AHLCON INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES
CLASS XII
CHAPTER 1- VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGOCAL ATTRIBUTES

 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING

Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s
characteristics and behaviour patterns.
Situationism, which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence
one’s behaviour. The situationist perspective views human behaviour as resulting from
interaction of external and internal factors.
 ASSESSMENT
 Assessment is the first step in understanding a psychological attribute.
 It refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their
evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison.

Assessment

Informal Assessment
Formal Assessment
(varies from case to case and is
(objective, standardised, and open
organised
to subjective interpretations)

 SOME DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional. They are usually multi-
dimensional. If you want to have a complete assessment of
a person, you will need to assess how s/he functions in various domains or areas, such
as cognitive, emotional, social, etc. These attributes are categorised on the basis of
varieties of tests used in psychological literature:-

1. Intelligence-
 Alfred Binet defined Intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well,
and reason well.
 Wechsler defined Intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an
individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with
her/his environment.
2. Aptitude
 An individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills.
  Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do if given
Psychology 4 proper environment and training.
 For e.g. a person having high language aptitude can be trained to be a good
writer.
3. Interest
 An individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities
relative to others.
 Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life
satisfaction and performance on jobs.
4. Personality
 Refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make her or
him distinct from others.
5. Values
 Enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour.
 Values help an individual by guiding their actions and also by forming a base
for judging others.

 ASSESSMENT METHODS
1. Psychological Test
 Is an objective and standardised measure of an individual’s mental and/or
behavioural characteristics.
 Used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection,
placement, and training.
2. Interview
 Involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.
 For e.g. Counsellor talking to a client or journalist interviewing a politician.

3. Case Study
 An in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological
attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and
physical environment.
 Are based on data generated by different methods, e.g. interview,
observation, questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.
4. Observation
 Employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time.
5. Self-Report
 A method in which a person provides factual information about
herself/himself and/or opinions, beliefs, etc. that s/he holds.

  THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Theories of
Intelligence

A. Psychometric Approach B. Information-Processing

1. Uni-Factor Theory Approach
2. Two Factor Theory 1.Theory of Multiple Intelligence
3. Theory of Primary Mental 2. Triarchic Theory of
Abilities Intelligence
4. Hierarchical Model of 3. PASS Model of Intelligence
Intelligence
5. Structure of Intellect Model

A. PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
 Considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities.
 It expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive
abilities.

1. Uni or one factor theory (Alfred Binet)

 Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can
be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment.

2. Two Factor Theory (Charles Spearman,1927)

 Proposed that intelligence consisted of:-
g-factor- includes mental operations which are primary and common to all
performances.
s- factor- Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-
factor, but in addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to
excel in their respective domains.
3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone)
 States that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is
relatively independent of the others. These primary abilities are :-
(i) Verbal Comprehension - Grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas.
(ii) Numerical Abilities- Speed and accuracy in numerical and computational
skills.
(iii) Spatial Relations- Visualising patterns and forms.
(iv) Perceptual Speed- Speed in perceiving details.
(v) Word Fluency - Using words fluently and flexibly.
(vi) Memory- Accuracy in recalling information.
(vii) Inductive Reasoning- Deriving general rules from presented facts.
 4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence ( Arthur Jensen)
 Proposed that Intelligence consists of abilities operating at two levels:-
Level I (Associative learning) in which output is more or less similar to the
input (e.g., rote learning and memory).
Level II (Cognitive competence) involves higher-order skills as they transform the
input to produce an effective output.

5. Structure- of – Intellect Model ( J.P Guilford)

 Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions:-
Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual
operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters,
numbers), semantic (e.g., words) etc.
Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory
recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and
evaluation.
Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent.
 Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and
implications. Since this classification (Guilford, 1988) includes 6X5X6 categories,
therefore, the model has 180 cells.

B. INFORMATION- PROCESSING APPROACH

 Describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem
solving.
 The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts.
1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner )
 According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of
intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. But
they interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. Gardner described
following eight types of intelligences:-
i. Linguistic: It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly. Persons high on
this intelligence are ‘word-smart’. Poets and Writers are high on this type of
Intelligence.
ii. Logical-Mathematical: Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically
and critically. They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to
solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be
strong in this component.
iii. Spatial: The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world
in the mind. Painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons are likely to have
highly developed spatial intelligence.
iv. Musica: It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns.
Singers and Music Directors are likely to be high on this type of Intelligence.
 v. Bodily-Kinaesthetic: This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it
creatively for solving problems. Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, are likely
to have such kind of intelligence.
vi. Interpersonal : This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and
behaviours of other people. Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers
possess high interpersonal intelligence.
vii. Intrapersonal : This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and
limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Philosophers and
spiritual leaders present examples of this type of intelligence.
Viii. Naturalistic: This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the
natural world. It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and
fauna. Hunters, farmers, tourists possess more of naturalistic intelligence.
2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence ( Robert Sternberg)
 Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select
environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”.
According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence:
A. Componential Intelligence(Analytical Intelligence) is the analysis of
information to solve problems. This intelligence has three components:-
i. Knowledge acquisition component- is responsible for learning and acquisition
of the ways of doing things.
ii. Meta or a higher order component- involves planning concerning what to
do and how to do.
iii. Performance component- Involves actually doing things.

B. Experiential Intelligence (Creative Intelligence) is involved in using past

experiences creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative
performance. Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an
original way to make new discoveries and inventions.

C. Contextual Intelligence (Practical Intelligence) involves the ability to deal

with environmental demands. It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business
sense’. Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment, or
modify the environment to fit their needs.
3. (PASS) Model of Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby ,1994)
 According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent
functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain, which
are as follows:-
i. Arousal/Attention : State of arousal helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal and
attention enable a person to process information. An optimal level of arousal focuses
our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal
would interfere with attention.

ii. Simultaneous and Successive Processing:

 Simultaneous processing takes place when you perceive the relations among
various concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for
comprehension.
Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information
serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another. For e.g. Learning of
alphabets, multiplication tables, etc.

iii. Planning: It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them
to reach a target, and evaluate their effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is
modified and implemented again.
 Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that
measure basic cognitive functions. The battery of tests is meant for individuals
between 5 and 18 years of age.

 INTELLIGENCE: INTERPLAY OF NATURE AND NURTURE

 The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies
on twins and adopted children.
 The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90.
 The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments
correlate 0.72.
 Those of fraternal twins reared together correlate almost 0.60.
 Those of Siblings reared together correlate about 0.50.
 While siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.
 The evidence for the role of environment comes mainly from studies on adopted
children. It has been observed that as children grow in age, their intelligence level
tends to move closer to that of their adoptive parents. Children from
disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher socioeconomic status
display increase in their intelligence scores. There is evidence that environmental
deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background,
and quality schooling increases intelligence.
 Conclusion- Therefore intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity
(nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be viewed as something that
sets a range within which an individual’s development is actually shaped by the
support and opportunities of the environment.

 ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE-
 In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to
formally measure intelligence. In 1908, they gave the concept of Mental Age
(MA).
 MA- measure of a person’s intellectual development in comparison to people of
her/his age group.
 Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
 A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.
  Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being two mental age years below
the chronological age.
 In 1912, William Stern, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
 IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100.
 The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point.

 DISTRIBUTION OF IQ SCORES IN POPULATION

 IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of most
people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution.
 Only a few people have either very high or very low scores.
 The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bellshaped
curve, called the normal curve.This type of distribution is symmetrical around the
central value, called the mean. This is because the majority falls in the centre (
Average).

Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the Basis of IQ

IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the

Population
Above 130 Very superior 2.2
120 – 130 Superior 6.7
110 – 119 High average 16.1
90 – 109 Average 50.0
80 – 89 Low average 16.1
70 – 79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 Mentally challenged/ 2.2
retarded

Variations of Intelligence
1. Intellectual Deficiency
American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as
“significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period”. This
definition points to three basic features:-
 People having IQs below 70 are judged to have Intellectual Deficiency.
 These people are unable to adapt to their environment.
 The deficits are observed during the developmental period, that is between 0 and 18
years of age.
S Levels of IQ Level of Functioning
No. Retardation Range
1. Mild 55-69  They typically slower than that of their peers
 They can function quite independently, hold jobs
and families
2. Moderate 40-54  Lag behind their peers in language and motor skills
 Can be trained in self-care skills, and simple social
and communication skills.
3. Severe 25-39  Incapable of managing life and need constant care
for their entire lives
4. Profound Below  Incapable of managing life and need constant care
25 for their entire lives

Intellectual Giftedness
Giftedness- exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of
areas.
Talent is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g., spiritual,
social, aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are sometimes called ‘prodigies’.
Characteristics of gifted children are :
• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.
• High speed in processing information.
• Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
• Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist thinking.
• Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.

Identification of the Gifted-

Performance on intelligence tests is not the only measure for identifying the gifted. Many other
sources of information, such as teachers’ judgment, school achievement record, parents’
interviews, peer and selfratings, etc. can be used in combination with intellectual assessment.

Special Educational Intervention-

To reach their full potential, gifted children require special attention and different educational
programmes beyond those provided to normal children in regular classrooms. These may
include life enrichment programmes that can sharpen children’s skills in productive thinking,
planning, decision-making, and communication.

Types of Intelligence Tests

S No. Individual Test Group Test

1. Can be administered to one person at Can be administered to several people
a time. together.
2. Rapport can be established with the Rapport can’t be established with the
subject & his feelings and expressions subject & his feelings and expressions can’t
can be observed during the test. be observed during the test.
3. Questions have to be answered orally/ Is usually in a multiple-choice format.
in a written form or through
manipulation of the objects.

S Verbal Test Non- Verbal Test Performance Test

No.
1. The answers are in The questions are in the Require subjects to
oral/written form. form of pictures and manipulate objects and
illustrations. other materials to
perform a task.
2. The subject should be The subject should be The subject need not be
literate. literate enough to at least literate.
read & understand the
instructions.

S No. Culture Fair Test Culture Biased Test

1. A test that does not Tests show a bias to the
discriminate examinees on culture in which they are
the basis of their culture developed.
experiences.

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and achievements in art and
literature. According to Vygotsky while elementary mental functions (e.g., crying, attending to
mother’s voice, sensitivity to smells, walking, and running) are universal, the manner in which
higher mental functions such as problem solving and thinking operate are largely culture-
produced.

Technological Intelligence- Technologically advanced societies foster skills of generalisation

and abstraction, speed, minimal moves, mental manipulation & achievement orientation. It is
valued in western cultures unlike Asian and African Societies.

Non-western societies value self-reflection and collectivistic orientation as opposed to personal

achievement and individualistic orientation in the western societies.

Integral Intelligence- Intelligence in the Indian Tradition

Indian thinkers view intelligence from a holistic perspective where equal attention is paid
to cognitive and non-cognitive processes.
Buddhi, according to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental effort, determined action,
feelings, and opinions along with cognitive competence.
Following competencies are identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian tradition :
• Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to understanding, discrimination, problem solving, and
effective communication).
• Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy).
• Emotional competence (selfregulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness
etc).
•Entrepreneurial competence (commitment,patience, hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed
behaviours).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
According to Salovey and Mayer emotional intelligence is “the ability to monitor one’s own
and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide
one’s thinking and actions”.
Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ
is used to express intelligence.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

 Aptitude- is individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after

training.
 Interest- is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform
that activity.
In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest.
Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude tests and
multiple (generalised) aptitude tests. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General
Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB) are well-known aptitude test batteries.

CREATIVITY
Is the ability to produce ideas, objects and solutions that are novel and appropriate.
Creativity is not just limited to a selected few — the artist, the scientist, the poet or the
inventor. An ordinary individual who is engaged in simple occupations like pottery,
carpentry, cooking, etc. can also be creative. However, it has been said that they are not
working at the same level of creativity.

CRETIVITY: INTERPLAY OF NATURE AND NURTURE

of the creative potential are set by heredity. How much of the creative potential can be
realised, when and in what specific form and direction is largely determined by
environmental factors such as motivation, commitment, family support, peer influences,
training opportunities, etc.

CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE

Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. At the
same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not have a very high IQ.
Other researches have shown that not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up
throughout their adult life, had become well-known for creativity in some field.
Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.
All creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to
comprehend, retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing
with language.
Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that
intelligence does not correlate well with creativity.

S No. Creativity Tests Intelligence Tests

1. Open ended Close Ended
2. There can be multiple answers to There is only one correct answer
questions
3. Involves Divergent thinking Involves Convergent thinking
4. Involves ability to see new relationships The focus is on assessing abilities
between seemingly unrelated things, such as memory, logical reasoning,
ability to guess causes and accuracy, perceptual ability, and
consequences, ability to put things in a clear thinking.
new context, etc.