INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system comprises the skin and its accessory organs (glands, hairs,
and nails). Its major functions include protection, sensation, Vitamin D production,
temperature regulation, and excretion.

PROTECTION: 

 It provides a physical barrier against thermal and mechanical insults such as

friction and against most potential pathogens and other materials.

 Microorganisms that do penetrate skin alert resident lymphocytes and antigen-

presenting cells (APCs) in the skin and an immune response is mounted.

 The dark pigment melanin in the epidermis protects cell nuclei from the ultraviolet
radiation.

 Skin is also a permeability barrier against excessive loss or uptake of water,

which has allowed for terrestrial life. Skin’s selective permeability allows some
lipophilic drugs such as certain steroid hormones and medications to be
administered via skin patches.

SENSATION:

 Many types of sensory receptors allow the skin to constantly monitor the
environment, and various skin mechanoreceptors help regulate the body’s
interactions with physical objects.

VITAMIN D PRODUCTION:

 Cells of skin synthesize vitamin D3, needed in calcium metabolism and proper
bone formation, through the local action of UV light on the vitamin’s precursor.
Excess electrolytes can be removed in sweat, and the subcutaneous layer stores
a significant amount of energy in the form of fat.

TEMPERATURE REGULATION:

 A constant body temperature is normally easily maintained thanks to the skin’s

insulating components (eg, the fatty layer and hair on the head) and its
mechanisms for accelerating heat loss (sweat production and a dense superficial
microvasculature)

EXCRETION:

 Excrete urea and other wastes via the sweat by sweat glands in the dermis. 
  They release materials like water, salt, or oil from under your skin to the surface
of your skin. 

SKIN

a. Epidermis Function: The primary function of the epidermis is to

protect the body by keeping things that might be harmful
out and keeping the things the body needs to function
properly in. It protects the body from harm, keeps the body
hydrated, produces new skin cells, and contains melanin,
which determines the color of the skin. Water and nutrients
are kept in for the body to use.
Fundamental Tissue Type present: The epidermis is the
epithelial tissue layer of skin. The epidermis consists of
stratified squamous epithelium which means it consists of
layers of flattened cells.
Cells Function
present

1. Keratinocytes The main purpose of these keratin-producing cells is to

preserve against microbial, viral, fungal, and parasitic
invasion; to protect against UV radiation; and to minimize
heat, solute, and water loss. They are used to research a
number of phenomena of the skin including epidermal
acidification, DNA degradation, fatty acid metabolism and
transport, local immune responses, cell regeneration, stem
cell differentiation, and tumor formation.
2. Melanocytes The basic features of these cells are the ability to melanin
production and the origin from neural crest cells. This
element is important because there are other cells able to
produce melanin but of different embryonic origins like
pigmented epithelium of the retina, some neurons, and
adipocytes.

THIN SKIN

HAIR FOLLICLE

 A hair follicle is a tube-like structure (pore) that surrounds the root and strand of a
hair.
  The function of a hair follicle is to grow your hair. In addition to promoting hair
growth, your hair follicles do the following jobs: Help repair your skin after a
wound or an injury. Form new blood vessels

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INTERNAL ROOT SHEATH

 The inner root sheath (IRS) is an important structure of the lower part of the hair
follicle that surrounds and protects the growing hair.

 It helps keep the hair fiber firmly glued into the calp.

 It undergoes keratinization to produce the hair shaft.

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EXTERNAL ROOT SHEATH

 It is an extension of the epidermal basal layer which envelopes the entire hair
follicle.

 It contains a number of functional compartments: the bulge, which serves as a

reservoir for hair stem cells, and the sebaceous gland, responsible for hair
lubrication.

 The upper region of the ORS is a site for attachment of ancestor pili, which are
smooth muscles that enable the hair to remain in a vertical position.

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SHEATH 

 It covers the hair root and connects it to the tissue of the dermis. 

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SEBACEOUS GLAND

 They are small oil-producing glands present in the skin of mammals. Sebaceous
glands are usually attached to hair follicles and release a fatty substance, sebum,
into the follicular duct and then to the surface of the skin.

 Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion (sebum) that keeps the skin soft
and pliable and helps to retain moisture, thereby helping to maintain hydration.

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FOLLICULAR CANAL

 The hair follicle canal acts as a critical interface between the surface epidermis
and the deeper pilosebaceous unit.

 Not only does it enable hair to emerge, but it also creates a passageway by
which oily secretions from the SG, known as sebum, are released onto the skin's
surface.

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ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE

 This is a tiny muscle that attaches to the base of a hair follicle at one end and to
dermal tissue on the other end.
  In order to generate heat when the body is cold, the arrector pili muscles contract
all at once, causing the hair to "stand up straight" on the skin.

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KERATINOCYTES

 Represent the major cell type of the epidermis, the outermost of the layers of the
skin, making up about 90 percent of the cells there. They originate in the deepest
layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, and move up to the final barrier layer
of the skin, the stratum corneum.

 They play an essential role in skin defense against infection.

 They are the executors of the re-epithelialization process, whereby keratinocytes

migrate, proliferate, and differentiate to restore the epidermal barrier.
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MELANOCYTES

 Melanocytes are an essential cell type found in the skin and hair. These cells
provide pigmentation and thus photoprotection from ultraviolet radiation.

 The color of the skin is the result of several factors, the most important of which
are the keratinocytes’ content of melanin and carotene and the number of blood
vessels in the dermis.

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THICK SKIN

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

 The word “epidermis” combines the Ancient Greek prefix epi-, which means
“outer,” and the Ancient Greek word derma, which means “skin.” The words
translate to “outer skin.”

 The epidermis consists mainly of a stratified squamous keratinized epithelium

composed of cells called keratinocytes. There are also three much less abundant
epidermal cell types: pigment-producing melanocytes, antigen-presenting
Langerhans cells, and tactile epithelial cells called Merkel cells.

 The epidermis forms the major distinction between thick skin found on the palms
and soles, and thin skin found elsewhere on the body. From the dermis, the
epidermis consists of four layers of keratinocytes or five layers of thick skin.

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

A. Stratum basale Description: Also known as Basal Layer. A single layer

of basophilic cuboidal or columnar cells on the basement
membrane at the dermal-epidermal junction. It is
characterized by intense mitotic activity and contains,
along with the deepest part of the next layer, progenitor
cells for all the epidermal layers.
Function: New skin cells develop in this layer, and it
also contains the keratinocyte stem cells, which produce
the protein keratin. Keratin helps form hair, nails, and the
skin’s outer layer, which protects from harsh
environments. It also contains melanocytes, which are
 responsible for producing melanin, which provides the
pigment of the epidermis.
B. Stratum spinosum Description: Also known as Spinous Layer or Prickle
Cell Layer. Normally the thickest layer, especially in the
epidermal ridges, consists of generally polyhedral cells
having central nuclei with nucleoli and cytoplasm actively
synthesizing keratins. It is composed of the daughter
cells of the stratum basale. This layer is also home to the
Langerhans' cells.
Function: This layer mostly consists of keratinocytes
held together by sticky proteins called desmosomes. The
stratum spinosum helps make the skin flexible and
strong.
C. Stratum granulosum Description: Also known as Granular Layer. Consists of
three to five layers of flattened cells, now undergoing the
terminal differentiation process of keratinization. Their
cytoplasm is filled with intensely basophilic masses
called keratohyaline granules. Characteristic features in
cells of the granular layer also include Golgi-derived
lamellar granules and small ovoid (100×300 nm)
structures with many lamellae containing various lipids
and glycolipids.
Function: Keratinocytes have granules within them, and
in this layer, they are visible under a microscope. These
granules contain lipids, which along with the
desmosomal connections, help to form a waterproof
barrier that functions to prevent fluid loss from the body.
D. Stratum lucidum Description: Found only in thick skin, consists of a thin,
translucent layer of flattened eosinophilic keratinocytes
held together by desmosomes. Nuclei and organelles
have been lost, and the cytoplasm consists almost
exclusively of packed keratin filaments embedded in an
electron-dense matrix. It is present only in areas where
the skin is thickest, i.e, soles and palms. It is thin – only
about 2-3 layers of dead cells – and is named lucidum as
it appears translucent, almost clear, under the
microscope.
Function: Stratum lucidum protects the layers below
from its effects. The keratin also adds elasticity and
serves as an additional barrier against water and other
substances entering and leaving these sites. It protects
the areas most common to damage such as the palms of
 the hand, side fingers, and the bottoms of the feet.
E. Stratum corneum Description: The outermost layer of the epidermis
marks the final stage of keratinocyte maturation and
development. Consists of 15-20 layers of squamous,
keratinized cells filled with birefringent filamentous
keratins. Keratin filaments contain at least six different
polypeptides with molecular masses ranging from 40 to
70 kDa, synthesized during cell differentiation in the
immature layers. As they form, keratin tonofibrils become
heavily massed with filaggrin and other proteins in
keratohyaline granules.
Function: In the stratum corneum, keratinocytes
become corneocytes. Corneocytes are strong, dead
keratinocytes, and they protect from harm, including
abrasions, light, heat, and pathogens. This layer also
consists of fats that keep water from easily entering or
leaving the body. The corneocytes eventually shed as
new keratinocyte cells develop in the stratum basale
layer and move through the other layers of skin.

DERMIS

 Is the layer of connective tissue that supports the epidermis and binds it to the
subcutaneous tissues. (Hypodermis) It is divided into two layers: the papillary
dermis and the reticular dermis.

 Papillary Dermis - The Papillary layer is the top layer of your dermis. It’s much
thinner than the reticular dermis. It consists of collagen fibers, fibroblast cells, fat
cells, blood vessels (capillary loops), nerve fibers, touch receptors (Meissner
corpuscles), and cells that fight bacteria (phagocytes). The papillary dermis
extends to the basement layer of the epidermis layer. They form a strong bond
that connects like interlocking fingers.

 Reticular dermis - The reticular layer is the bottom layer of your dermis. It’s
thick, and it contains blood vessels, glands, hair follicles, lymphatics, nerves, and
fat cells. A net-like structure of elastin fibers and collagen fibers surrounds the
reticular dermis. These fibers support your skin’s overall structure, as well as
allow it to move and stretch.

Functions of Dermis
Each layer of your skin works together to protect your body. Your dermis has many
additional functions, including:

 Supporting your epidermis: The dermis’ structure provides strength and flexibility,
and blood vessels help maintain your epidermis by transporting nutrients.

 Feeling different sensations: Nerve endings in the dermis allow you to feel
different sensations, like pressure, pain, heat, cold, and itchiness.

 Producing sweat: The dermis contains sweat glands, which produce sweat when
you’re hot or experience stress. Sweat helps control the body temperature
(thermoregulation).

 Keeping your skin moist: The dermis contains sebaceous glands, which secrete
an oily lubricant (sebum) that helps keep the skin and hair hydrated and shiny.

 Producing hair: The dermis contains hair follicles, which produce hair all over
your skin, except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.

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DERMAL PAPILLAE

 The dermal papilla functions as a signaling center during initial hair

morphogenesis in the embryo, as well as during the adult hair cycle. The dermal
papilla transmits signals to the surrounding epithelium, maintaining its
proliferation and differentiation into the various cell types of the growing hair
shaft. 

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EPITHELIAL RIDGES

 Or also known as rete processes or rete ridges, these are the epithelial
extensions that project into the underlying connective tissue in both skin and
mucous membranes

 Function of epithelial ridges: In normal human skin, rete ridges play multiple roles
in homeostasis. This interdigitation of the epidermis and dermis increase the
 contact area between these layers, enhancing adhesion. These distinct niches in
the skin also provide a specialized environment for keratinocyte stem cells.

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