (southwestern
in the fossil record roughly 50 Myr after the appearance of land plant Ukraine), Libya, Vietnam, Bolivia, Australia and Xinjiang and
spores. Yunnan (China) document increasing land plant diversity into
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NATURE | VOL 389 | 4 SEPTEMBER 1997 33
review article
the base of the Devonian33–36,40. These fossils, together with the among land plants, including the capacity to produce sporo-
relative chronology implicit in current hypotheses of relationship, pollenin, cutin, phenolic compounds and the glycolate oxidase
imply a minimum mid-Silurian origin for several important vas- pathway4,48. However, the absence of well-developed sporophytes,
cular plant groups (Box 1; Fig. 4). gametophytes with sexual organs of land plant type, cuticle and
Eutracheophytic (Early Devonian [late Lochkovian: !398 Myr] to non-motile, airborne, sporopollenin-walled spores suggests that
mid-Permian [!256 Myr])3. In the Early Devonian (late Lochko- these innovations evolved during the transition to the land4,18. In
vian) the diversity of spores and megafossils increased contrast to animal groups, the entire multicellular diploid phase of
dramatically29,40–42. Early assemblages include the classic floras the plant life cycle probably evolved in a terrestrial setting.
from the Rhynie Chert20,43,44, the Gaspé Peninsula of eastern The transition from an aqueous to a gaseous medium exposed
Canada43,44, New York State43,44, the Rhine Valley of Germany45, plants to new physical conditions that resulted in key physiological
Belgium46, Australia35 and Yunnan Province (China)33, which docu- and structural changes. Important metabolic pathways leading to
ment a substantial increase in vascular plant diversity, including the lignins, flavenoids, cutins and plant hormones in vascular plants
appearance and early diversification of many important living probably arose from pre-existing elements of primary metabolism
groups. in charophycean algae and bryophytes4. Although the evolution of
these pathways is poorly understood, possible phenolic precursors
Building a land plant have been detected in charophycean algae4,31, and elements of auxin
Phylogenetic studies favour a single origin of land plants from metabolism have been recognized in mosses and hornworts49.
charophycean green algae (Box 1). Based on the ecology of living Phylogenetic studies predict that early land plants were small and
species, a freshwater origin of land plants seems likely, but direct morphologically simple, and this hypothesis is borne out by fossil
evidence from the fossil record is inconclusive as mid-Palaeozoic evidence (Fig. 3). Early fossils bear a strong resemblance to the
charophytes are found in both freshwater and, more commonly, simple spore-producing phase of living mosses and liverworts (Fig.
marine facies47. Living charophycean algae (Fig. 1a, b) possess 1d, e and 5)16,26,50,51, and these similarities extend to the anatomical
several biosynthetic attributes that are expressed more fully details of the spore-bearing organs and the vascular system19. The

Box 1 Relationships among land plants Spermatopsids (seed plants)

Filicopsids (ferns)
Land plants (embryophytes) are most closely related to the Charophyceae, a
Psilotaceae (whisk ferns)
small group of predominantly freshwater green algae, within which either Eutracheophytes Equisetopsids (horsetails) Euphyllophytes
(All living vascular plants) and many other extinct taxa
Coleochaetales (!15 living species; Fig.1a) or Charales (!400 living species;
Fig. 1b), or a group containing both, is sister group to land plants4,5,10,12,74. Tracheophytes Psilophyton dawsonii †
(Vascular plants)
4,5,26,75 Lycopsids (clubmosses)
Land-plant monophyly is supported by comparative morphology and Lycophytes
Zosterophylls †
gene sequences (18S rRNA, mitochondrial DNA: cox III)12,14. Relationships
Cooksonia pertonii †
among the major basal living groups are uncertain4,5,26,76,77, but the best- Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii †
Rhyniopsids †
supported hypothesis resolves liverworts (Fig. 1c) as basal and either Stockmansella langii †
mosses (Fig. 1e) or hornworts (Fig. 1d) as the living sister group to vascular Aglaophyton major †
Embryophytes ‘Protracheophytes’ †
plants (tracheophytes)4,5,13,14,26,75. Less parsimonious hypotheses recognize Horneophytopsids †
(Land plants)
bryophyte monophyly and either a sister-group relationship with vascular Bryopsida (mosses)

plants26 or an origin from within basal vascular plants14,76,78. Anthocerotopsida (hornworts) ‘Bryophytes’

Among vascular plants, living ferns (Fig. 1g), horsetails (Fig. 1i) and seed Marchantiopsida (liverworts)
Coleochaetales
plants (Fig. 1j) (euphyllophytes) are the sister group to clubmosses
13,14,26,75,79
Charales
(Fig.1f) . Euphyllophyte monophyly is strongly supported by compara-
Chaetosphaeridium
tive morphology26 and a unique 30-kb inversion in the chloroplast genome8, as
13 14
well as sequence data from 18S rRNA and mitochondrial DNA (cox III) .
These data also provide evidence that the enigmatic Psilotaceae (Fig. 1h) (a
group of simple plants once thought to be living relicts of the earliest vascular
plants) are more closely related to the fern–seed plant lineage than to basal
vascular plants (clubmosses or the extinct rhyniophytes). Within vascular extinct Cooksonia and similar early fossils (such as Tortilicaulis, Uskiella,
plants, molecular and morphological assessments of phylogeny at the level Caia15–17,81) (Fig. 3) suggests that simple early land plants (once grouped as
of orders and below give similar results11, but at deeper levels (for example, rhyniophytes1) are an unnatural assemblage26. Some Cooksonia species may
the divergence of major groups of ferns, horsetails and seed plants) phylo- be among the precursors to vascular plants (protracheophytes), whereas
genetic resolution is poor. These difficulties highlight the problems of others are vascular plants apparently allied to the clubmoss lineage26.
7,80
approaches based solely on living species . Combined analyses of mole- Clubmosses emerge from a poorly resolved grade of extinct
cular sequences from multiple loci, and large-scale structural characteristics Zosterophyllum-like plants (Fig. 4), although most zosterophylls form a
of the genome (such as introns and inversions), may be more useful in monophyletic group26. Within clubmosses, early leafy herbaceous fossils
assessing deep phylogenetic patterns. such as Baragwanathia and Asteroxylon are basal26,82, and living Lycopodia-
Megafossils fill some of the substantial morphological ‘gaps’ among living ceae are resolved as sister group to a calde that comprises the extinct
groups. Phylogenetic analyses19,26 interpolate two Early Devonian Rhynie herbaceous Protolepidodendrales, living Selaginella and the predominantly
Chert plants, Aglaophyton and Horneophyton, between bryophytes and arborescent carboniferous lepidodendrids, including living Isoetes26,82 (Fig. 4).
basal vascular plants as they possess some features unique to vascular Euphyliophytes make up more than 99% of living vascular plants and
plants (a branched, nutritionally independent sporophyte) but also retain exhibit much greater diversity than lycophytes. Relationships among basal
bryophyte-like characteristics (terminal sporangia, columella in euphyllophytes are still poorly understood26. Further progress requires a
Horneophyton, and the absence of leaves, roots and tracheids with well- better understanding of the relationships of several fossil groups of uncertain
defined thickenings). The discovery of previously unrecognized diversity in status (such as Trimerophytina, Cladoxylales and Zygopteridales)26,79.

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34 NATURE | VOL 389 | 4 SEPTEMBER 1997
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Figure 1 Morphological diversity among basal living land plants and potential sule); magnification × 4.5 (photograph courtesy of W. Burger). f, Huperzia
land-plant sister groups. a, Coleochaete orbicularis (Charophyceae) gameto- (clubmoss) sporophyte with leaves showing sessile yellow sporangia; magnifi-
phyte; magnification × 75 (photograph courtesy of L. E. Graham). b, Chara cation × 0.8. g, Dicranopteris (fern) sporophyte showing leaves with circinate
(Charophyoceae) gametophyte; magnification × 1.5 (photograph courtesy of M. vernation; magnification × 0.08. h, Psilotum (whisk fern) sporophyte with reduced
Feist). c, Riccia (liverwort) gametophyte showing sporangia (black) embedded in leaves and spherical synangia (three fused sporangia); magnification × 0.4. i,
the thallus; magnification × 5 (photograph courtesy of A. N. Drinnan). d, Equisetum (horsetail) sporophyte with whorled branches, reduced leaves, and a
Anthoceros (hornwort) gametophyte showing unbranched sporophytes; magni- terminal cone; magnification × 0.4. j, Cycas (seed plant) sporophyte showing
fication × 2.5 (photograph courtesy of A. N. Drinnan). e, Mnium (moss) leaves and terminal cone with seeds; magnification × 0.05 (photograph courtesy
gametophyte showing unbranched sporophytes with terminal sporangia (cap- of W. Burger).

Figure 2 a, Longitudinal section of part of a silicified early fossil gametophyte are from the Remy Collection (slides 200, 90 and 330), Abteilung Paläobotanik,
(Kidstonophyton discoides from the Rhynie Chert). Antheridia (male sexual Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany (photographs courtesy of
organs) are located on the upper surface of the branch; magnification × 3.4. b, H. Hass and H. Kerp). d, Scanning electron micrograph of Tetrahedraletes
Longitudinal section of antheridium of Lyonophyton rhyniensis from the Rhynie medinensis showing a spore tetrad of possible liverwort affinity from the Late
Chert; magnification × 40. c, Longitudinal section of archegonium (female sexual Ordovician (photograph courtesy of W. A. Taylor); magnification × 670.
organ) of Langiophyton mackiei from the Rhynie Chert; magnification × 80. a–c

Figure 3 Sporophyte diversity in Early Devonian rhyniophyte fossils. a, Cooksonia nification × 30. d, Transverse section of sporangium showing thick wall and
pertonii apiculispora: sporophyte (incomplete proximally) with terminal central spore mass; magnification × 70. e, Details of epidermis at rim of spor-
sporangium15; magnification × 15. b, Tortilicaulis offaeus: sporophyte (incomplete angium; magnification × 45. f, Stomate with two reniform guard cells (stippled);
proximally) with terminal sporangium81; magnification × 40. c. Tortilicaulis offaeus: magnification × 120.
sporophyte (incomplete proximally) with terminal bifurcating sporangium81; mag-

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NATURE | VOL 389 | 4 SEPTEMBER 1997 35
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fossil record also documents significant differences from living
Box 2 Early evolution of the land plant life cycle groups, particularly in life cycles and the early evolution of the
Land-plant life cycles are characterized by alternating multicellular sexual phase (Box 2).
sexual (haploid gametophyte, n) and asexual phases (diploid sporo- In common with some animal groups, internalization of vital
phyte, 2n). Phylogenetic studies indicate that land plants inherited a functions and organs (such as gas exchange surfaces and sexual
multicellular gametophyte from their algal ancestors but that the organs), combined with the development of impermeable exterior
sporophyte evolved during the transition to the land. Most megafossils surfaces, seem to have been primary responses to life on land.
are sporophytes, and until recently there was no direct early fossil Together, these changes resulted in more highly differentiated plants
evidence for the gametophyte phase. Recent discoveries of gameto- with stomates, multicellular sexual and spore-bearing organs,
phytes in the Rhynie Chert (Early Devonian, 380–408 Myr) have shed water-conducting and other tissue systems52–54. Morphological
new light on the evolution of land–plant life cycles18,20. differentiation occurred in both phases of the life cycle (gameto-
Early gametophytes (a in figure) are more complex than in living phyte and sporophyte), but there was subsequently a dramatic
plants and have branched stems bearing sexual organs on terminal cup- reduction in the gametophyte and a great increase in sporophyte
or shield-shaped structures (Fig. 2a). Archegonia (female gametangia) complexity among vascular plants (Box 2). Apical growth and
are flask-shaped with a neck canal and egg chamber, and are sunken as branching coupled with delayed initiation of spore-bearing organs
in hornworts and most vascular plants (Fig. 2c). Antheridia (male were important innovations of vascular plants that led to a more
gametangia) are roughly spherical, sessile or with a poorly-defined complex architectural framework on which subsequent morpholo-
stalk, and superficial (Fig. 2b). Gametophytes are very similar to gical diversification was based. The fossil record clearly shows that
associated sporophytes, and shared anatomical features (water- many vascular-plant organs can be interpreted in terms of mod-
conducting tissues, epidermal patterns, and stomates) have been used ification (especially duplication and sterilization) of basic structural
to link corresponding elements of the life cycle18,20. Our provisional units such as the spore-bearing tissues and the stem26,54. In ferns and
reconstruction of the life cycle of an early vascular plant is based on seed plants, much morphological diversity is clearly attributable to
information from anatomically preserved plants and contemporaneous modifications of branching systems into a variety of leaf-like organs,
compression fossils. whereas the relatively conservative clubmoss bauplan has a dearth of
The similarities between gametophyte and sporophyte in early fossil organ systems that can be interpreted as modified branches. In both
vascular plants contrast strongly with the marked dissimilarities typical lineages, however, meristem dormancy and abortion were early
of living land plants (b in figure). The phylogenetic position of fossils innovations, providing evidence of hormonal control and substan-
suggests that, after the development of a simple, unbranched, ‘parasitic’ tial phenotypic flexibility21,26
sporophyte among early land colonizers at the bryophyte grade (such as
mosses) there was elaboration of both gametophyte and sporophyte in Early terrestrial ecosystems
vascular plants. The implications for interpreting life cycles in living The advent of land plants had important consequences for energy
vascular plants18,26 are shown. The small, simple, often subterranean and nutrient fluxes among terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems29,55
and saprophytic gametophytes of living clubmosses (such as Lyco- and hence for the evolution of animal groups that live in these
podiaceae) and ferns (such as Psiloataceae, Stromatopteridaceae, habitats. The vegetational changes of the Silurian and Devonian also
Ophioglossaceae) result from morphological loss. Phylogenetic evi- had a major impact on the atmosphere and other aspects of the
dence indicates that gametophyte reduction was independent in club- global environment. The evolution of roots is thought to have been
mosses and the fern–seed plant lineage. These data provide a new an important factor in the reduction of atmospheric CO2 concen-
interpretation of the gametophyte morphology of living clubmosses trations through increased weathering of Ca–Mg silicate minerals
(Lycopodiaceae)18. brought about by mechanical disruption and soil acidification 56,57.
Accelerated weathering has also been linked to the formation of
Devonian and Early Carboniferous marine black shales58, but this
requires further investigation in view of similar deposits earlier and
later in the geological record. Root-like impressions have been
recognized in Late Silurian palaeosols59, but the earliest unequivocal
evidence comes from Early Devonian vascular plants26, which have
modified prostrate stems bearing rhizoids resembling those of living
bryophytes. More substantial roots capable of anchoring large trees
evolved independently in several groups during the Middle to Late
Devonian.
A further series of innovations in vascular plants, including the
biosynthesis of lignin and the origin of lateral meristems (cam-
bium), were critical to the development of large plants, and these
developments may have been stimulated by competition for light.
Trees evolved independently in several major groups, resulting in
stratified forest communities by the end of the Middle Devonian
and the production of large amounts of highly decay-resistant
organic material (in the form of lignified wood). The early evolution
of lignin-decomposing fungi (some Ascomycetes, and Basidio-
mycetes) is still poorly understood24, but these groups would have
been essential for recycling much of the organic carbon.
The earliest land plants probably encountered terrestrial ecosys-
tems that had been occupied by bacteria and protists60,61, algae4,
lichens23,62 and fungi24 since the Late Proterozoic. A variety of
enigmatic plants (such as Protosalvinia44,63) were also present, and
some of the largest elements (Prototaxites ‘trunks’ !69 cm in
diameter) may have been fungi64. Such organisms, or perhaps
some rhyniophytes16, may be the source of the microscopic tubular

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36 NATURE | VOL 389 | 4 SEPTEMBER 1997
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Figure 4 Simplified phylogenetic tree showing the minimum stratigraphic ranges remain to be confirmed44. Note that megafossil evidence for vascular plants
of selected groups based on megafossils (thick bars) and their minimum implied precedes megafossil evidence of bryophytes and charophycean algae. Confir-
range extensions (thin lines). Also illustrated alongside time scale are minimum mation that the Early Devonian Sporogonites is a plant at the bryophyte grade
age estimates for the appearance of certain important land-plant features (from could help to reduce this discrepancy. Tre, Tremadoc; Arg, Arenig; Lln, Llanvirn;
the bottom: spore tetrads, cuticles, single trilete spores, megafossils and Llo, Llandeilo; Crd, Caradoc; Ash, Ashgill; Lly, Llandovery; Wen, Wenlock; Lud,
stomates). The first unequivocal record of charophycean algae is based on Ludlow; Pri, Pridoli; Lok, Lochkovian (Gedinnian); Prg, Pragian (Siegenian); Ems,
calcified charalean oogonia (female sexual organs) from the Late Silurian (Pridoli, Emsian; Eif, Eifelian; Giv, Givetian; Frs, Frasnian; Fam, Famennian; Tou, Tournai-
!410 Myr)83 and distinctive gametophytes from the Early Devonian Rhynie Chert44. sian; Vis, Visean; Spk, Serpukhovian; Bsh, Bashkirian; Mos, Moscovian; Kas,
Proposed similarities between living Coleochaete and Early Devonian Parka Kasimovian; Gze, Gzelian.

Figure 5 Diversity of water-conducting cells (tracheids) in early land plants

(median longitudinal section through cells, basal and proximal end walls not
shown; cells are !20–40 "m diameter). a, Top, bryophyte hydroid; bottom, details
of hydroid wall showing distribution of plasmodesmata-derived micropores (10–
50 nm diameter; stipple)84. b, Top, S-type tracheid (fossil) of Rhyniopsida; bottom,
details of S-type cell wall showing distribution of plasmodesmata-derived micro-
pores (stipple) and ‘spongy’ interior to thickenings19. c, Top, G-type tracheid
(fossil) of basal extinct eutracheophytes, which closely resemble the tracheids
of some living vascular plants; bottom, details of G-type cell wall showing pores
distributed between thickenings19. d, Top, scalariform pitted P-type tracheid
(fossil) typical of trimerophyte grade plants (euphyllophytes); bottom, details of
P-type cell wall showing pit chambers and sheet with pores that extends over pit
apertures26.

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review article
fragments commonly extracted from Silurian and Early Devonian should be expected to confirm the underlying unity and relative
sediments28. These tubes are often associated with cellular cuticular simplicity of developmental processes in land plants. !
fragments (Nematothallus and Cosmochlaina) that may represent
fragmented cuticular material from bryophyte-like plants31. The Paul Kenrick is at the Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, S-104 05,
discovery of fungal arbusculae in Early Devonian megafossils22 Stockholm, Sweden; Peter R. Crane is at The Field Museum, Roosevelt Road at
confirms earlier suggestions that endomycorrhizal associations Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605, and the Department of the Geophysical
Sciences, University of Chicago, USA.
were an important innovation in the colonization of the land65.
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