CHAPTER TWO

UNDERSTANDING FOREIGN POLICY AND

DIPLOMACY
Defining national interest
 Refers to set of values, orientation, goals and
objectives a given country would like to achieve in its
international relations.
 It has been the main driving force that determines the
contents of foreign policy.
 There are controversies on the exact meaning, scope
and contents of national interests.
 It is something related to the ambition of governments.
 National interest cont’d…
 It is what governments aspire to full fill in its future
interaction with others (A. K. Holsti).
 Power or the ability to influence the behaviors of
other states is underscored as the primary instrument
to implement national interest.
 In the normative sense: it is related to the set of
purposes which a nation should seek to realize in the
conduct of its foreign relations.
 In the descriptive sense: it may be regarded as those
purposes which the nation (states) through its
leadership appears to pursue persistently over time.
 National interest cont’d…

 For Plato, the good of the public good could best be

arrived at by philosopher king aided by a few highly
learned, detached and fair-minded advisors.
 These individuals could make wise and well informed
decisions regarding the common good.
 However, it is without accounting for the yearnings of
lesser-minds or accommodating selfish and sectarian
pressures.
 Decisions can be made by a few carefully selected
individuals.
 Thus, Plato‘s ideas have been used as the inspiration
for dictatorial forms of government.
 National interest cont’d…

 Foreign policy decision is not necessarily a clear-cut

(free from uncertainty) and rational process.
 Policies are often generated through great internal
political and bureaucratic debates.
 Multiple conflicting criteria compete for priority in the
minds of the decision maker as they shape the contents
of national interest.
 Official statement made for purpose of propaganda and
public consumption cloud the picture and prevent the
analyst from identifying the real motives of state
action.
 National interest cont’d…
 Colmbis has provided a multiplicity of criteria used in
defining national interest, including:
1. Operational philosophy,
2. Moral and legal criteria,
3. Pragmatic criteria,
4. Ideological criteria,
5. Professional advancement,
6. Partisan criteria,
7. Bureaucratic-interest criteria,
8. Ethnic/racial criteria,
9. Class-status criteria and
10. Foreign –dependency criteria
 1. Operational philosophy
 Depending on time, location, the world around you, and the
action of your predecessors, you may choose one of two
major style of operation.
 First, act in a bold and sweeping (comprehensive)
fashion.
 Up on taking office, introduce major new practices,
policies, and institutions and discontinue others.
 This style is often referred to as synoptic in the decision
making literature.
 The decision maker with synoptic orientation assumes that
he/she has enough information about an important issue.
 It helps to develop a major policy with some confidence
that its consequence can be predicted or controlled.
 Operational philosophy cont’d…

 The second major style of operation is to act in

caution, probing, and experimental fashion,
following the trial and error approach.
 This style is called incremental in the decision making
literature.
 Political and economic problems are too complex to
proceed with bold initiative without worrying about
their consequence.
 Thus, the incrementalist usually seeks to perfect
existing legislations, policies, institutions and
practices.
 2. Ideological criteria
 The governments employ ideological criteria and
establish their relations on the basis of that criteria.
 They may identify their friends or enemies
countries using the litmus test of ideology.
 During cold war, the ideology of communism and
capitalism had been often used to establish cooperation
or conflict with countries.
 Hence, national interest may be shaped by underlying
ideological orientations of the regime in power.
 3. Moral and legal criteria
 States are expected to act morally as this is equated
with acting honestly and making your public
decision accordingly.
 Thus moral behavior, in international politics involves
keeping your promise:-
*Treaties,
*Living and letting others live (the poor and the
disadvantaged),
*Avoiding exploitation and uneven development
between the developing countries and the
developed ones;
 Moral and legal criteria cont’d…

 Generally it is also standing up for the principles to

which you are morally committed and that are widely
accepted in your culture.
 Acting legally means, abiding by the rules of
international law to the extent that such rules are
identified and accepted.
 If there are lacunas, areas where no international
regimes have been developed, then you act in a general
sprit of equity and justice.
 4. Pragmatic criteria
 You look at issues and events around you and the
world with sense of prudence and with sort of
rationality.
 On the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and
benefit or merit and demerit to your country interest,
you may act.
 Here, your decisions are made without considering
normative issues, issues that involves judgment, be it
bad or good.
 So the practical utility of merit of your action will be
counted other than morality and personal sentiments.
 5. Professional advancement criteria

 In this case, your action may be manipulated and

adjusted in consideration of your personal success.
 Quite often, in large bureaucracies that lack good
governance the trick to success is to “play the game”
and “not to rock the boat.”
 This attitude has been referred to cynically as the “go
along to get along” effect.
 So, bureaucratic behavior is conformist behavior that is
marked strong resistance to new policies and thinking.
 6. Partisan criteria

 Here you tend to equate the survival and the success

of your political party, or ethnic or religious origin
with the survival and success of your country.
 In similar fashion, you may use bureaucratic criteria to
prioritize the policy issues.
 You may tend to equate the interest of your
organization (the army, the foreign office, and so forth)
with the national interest.
 7. Foreign dependency criteria
 These criteria usually applies to less developing
countries who had fallen under the yoke of
colonialism.
 Now, even after political independence, kept the
colonial ties with their ex-masters intact.
 These countries are still dependent on their ex-colonial
states for technical aid, expertise and technology,
sometimes even for their security.
 Governments in these countries are therefore heavily
dependent on the support of the outside powers.
 As a result of this state of dependency, the less
developing countries face difficulties to defend and
promote their national interest.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont’d…

 Thus, national interest is not a purely scientific endeavor

that results in optimal advantage for states.
 However, realist international scholars reject the
ideological, legal and moral criteria to define and shape
the contents of national interest.
 They advised leaders to prioritize pragmatic criteria when
defining national interest and employing foreign policy.
 Morgenthau defines national interest in terms of pursuits
of power.
 Power is about establishing control or influencing the
behaviors of others, either diplomatically or use of
coercion.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont’d…
 In anarchical international system, power for him is
a means for achieving and promoting the interest of
state.
 International politics is a struggle among states.
 Thus, the prime interest of state is survival and
security among other things.
 So, national interest in the competitive and anarchical
international environment should be objectively
defined in terms of ensuring survival and security of
a state, than talking about justice and morality.
 The leaders of states have to be cautious enough in
calculating the range and scope of their countries
national interest.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont’d…

 The scope of national interest and their foreign policy

should be proportional to their capabilities.
 So, prudence should be the virtue of leaders, if there is
virtue and morality;
 Otherwise, miscalculations and moral and ideological
visions might lead to chaos and destruction.
 On the other hand, idealists have strong belief in the
relevance of legal, ideological and moral elements.
 The realists also failed to recognize them as the
constituting elements of national interest.
 They don‘t see legal and moral factors apart from the
so called “reality.”
 Foreign dependency criterion cont’d…

 According to the idealist view:

 Specific actions and objective of foreign policy have
often been derived from general moral and legal
guidelines and principles.
 Even such policies as:
*The formation of alliance,
*Declaration of war,
*Covert foreign intervention,
*Humanitarian intervention,
*Foreign aid and others have always been justified on
moral and legal grounds.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont’d…

 So, national interest reflects the marriage of different

criteria that include:
*Legal, moral, ideological and prudence or pragmatism-
practical necessities on the ground.
 Realists, however, fail to recognize and prescribe
solutions for addressing global problems.
 It gives the exclusive emphasis given to state and
national interest.
 Idealists believe on the prevalence of common
problems of human beings.
 Example:- environmental pollution, ecological imbalance,
depletion of resource, population growth, poverty, war, arms
race, uneven development and the north-south gap…etc.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont’d…

 The idealists call for global solutions than local

(national) solutions.
 The establishment of new institutions with global
orientation may play vital role in addressing global
problems, instead of the state-centric particularism.
 States could no longer be viable actors in
addressing cross-cutting problems by themselves.
 Understanding foreign policy and foreign policy
behaviors
 Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and
instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with
the outside world.
 The objectives of foreign policy which a state wants
to achieve are in one way or another related to
national interest.
 So, national interest is often considered as the
objectives of foreign policy of a state.
 These objectives can be classified as long range,
middle range and short range.
 The scope and content of foreign policy of a state is
often determined by the capabilities of the concerned
state.
 Defining foreign policy
 Foreign policy is something that a state would like to
achieve in its external relations with others.
 It involves the general purposes and specific strategies
a state employs to achieve or promote its national
interest.
 Involves general purposes, priority of goals to be
realized and achieved.
 It also encompasses specific strategies and
instruments, economic and diplomatic tools that states
employ to achieve their objectives.
 These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to
achieve is commonly referred as national interest.
 Defining foreign policy cont’d…
 All states would like to promote their national interest
as their capability or power allows them to do.
 Every state should protect their physical, political, and
cultural identities against any encroachment by other
states.
 Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and
tactics that must be employed to realize those
objectives and goals.
 The most widely employed instruments include:
*Diplomatic bargaining,
*Economic instruments,
*Propaganda,
*Terrorism (sabotage) and
*Use of force (war).
 Defining foreign policy cont’d…

 Each instrument is used to affect the behaviors of other

states, and has an element of power.
 In diplomacy, states attempt to affect the behavior of
others through bargaining that involves less element
of power as compared to other instruments.
 Yet, states may manipulate carrot and stick methods,
such as reward or threats.
 By doing so, they can induce agreement whenever
there appears to be incompatible goals and objectives.
 Security and survival of a state, has always been
considered as the first priority, among various
foreign policy objectives.
 Defining foreign policy cont’d…

 A state aspires to achieve them in the short run.

 In this regard, K. J. Holisti categorizes the foreign
policy objectives of states into three, namely:
*The short range,
*Middle ranges and
*Long range objectives.
 Foreign policy objectives
 Foreign policy, just like any policy, sets short term,
middle term and long term goals and objectives to be
achieved in proportion to a state‘s capability.
 Such classifications of foreign policy objectives is
based on the combination of the three criteria.
1. The value placed on the objective;
2. The time element placed on its achievement and
3. The kind of demands the objective imposes on other
states in international system.
 Foreign policy objectives cont’d…
 Based on these criteria, the objectives can be classified
as:
1. Core values and interests
 The states commit their very existence and that must
be preserved or extended at all time.
2. Middle range goals
 Normally impose demands on several others states
(commitments to their achievement are serious and
time limit is also attached to them).
3. Universal long range goals
 Have definite time limits.
 In practice, leaders rarely place the highest value on
long range goals and it‘s very much dependent on the
capability and ideology of the state.
 1. Core interests and values (short range objectives)

 They can be described as those kinds of goals for

which most people are willing to make ultimate
sacrifices.
 They are usually stated in the form of basic principles
of foreign policy.
 Society accepts without any questioning it.
 So, core interests are sacrosanct by entire peoples
residing in the state.
 They are most frequently related to the self
preservation of political and economic systems, the
people and its culture, and the territorial integrity of a
state.
Core interests or values (short range objectives) cont’d…

 They are short-range objectives.

 This is because, others goals cannot be realized if
the existence of the state and its political units are
not ensured.
 Their exact definition in any given country depends on
the attitudes of those who make foreign policy.
 Some governments place great values on controlling or
defending neighboring territories.
 This is because these area contain asset such as man
power and resources that can increase the capabilities.
 Furthermore, the major threat for their territorial
integrity might materialize through adjacent countries.
 Core interests or values (short range objectives) cont’d…
 Then, conquering the part or whole of neighboring
countries might be considered as the core interests of
states.
 These have been the underlying reason behind
colonialism.
 The direct acquisition of foreign soil and people will
help to bolster the capability and economic needs-
national interest (of the colonial power).
 Still to day countries such as Israel and the United
States pursue such policies called extra-territoriality.
 Extraterritoriality is there when the national
interest and claims of a country is projected beyond
the limit of its geographic boundary.
 Core interests or values (short range objectives) cont’d…
 States may think that their national interest is at risk
when:
I. The interests and security of citizens or,
II. Kin ethnic or religious groups living in the neighboring
states and other states are threatened.
 So, liberating or protecting the interests of such
individuals and groups might be considered as part of
its core national interest.
 Nevertheless, the most essential objective of any
foreign policy, core interests and values is:
A. To ensure the sovereignty and independence of the
home territory and;
B. To perpetuate a particular political, social, and
economic systems based on that territory.
 2. Middle range objectives
 Unlike, the short range objective, the middle range
objectives drastically varies across states.
 The variation is obviously due to the difference in the
level of economic and technological progress, as well
as the military capability, the middle range objectives
of states.
 A state would like to achieve in its medium term is to
take a course of actions that have the highest impact
on the domestic economic and welfare needs and
expectation.
 This would include the attempts of government to meet
economic-betterment demands and needs through
international action.
 Middle range objectives cont’d…
 Social welfare and economic development, cannot be
achieved through self-help.
 This is because, most states have only limited
resources, administrative services, and technical skills.
 Interdependence means that to satisfy domestic needs
and aspirations, states would have to interact with
others.
 Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities,
sources of supply, and foreign market are for most
states necessary for increasing social welfare.
 The primary commitment of governments must be to
pursue those course of action that have the highest
impact on domestic economic and welfare needs of its
people.
 3. Long- range objectives

 These are plans, dreams, and visions concerning the

ultimate political or ideological organization of the
international system.
 Includes the rules governing relations in that system.
 The difference between middle-range and long range
goals relates to:
-Different time elements inherent in them
-There is also a significant difference in scope.
 In pressing for middle range goals, states make
particular demands against particular interest.
 In pursuing long range goals, states normally make
universal demands.
 Long range objectives cont’d…
 They may have international repercussions as far as
they are complemented by the capabilities and
powers.
 This, however, doesn‘t necessarily imply that less
developing countries does not formulate long range
objective.
 Every country has its own visions and ambition
proportional to its relative strength and capabilities to
be realized in the long run.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends
 Refers to the actions states take towards each other.
 All foreign policy behavior ultimately boils down in to
three possible patterns (Arnold Wolfers).
1. Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);
2. Self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s own
favor);
3. Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else’s
favor).
 The foreign policy patterns of countries such as
United States can be categorized as self-preservation.
 United States, following second world emerged as one
of the strongest actor, super power in international
relations.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends cont’d…

 The international institutions (IMF, World Bank,

GATT/WTO) were established following Second
World War.
 They have been strongly shaped by United States.
 The underlying philosophy of such institutions, and
even the decision making procedures are all shaped to
serve the global interests the country.
 Even the United Nations has been serving the interest
of United State as the country has key position in the
Security Council as one of Veto power among the few.
 U.S has become the staunch supporter of the
international order.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends cont’d…
 Any attempt to reform the international system and the
politico-economic order will face strong criticisms.
 These days U.S has become the sole defender of the
international system and the liberal economic-political
order.
 On the other hand, newly emerging powers such as
China, India, Brazil, Germany and others are
competing to restructure the international
institutions.
 This is to create enabling environment to promote their
national interest.
 Such policy trend can be equated with Wolfers‘ model
of self-extension.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends cont’d…

 The third model, i.e. self-abnegation reflects the

foreign policy trends that are being displayed in Less
Developing Countries (LDC).
 This can be seen in the weak states of the world which
fail to defend and promote their national interests in
their external relations.
 Weak and very much dependent states on foreign aid
are profoundly caught with many problems in order to
pursue an autonomous policy.
 Such countries may succumb to (fail to resist) such
challenges and compromise its long lasting national
interest for temporary and immediate benefits.
 Foreign policy dimensions

 The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be

done along a number of specific dimensions.
 The behavior can change over time and with different
style of leaderships and circumstances.
 These dimensions include:
A. Alignment,
B. Scope and
C. Modus operandi.
 Foreign policy dimension cont’d…
A. Alignment
 It is about whether national leaders choose to ally with
certain countries or to remain neutral.
 The focus here is not to discuss the alignment
configuration at international level.
 It takes the form of bi-polarity or multi-polarity.
 The alignment decisions of individual states or
governments can also be discussed.
 A country‘s alignment behavior can vary from time to
time during its history in response to changing
circumstances and policy decisions.
 Yet one can identify the alignment tendencies such as
alliance, neutrality and non-alignment.
 Tendencies of alignment cont’d…
Alliances
 Alliances are formal agreements to provide mutual
military assistance; as such, they carry legal weight
and certain benefits as well as risks.
Neutrality
 It is a stance of formal non partisanship in world
affairs.
 By keeping a low profile, neutrals may avoid some of
the problems associated with alliances, particularly
the generating of potential enemies and counter
alliances.
 Tendencies of alignment cont’d…

 But, neutrals aware that if war clouds gather, there may be

no one committed to providing a protective military
umbrella.
 Switzerland is one country that has carried neutrality to an
extreme case in refusing membership to United Nations till
2002.
Non alignment
 It has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing
state during cold war.
 Most developing countries had a movement, Non
Alignment Movement (NAM).
 It was a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed.
 Tendencies of alignment cont’d…
Note:
Neutral
 Is a general term for a country's policies.
 Permanently neutral state is by the virtue of international treaty
or a binding unilateral declaration.
 A state under legal obligation not to participate in any future
war.
 Neutral countries are industrial countries in Europe stick more
or less to capitalist.
Non-Aligned movement
 Is a specific organization founded in 1961, Belgrade, Serbia
with a conference and a membership list.
 The idea of non-alignment was coined during the Cold war as a
specific form of neutrality.
 Non aligned countries are situated in Africa, Asia and South
America.
 A forum of 120 developing world states that are not formally
aligned with or against any major power bloc.
 Foreign policy dimension cont’d…

B. Scope
 A second foreign policy dimension is the scope of a
country‘s activities and interests.
 Some countries have extensive, far-reaching
international contacts.
 While other countries have more limited activities
abroad.
 A country‘s scope of contact can affect the outcome of
disputes and crises.
 Scope cont’d…
 With regards to the scope of activities a state has in
international relations, one can identify at least three
patterns of foreign policy behaviors.
I. Some actors act in global terms,
II. Others as regional terms, and
III. those that follow policy of isolationism.
 Major Powers in international relations have
historically been those that have defined their interest
in global terms. Example USA.
 USA has the capability to influence world events.
 Scope cont’d…

 The country‘s military presence and diplomatic

communication in every part of the world make her
global actor, despite economic decline.
 Most countries in the world are essentially regional
actors.
 They interact primarily with neighboring states in the
same geographical area except contacts.
 They frequently concerning economic issues such as
trade.
 Major actors like United States and China are
examples.
 Scope cont’d…
 For example, South Africa is a regional actor in Africa
in general and in Southern Africa in Particular.
 It is the most important actor in regional organizations
such as SADDIC and AU.
 India can also be considered as the most important
actor in South Asian region, so is China in entire Asia.
 China‘s activities is not limited to Asia only.
 The country presence is well felt in every region of the
world, and China is the best candidate to assume global
responsibility and leadership.
 Scope cont’d…
 In recognition to this fact, America is doing everything
to contain Chinese economic progress and hence its
role in the world.
 China has hugely engaged itself in extraction activities
and related investment in Africa.
 The key weakness or geographic remoteness, may
cause the scope of a country‘s foreign policy to
become so narrow that isolationism results.
 This was the case with Burma (currently Myanmar) in
1960 and 70s.
 Foreign policy dimension cont’d…
C. Mode of operation/ “modus opernadi”
 Certain patterns of foreign policy behaviors can be
identified on the basis of the modus operandi-the
method of operation.
 Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to
address different issues.
 Still others very much rely on unilateral means.
 They may choose to solve the problems by themselves.
 The more multilateralist a state is, the greater its
tendency to seek solutions to problems through
diplomatic forums.
 Mode of operation (modus opernadi) cont’d…

 In this case, several states participate, such as the

United Nations, rather than utilizing purely bilateral,
country to country approaches.
 Most developing countries used the multilateral
approaches to address many issues of concern.
 The multilateral forum would enhance collective
barraging power of these countries vis-a-vis other
developed countries.
 In addition, establishing bilateral relations (establishing
embassies and assigning diplomatic staffs) are often
found to be costly.
 Mode of operation (modus opernadi) cont’d…

 Regardless of the power and capability question,

countries may opt to use multilateral frameworks.
 It is used as the best strategy to address issues with
the spirit of cooperation and peace.
 Germany, though it is an economic power, is known to
be multi- lateralist in its external relation.
 Most of Scandinavian countries fall under this
category.
 Whereas countries may opt to rely on unilateral means
of settling different issues with other countries.
 They play the carrot and stick diplomacy to affect the
outcomes of events.
 Mode of operation (modus opernadi) cont’d…
Note:
 In politics, "carrot or stick" sometimes refers to the realist
concept of soft and hard power.
 The carrot in this context could be the promise of economic
or diplomatic aid between nations.
 Where as, the stick might be the threat of military action.
 Intervention, threat of use of force and some time, use
of force…are some of the tactics that will be employed
to influence the behaviors of others.
 The more unilateral a state is the more likely to initiate
actions in international relations or to resist
initiatives taken by others (Rochester).
 Instruments of foreign policy

1. Diplomacy
 It is a system of structured communication between
two or more parties.
 Diplomacy can promote exchanges that enhance trade,
culture, wealth and knowledge.
 A process between actors (diplomats, usually
representing a state) who exist within a system
(international relations) and engage in private and
public dialogue (diplomacy) to pursue their objectives
in a peaceful manner.
 Diplomacy cont’d…

 It may be helpful to perceive diplomacy as part of

foreign policy.
 When a nation-state makes foreign policy it does so for
its own national interests.
 These interests are shaped by a wide range of factors.
 In basic terms, a state‘s foreign policy has two key
ingredients; its actions and its strategies for achieving
its goals.
 The interaction one state has with another is considered
the act of its foreign policy.
 Diplomacy cont’d…

 This act typically takes place via interactions

between government personnel through diplomacy.
 The goal of diplomacy is to influence the behaviors of
others in ones interest.
 In the past, diplomacy had been practiced in
formalistic and somewhat rigid manner that was
limited to the bilateral relations of countries.
 It was undertaken under closed and secret manner.
 Diplomacy cont’d…

 After WWI and formation of the League of

Nations, the old style of diplomacy has been
drastically reformed.
 There arose multilateral diplomacy, public
diplomacy, leader-to-leader (summitry diplomacy
 The essence of diplomacy remains bargaining.
 Bargaining is a means of settling differences over
priorities between contestants.
 Diplomatic bargaining is used primarily to reach
agreements, compromises and settlements where
governments objectives conflict.
 Diplomacy cont’d…

 Thus, like any foreign policy instruments, diplomatic

bargaining also espouses an element of power or
influence.
 In the modern context, diplomacy is something that is
being conducted for the most part between states.
 The applicable international law that governs
diplomacy, the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
Relations 1961, only references states as diplomatic
actors.
 The modern international system also involves
powerful actors that are not states.
 Diplomacy cont’d…

 These tend to be INGOs and IGOs.

 These actors regularly partake in areas of diplomacy
and often materially shape outcomes.
 The second half of the twentieth century came to be
dominated by conflict between two nuclear-armed
superpowers, US and USSR.
 Hence, the diplomatic success in curbing the
proliferation of nuclear weapons is a major one.
 It involved non-state as well as nation-state actors.
 Rules of effective diplomacy
 The following are some of the basic rules that
diplomats have employed with greater effectiveness
over the years:
Be realistic
 It is important to have goals that much your ability to
achieve them.
Be careful about what you say
 The experienced diplomats plans out and weighs words
carefully.
Seek common ground
 Dispute begins negotiations; finds common ground
ends them successfully.
 Rules of effective diplomacy cont’d…

Understand the other side

 There are several aspects to understanding the other
side.
 One is to appreciate an opponent‘s perspective even if
you do not agree with it.
Be patient
 It is also important to bide your time.
 Being overly anxious can lead to concessions that are
unwise and may convey weakness to an opponent.
 Rules of effective diplomacy cont’d…
Leave avenues of retreat open
 It is axiomatic that even a rat will fight if trapped in a
corner. The same is often true for countries.
 Call it honor, saving face, or prestige; it is important to
leave yourself and your opponent an out.
 In general, states make considerable use of what are
known to be carrot and stick approaches.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy

 States rely up on each other for resources and

commodities that enable them to develop and sustain
viable economies.
 There hardly exists a state that is self sufficient.
 There is a considerable degree of dependence up on
trade among states.
 But the degree of dependence and interdependence
varies across states.
 Economic instruments can be used to achieve the
foreign policy of objective of a state.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

 States may reward or punish states through the

manipulation of economic policies.
 Some of these economic instruments are: tariffs,
quotas, boycotts, embargos and aid.
 Trade instruments of foreign policy are normally
used for three purposes (Holisti).
1. To achieve any foreign policy objective by exploiting
need and dependence and offering economic rewards
or threat.
2. To increase a state‘s capability or deprive a potential
enemy‘s capabilities.
3. To create economic satellites.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

 To serve the above objectives, states often employ

different techniques of economic reward and
punishment.
 The specific techniques that can be used to reward or
punish constitute various control over the flow of
goods between countries.
 These includes: tariffs, quotas, boycotts, and
embargos.
 Loans, credits, and currency manipulation can be used
for reward as well.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

Tariff
 Almost all foreign made products coming into a
country are taxed for the purpose of raising revenue.
 The tariff structure can be used effectively as an
inducement or punishment.
Quota
 Under such arrangement, the supplier usually sends his
goods into the country at a favorable price.
 Allowed to sell only a certain amount in a given time
period.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

Boycott
 A trade boycott organized by a government
 It eliminates the import of either a specific
commodity or the total range of export products sold
by the country against which the boycott is organized.
Embargo
 An embargo may be enforced either on specific
category of goods, such as strategic materials.
 It is on the goods that private businessmen normally
send to the country being punished.
 An official ban on trade or other commercial activity
with a particular country.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

Note
 Boycott is to abstain, either as an individual or group,
from using, buying, or dealing with someone or some
organization as an expression of protest.
 It is the act of boycotting (refusing).

 Embargo: is to impose an embargo on trading certain

goods with another country.
 It is an order by the government prohibiting ships from
leaving port.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

Loans, credits and currency manipulations

 Rewards may include favorable tariff rates and quotas.
 It is also granting loans (favorable reward offered by
the major powers to developing countries) or extending
credits.
 The manipulation of currency rates is also used to
create more or less favorable terms of trade between
countries.
 The choice of a technique or combinations of
techniques to be used will be influenced by the goals
being pursued.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…
Foreign aid
 The transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from
donor to recipient-
 It is an instrument of policy that has been in
international relation.

Military aid
 The oldest type of aid which had been used for
buttressing alliances.
 Economic instruments of foreign policy cont’d…

 Foreign aid is often used for achieving political

and economic objectives of the donors.
 A vast portion of the aid goes to a few countries.
 India, Pakistan, Israel and Egypt, for instance, are
large recipients.
 Not all aid policies and commitments have an
immediate or exclusive political and security
objective.
 It is tied with some package designed to change
the domestic or foreign policies of the recipient
countries.
 Overview of foreign policy of Ethiopia

Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)

 He wanted to create a united Ethiopia, but only
partially succeeded.
 Tewodros tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy
that reached out beyond the Horn Region.
 He sought the Western Christian world to recognize
his country and help him to modernize his country.
 The emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic
relations to fight his immediate enemies Islam.
 He claimed Christianity as instrument of foreign
policy.
 Foreign policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

 Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the

territorial integrity of the polity.
 Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its
continued attempt to invade the country under many
pretexts.
 The emperor saw European expansionism as greater
threat to the survival of the country.
 However, the emperor died fighting with the
Mahadists, Sudan.
 Foreign policy during Menelik II (1889-93)

 He had expanded his sphere of influence towards the

far South and East.
 The southward expansionism policy of the King was
mainly targeted to have access to Sea Port, Zeila.
 He was aware of the strategic importance of outlet to
the sea for the country.
 The country‘s access to the sea in the North had fallen
under Italy‘s influence since the mid 1890s.
 The emperor followed double track diplomacy to
contain or reverse Italy‘s expansion and maintain the
territorial integrity of his country.
 Foreign policy during Menelik II cont’d…

 Diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to result in

peace due to Italy‘s misinterpretation of the
controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty.
 As a result, Italy prepared for war and started its
systematic penetration of the country from the
north.
 In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war
against Italy in defense of the territorial integrity
and sovereignty of the century old nation.
 The bloody Battle of Adwa, where Ethiopian
forces made a record of history by defeating a
powerful European colonial power.
 Foreign policy during Menelik II cont’d…

 European powers recognized Ethiopia as an

independent African state.
 Indeed Britain, France, Russia and the vanquished Italy
came to Menelik‘s Palace to arrange formal exchange
of Ambassadors.
 Moreover, these powers signed formal boundary
treaties with the emperor.
 With the exception of Sudan and of course present day
Eritrea had been defined on paper, yet were not
demarcated.
Foreign policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-
1974)
 He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger,
centralized and bureaucratic empire.
 Facilitated Ethiopia‘s entry to the League of Nations.
 Italian Fascists finally invade Ethiopia between 1936
and 1941.
 The Emperor fled to London and established a
government in exile.
 His diplomatic skills and Britain‘s own strategic
necessities in the area enabled him to elicit the aid of
the British in securing the liberation of Ethiopia.
 In 1952 a U.N. resolution had made possible a
federation between Ethiopia and the former Italian
colony of Eritrea.
 Foreign policy during Haile Sellassie cont’d…

 British Military Aid was withdrawn in 1952.

 Emperor feared that Britain might either declare
Ethiopia a protectorate or use as an occupied enemy
territory.
 Haile Selassie viewed the use of such an installation
with the United States as having more benefits than
costs
 As a result, the United States guaranteed Ethiopia‘s
security.
 Emperor started the task of political consolidation.
 Foreign policy during Haile Sellassie cont’d…

 Military Assistance Advisory Group, was established

in 1954 by US.
 The military aid was decisive for the Emperor to
ensure his survival at home and maintain the territorial
integrity of the country.
 Ethiopia also played significant role in Africa in
fighting for African independence and to end
colonialism and apartheid.
 The emperor can be considered as one of the founding
fathers of African Unification.
 Foreign policy during Haile Sellassie cont’d…

 The establishment of the organization of African

Unity in the capital of Ethiopia witnessed the
prominent role of the emperor in African affairs as
well.
 Of course the emperor‘s strategic alliance with outside
powers helped him to stay on power for decades.
 There had been so many peasant revolts.
 Over all, he managed to consolidate his power at home
and stayed on power over four decades.
 Foreign Policy during the Military Government
(1974—1991)
 Adopted a foreign policy largely oriented to socialist
ideology.
 The primary objectives of the foreign policy were
survival of the regime and maintaining the territorial
integrity of the country.
 Restructuring the society along socialist lines.
 Focused on building the military capability of the
country.
 Foreign policy during military gov’t cont’d…
 Socialism was the guiding philosophy of the country.
 Friendship and alliance with socialist countries of the
world.
 The country was very much dependent on economic
and military aid on the others.
 Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched
military attack on the Ethiopian Army.
 Many external actors were involved in sponsoring the
rebel group, including; Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan,
Somalia and later USA itself.
 Moreover, Somalia‘s invasion of the Ethiopian region
of Ogaden.
 It was one of the serious external challenges of the
Ethiopian Government at the time.
 Foreign policy during military gov’t cont’d…

 The regime managed to reverse the Somali

aggression with the help of the new powerful patron,
USSR.
 The involvement of USSR in the region only
heightened the superpower rivalry between the USA
and USSR during the cold war era.
 Maintained continuing friendship with the Soviet
Union and other socialist countries.
 The Soviet Union and its allies were thus able to exert
immense influence in both domestic and foreign affairs
of Ethiopia.
 Foreign policy during military gov’t cont’d…
 Ethiopia‘s strategic locations and other questions, such
as; Eritrea, Somalia, and the issue of the Nile, had also
shaped the foreign policy orientation and behavior of
military government.
 U.S.S.R and U.S.A were pitting each other to have a
sphere of influence in the region.
 Sudan was one of the host countries for Ethiopian
opposition forces.
 In turn Ethiopia had been supporting the dissent groups
in southern Sudan, including the Sudan‘s People‘s
Liberation Army/SPLA
 Foreign policy during military gov’t cont’d…

 The regime had extended its military and technical

support to Freedom fighters in Angola and Rhodesia
(current territory of Zimbabwe).
 The regime had also showed its solidarity to
Palestine‘s cause by condemning Israel and sought
political allegiance with the Arab world.
 Finally, the regime collapsed following the end of cold
war.
 The foreign policy of Ethiopia in the post 1991
 The goals of the foreign policy is to ensure the
survival of the multi- national state.
 National interest of the country is understood in terms
of realizing the real interest of the people mainly
democracy and development.
 It has been considered as an instrument to solve
the domestic problems of the country.
 These includes lack of good governance, instability
and lack of economic development
 It also aimed to achieve rapid economic development
and build up democratic system.
 So democracy and development are the foreign policy
visions of the country.
 Foreign policy of Ethiopia during post 1991 cont’d…

 The primary strategy in realization of these goals is to

put the focus on domestic issues first.
 This strategy is called an inside-out approach.
 If we solve our domestic problems the country would
not be vulnerable and its peace and survival can be
ensured.
 Economic diplomacy is adopted to strengthen the
domestic efforts in fighting poverty and backwardness
and address the issues of development.
 It has also been considered as viable strategy under the
age of globalization.
 Foreign policy of Ethiopia during post 1991 cont’d…

 Ethiopia appreciates the East Asian countries

economic successes and development paths.
 The country would like to learn from such successful
countries such as Singapore, Malaysian and Indonesia.
 The other foreign policy strategy is building up the
military capability of the country.
 Foreign policy of Ethiopia during post 1991 cont’d…

 To sum up, the three regimes used a combination of

both military force and diplomacy to address both
internal and external challenges depending on the
circumstances.
 In this manner, while the imperial and the military
regime‘s foreign policy strategy is largely an approach
the current regime followed in-side out‖ approach.