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Nature of Science Student Notes

Lab Equipment

Test Tube Rack – used to hold and dry test tubes.

Thermometer – used to measure how much average kinetic

energy is in an object.

Test tubes – used to hold small amounts of pre-measured

substances.

Digital Balance – used to determine an object’s mass.

Triple Beam Balance – used to determine the mass of larger,

heavier objects

Scoopula – used for transferring dry chemicals.

Weigh Boat – used to weigh or transfer chemicals (usually dry).

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Pipette – used to transfer liquid from one container to another.

(Increments are very small – usually .25 mL per increment.)

Beaker – a vessel with a lip for pouring; usefulfor holding

liquid or solid samples. (Increments are larger than a
graduated cylinder – usually 25-50 mL per increment.)

Graduated Cylinder – used to measure the volume of liquids. It is

more precise than a beaker. (Increments are smaller than a beaker
– usually 1 mL per increment.)

Normal Laboratory gloves – used in laboratory anytime chemicals

are to be used.

Goggles – protects your eyes.

Meter stick- measures length of objects.

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Erlenmeyer Flask- glassware with a wide base and with sides

that taper upward to a short vertical neck; allows contents to be
mixed by swirling.

Volumetric Flask – used for making liquid solutions of precise

volumes.

Note Interactions:

Identify which piece of lab equipment would be most useful for each of
the following tasks.

1. Measuring the length of a blackworm.

2. Protects the eyes from flying objects or chemical splashes.
3. A wide-mouthed container used to transport or pour
liquids.
4. A small glass container used to view chemical reactions or to heat
small amounts of a substance
5. A device to measure the mass of an object or substance.
6. Used to measure exactly 43.0mL of water.
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Measurement

I. Scientific Measurement
A. Using one method of measurement common to all scientists helps in
communication and understanding of scientists all around the world.

B. You will need to make sure you use the appropriate tool for measurement
based on the size or distance you are measuring.

C. The International System of Units:

1. Also known as the SI System.
2. Based on multiples of 10 for easy conversions.
a. Kilo- = thousand (1000.) (“Kilo” means “thousand”.)

b. Hecto- = hundred (100.) (“Hecto” means “hundred”.)

c. Deca- = ten (10.) (“Deca” means “ten”.)

Base Unit - Meter, Gram, Liter (1.)

d. Deci- = one-tenth (.1) (“Deci” means “tenth”.)

e. Centi- = one-hundredth (.01) (“Centi” means “hundredth”.)

f. Milli- = one-thousandth (.001) (“Milli” means “thousandth”.)

D. Length: the distance from one point to another.

1. The base unit is the meter (m).
2. You use a metric ruler, meter stick, etc. to measure length.
3. Online practice: Measuring Length in the Metric System (http://www.wisc-
online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=ABM4202

E. Volume: The amount of space an object takes up.

1. The base unit for liquids is the liter (L).
a. Small volumes of liquids are measured in mL.
2. You use a graduated cylinder or beaker to measure liquid volume.
a. Make sure to use the most accurate sized tool to get the most
precise measurement.
b. In a graduated cylinder, there is a meniscus (curve at the top of
the fluid).
i. Always measure at the bottom of the meniscus, not the top
of the curve.
c. Measure at eye level and on a solid surface.
3. Finding Volume of a Solid: can be calculated by multiplying the
length, the width and the height. (length X width X height)
a. Units of measure will be cm3.
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4. Finding Volume by Immersion/Displacement: To get the volume of an

irregular shaped object. (rock, paper clip, etc.)
a. First, measure the volume of water in graduated cylinder
without the object. Then gently add the object and take the new
measurement. Subtract the measurement without the object
from the measurement with the object. (Final measurement –
Initial measurement = Difference [The volume of object you
measured.]) This will give you the volume of the irregular
shaped object.
b. 1 mL = 1 cm3.
5. Online Practice: Measuring Volume (http://www.wisc-
online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=gch302)

F. Mass: The amount of matter an object contains.

1. The material that all objects and substances are made up of; anything
that has mass and takes up space.
2. The base unit is the gram (g).
3. Mass is measured by an electronic balance or a triple-beam balance.
4. For electronic balances, make sure they are “zeroed out” before
finding the mass of your material.
5. Online practice: Reading a Triple Beam Balance (http://www.wisc-
online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=GCH202)

G. Temperature: the measure of the intensity of hotness of a body or environment;

also the measure of the average Kinetic Energy (movement) of the particles in a
sample of matter.
1. Measured in degrees Celsius (oC) or Kelvin (K).
A. Converting degrees Fahrenheit (oF) to degrees Celsius (oC).
i. Fahrenheit → Celsius: (0F – 32) X 5/9 = 0C
ii. Celsius → Fahrenheit: 0C X 9/5 + 32 = 0F
B. Kelvin (Physics related measurement) conversion:
iii. Celsius → Kelvin: 0C + 273 = 0K
iv. Kelvin → Celsius: 0K – 273 = 0C
2. A thermometer is the tool used for measuring temperature.
3. Online Practice: Fahrenheit/Celsius Temperature Scales (http://www.wisc-
online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=ELE3108)

H. Time
1. Measure in seconds (s) with the use of a timer or stopwatch.

I. Area: the measure of the size of a surface or a region.

1. Measure in square units (cm2 or m2).
2. Can be calculated by multiplying the length of an object by its width.
(Length X Width)
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Note Interaction: https://www.funbrain.com/games/measure-it

Complete the online Measurement Practice. After the ad plays, click Play Now to choose the
measurement that matches the length of the red bar. Measure in centimeters.

Measure the object using the ruler shown. Round to the nearest centimeter.

Note Interactions:
Determine how much liquid is in each graduated cylinder.

Determine what temperature each thermometer shows.

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Dimensional Analysis

I. Dimensional analysis - a fancy name for a method of calculating that:

A. uses numbers in the form of fractions.

B. enables us to convert from one type of unit measurement to another.

II. What is a Unit?

A. A unit is something that gives definition to a numerical value, quantity, or
measurement. (Let us consider “1 mile”. The unit involved here is the “mile”. Without
the unit, you would not know what is being referred to.) Different measurements
often times have multiple possible units associated with them.

B. For example:
1. Length - meters, centimeters, feet, inches, miles, kilometers
2. Mass - kilograms, grams, pounds
3. Time - hours, minutes, seconds, days, months
4. Volume - cups, teaspoons, liters, milliliters, gallons, quarts
5. Currency - dollars, cents, dimes

III. Turning Numbers (or quantities) into Fractions:

A. If a quantity does not appear as a fraction, it is possible to put it in a fraction form.
Doing this sometimes makes solving dimensional analysis problems easier.
Remember that numbers and units that appear above the fraction line are in the
“numerator” and numbers and units that appear below the fraction line are in the
“denominator”. Here are some examples:

B. Example 1: 2 eggs. This quantity is not in the form of a fraction. To put it in a fraction
form we put the number and unit that is given in the numerator, and simply put “1”
in the denominator.

2 eggs = 2 eggs
1
The numbers on both sides of the equal sign mean the same thing. We have not
changed the value or the unit involved.

C. Example 2: 60 seconds/minute. This quantity does not look like a fraction, but it
actually is a fraction. This quantity reads “60 seconds per minute”. The word “per”
refers to the “fraction line” mentioned above. Again, notice that we have not
changed the value or meaning of the quantity.

60 seconds/minute = 60 seconds
1 minute

D. The quantity given tells us there are 60 seconds. This goes in the numerator. We are
not specifically given the number of minutes. In this case we can assume it is 1. This
value then goes in the denominator.
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IV. Canceling Units:

A. If a unit appears in the numerator and the same unit appears in the denominator, it
can be cancelled or removed. This unit can be in the numerator and denominator of
the same fraction or in two different fractions being multiplied together.

B. Sometimes in order to change the quantity we are “given,” we must “invert” the other
quantity (or quantities) we intend on using to convert from one set of units to the
other. The quantity (or quantities) that is given is the quantity (or quantities)
specifically identified in a problem. It is what we start out with and need to convert (or
change) into what is being asked for. In order to convert from one quantity to another,
we must use other sets of known quantities called constants. Your text will identify
constants that you may use for problem solving.

C. What do we mean by “invert”? First, it is important to know that the quantities you
are given are not to be inverted. Only the constants you are using to perform
dimensional analysis can be inverted. To invert a constant simply flip it over or
around.

D. For example:
Constant Inverted
7 days 1 week
-------- = ---------
1 week 7 days

OR another way to think of it:

Given unit X Wanted unit = Wanted unit

Given unit

Given unit X Wanted unit = Wanted unit

Given unit

The given units cancel out and leave you with the desired unit.

Note Interaction:
Using the provided conversion factors/relationships (if necessary), complete all of the follow
problems. Show your work!

Conversion Factors/ Relationships

1 mile = 1.61 kilometer
1 gallon = 3.78 liters
2,000 pounds = 1 ton
2.20 pounds = 1 kilogram
1. Convert 9.85 L to gallons.
2. How many miles are in 25 km?
3. If a person has a mass of 60 kilograms, what is his mass in tons?
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Interpreting Tables and Graphs

I. Tables and graphs are visual representations.

II. Data tables and graphs are useful tools for both recording and communicating scientific data.

III. Data Tables

A. You can use a data table to organize and record the measurements that you make.
Some examples of information that might be recorded in data tables are
frequencies, times, and amounts.
B. Normally, independent variables go in the left- hand columns and
dependent variables on the right.
IV. Line Graphs
A. You can use a line graph to show a relationship between variables.
B. Line graphs are particularly useful for showing changes in variables over time.

V. Circle Graphs
A. You can use a circle graph, sometimes called a pie chart, to represent data as parts of a
circle.
B. Circle graphs are used only when the data can be expressed as percentages of a
whole. The entire circle shown in a circle graph is equal to 100 percent of thedata.

VI. Bar Graphs

A. A bar graph is a type of graph in which the lengths of the bars are used torepresent
and compare data. A numerical scale is used to determine the lengths of the bars.
B. Many times the bar will represent an average.
C. Bar graphs contain categories.

Note Interactions:

The following table is a record of the performance of a baseball team for the first seven weeks
of the season.
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1. How many games did the team win during the first seven weeks? Explain your answer.

2. What percent of the games did the team win? Explain your answer.

3. According to the chart, which week was the worst for the team? Explain your answer.
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Scientific Method

I. The Scientific Method

A. This is a series of steps followed to solve problems. The steps are not always the same
for each question you are researching.

B. State your Problem/Question

1. Develop a question or problem that can be solved through experimentation.
2. Make sure it is something that interests you.

C. Make Observations/Do Research

1. Make observations – the act of seeing an object or an event and noting the physical
characteristics or points in the event. Observation is an extension of our senses;
when we observe, we record what is seen, smelled, tasted, heard, and touched.
a. Qualitative observations - These describe an object’s characteristics,
properties, or attributes. (For example, in the state, “The apple is red,” red is a
qualitative observation of the apple’s appearance.)
b. Quantitative observations – These involve a quantity or an amount. (In the
statement,
“The apple weighs 125 grams,” 125 grams is a quantitative observation of the
apple’s appearance.)
c. Inferences – conclusions based on observations. Inferences go beyond what we
can directly sense.
i. You make an inference when you use clues from a story to figure out
something the author doesn’t tell you.
ii. Be sure to look at all the evidence available and combine it with what
you already know.
d. Predictions- using observations, inferences, and/or trends in data topredict
what will happen in the future.
(Example: If, on a sunny day, you observe a massive line of dark clouds quickly
advancing, what prediction can you make?)
2. Do research - Good quality research helps in developing an excellent hypothesis.

D. Formulate a Hypothesis
A. A hypothesis is a prediction or possible answer to the problem or question.
B. It is a relationship between the Independent variable and Dependent variables.
1. Independent Variable (manipulated variable) – the factor that is intentionally
varied by the experimenter.
2. Dependent Variable (responding variable) – the factor that may change as a
result of changes made in the independent variable (the outcome).
3. The hypothesis needs to be in an “If…then” statement.
i. The “If” part of the statement is your question.
ii. The “then” part of your statement is your prediction about the outcome of
your experiment.
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(For example, If the basketball is dropped, then it should bounce.)

E. Designing an Experiment
A. An experiment is a scientific procedure to test a hypothesis.
B. All experiments consist of a control group, an experimental group, and constants.
1.A control group is used for comparison. This group does not get any
manipulations by the experimenter.
2. The experimental group is the group being tested. The experimental group gets
the independent variable.
3. To get the intended results of an experiment, some factors must remain the
same always in both the control group and the experimental group. These
factors are called constants.
4. A good experiment is always repeated at least three times. This is called trials.
The more experiments completed by the experimenter the stronger theprinciple
is for the hypothesis.

F. Analyzing Data
A. Data shows relationships between the independent and dependent variable in the
experiment.
B. Graphing data can help explain/communicate the relationships between the tested
variables.

G. Drawing a Conclusion
A. A conclusion is a summary of what happened in the experiment.
B. The conclusion should answer the question posed in step one. The conclusion is
based solely on the results obtained from the experiment.
C. Think about the following questions when writing your conclusion:
1. Was your hypothesis correct?
2. If your hypothesis wasn't correct, what can you conclude from that?
3. Do you need to run your experiment again, changing a variable?
4. Is your data clearly defined so everyone can understand the results and follow
your reasoning?
D. Remember, even a failed experiment can yield a valuable lesson.
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Note Interactions:

1. Read the following examples and then decide if each statement is Qualitative (QL) or
Quantitative (QNT).
A. The candy was sour.
B. The bug was 5 cm long.
C. The flower is red.
D. The mass of the beaker was 122 g.

2. Refer to the scenario below and list any observations made by the individual. Once youhave
listed the observations you should try to come up with an inference (or inferences) based on
those observations.

Timothy noticed that after Mr. Smith gave Jessica her quiz she said, “I cannot believe this” and a
few tears rolled down her face.

Observations Inferences
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3. Read “The Experiment” and then identify the components of the scientific method by
completing the graphic organizer provided. Give your reason for choosing the example from the
story.