METEREOLOGY

THE ATMOSPHERE
COMPOSITION
LAYERS
1. TROPOSPHEREà90%water vapour/lowest layer/most concern aviation
2. TROPOPAUSEàTº start to fall sudenly/Lower over north pole than the
equator. Mean height 54000ft
3. STRATOSPHEREàRegion stable, majority of the ozone/11km-50km

COMPOSITIONà 21% (oxygen) 71% (nitrogen) and the rest other gases (Argon)
The troposphere layer decrease from the equador to the poles
WATER VAPOURàMost important constituyent in the atmosphere
AIR TEMPERATURE (HEAT=Energy that is measure in calories)
TROPOSPHERE
• Decrease with the alture. ISA (-2º/1000ft or 0,65º/100m)
• Cº (Celsius) / ºC=5/9(ºF-32) K=ºC+273
• Least variationà tropical countries/sea
• Least Tºà Half an hour after sunrise and over the sea/ Highest Tºà 2H after local noon
TROPOPAUSEà Tº remain cte
STRATOSPHEREà Tº increase with the alture
HEATàIs a form of energy measure in calories
SUN´S HEATà absorv by the earth and depend the elevation and
the duratión.
TRANFER OF HEAT
RADIATIONà Heat the Surface, wich heat the air in the
troposphere. The clouds prevent radiation. The radiation from the
Earth slips into space.
CONDUCTIONà
ADVECTIONàHorizontal motion of the air
INVERSIONà
• Tº increase with the height
• Located at the stratosphere
• OCCURANCEàClouds free in Winter when ground is dry
• State of the atmosphereàabsolutely stable
• Terrestial radiation on a calm clear night
• Vallew inversión, at night cloud wind donwside of the
mountain
INSOLATIONà Earth heating by solar radiation. ISA hpa
ISOTHERMAL LAYERà Tº remain cte with the height. 850hPA 5000 1525m
LATENT HEAT=Measure in calories, absorbed or released when wáter changes 700hPA 10000ft 3050m
from one state to another 600hPA 14000ft 4270m
SATàis the ambient static air Tº =OAT 500hPA 18000ft 5500m
TATàIs the total Tº indicated on the instrument, is a product of SAT and the 400hPA 24000ft 7315m
adiabatic compression (ram) rise on Tº experienced on the Tº probe 300hPA 30000ft 9150m
PRESSURE 250hPA 34000ft 10360m
1Hpa= 8m (ground level) 1hPA higher at 5500m =15m (50ft) 200hPA 39000ft 11890m
ISOBARS=Lines of constant pressure= lines through same pressure on 150hPA 45000ft 13720m
metereological Surface weather charts 1013 hPA SEA LEVEL SEA LEVEL
ISOHYPSEàIndicates the true altitude of a pressure level
RATE OF THE PRESSUREà Decrease with the height and greater descent with cold air
QFE=Aerodrome pressure converted to MSL assuming actual conditions between the
levels

ABOVE sea level

• Temp warmer than ISAà QFF<QNH
• Temp colder than ISAà QFF>QNH
BELOW sea level
• Temp warmer than ISAà QFF>QNH
• Temp colder than ISAà QFF<QNH
AIR DENSITY
DENSITY ALTITUDEàAltitude in the standard atmosphere to which the
observed density corresponds
The density is affected by the Tº and the pressure
(+pressure=+density/ -Tº=+density)
The density decrease with the altitude

ALTIMETRY
PRESSURE ALTITUDEàDistance between isobaric in the standard atmosphere
QNHàAtmospheric pressure reduced to mean sea level using the standard Tº gradiente
QFEàAtmospheric pressure at the oficial areodrome elevation
MEAN SEA LEVEL= 15Cº /1013,25mb (hPA) /lapse rate of 1,98ºC per 1000ft / 1225g
(density)
Constant Tº of -56,5ºC up to 20Km (tropopause)
Increase Tº of 0,3ºC per 1000ft up to 32Km (105000ft)
TRANSITION ALTITUDEàis that altitude at or below wich we refer to our vertical
position in terms of altitude based on QNH (lowest height 3000ft)
TRANSITION LEVELàIs the lowest usable flight level and the TL is determined locally with consideration taken to
surrounding terrain, temperatura and air pressure (min distance to TA is 1000ft)
Tº A higher than the ISAàAir Tº makes the air less dense and ligher in weight, causing the density altitude to differ
from the pressure altitude. Actual FL being higher than the pressure level read by the altimeter

WINDS
DEFINITION
Horizontal motion of the air in the atmosphere, that is driven by the different of the pressure
between two places and can be influence by numbers of factors, including the rotation forces,
Tº, Surface friction.
WIND DIRECTIONàDirection which the wind blow and is ecpressed in degrees
WIND STRENGTHàMeasured and expressed in nautical knots
WIND VEERINGàIs said to have veered, when it changes its direction in clockwise direction
WIND BACKINGà When change direction anticlockwise
SURFACE WIND IS MEASUREà8-10m above the ground on a mast with an anemometer
(picture)

PRIMARY CAUSE OF WIND

GEOSTROPHIC WIND= 2 FORCES
1. PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE
2. CORIOLIS FORCE
Acting opossite and in balance
Blow parallel to straight ISOBARS (NON friction forcé is induced)
Around low pressure is higher than gradient force
PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE (PGF)
Is a natural forcé generate by the difference of pressure across a horizontal
distance. It act a right angles of isobars and is usually responsable of
movement of a parcel of the air from HIGHT-LOW pressure
Isobars more close between them =+wind and créate clouds and low pressure

CORIOLIS FORCE
It is a forcé that act on a parcel of air that is moving over rotating earth´s Surface. This mean that the air deflect to
the left (south hemisphere) or right (north hemisphere)
Equador= NOT coriolis forcé

GRADIENT WIND
Wind resulting that blow around the curved isobars common to circular low- or high- pressure pattern. It is usually
found at low or médium heights from approximately 2000ft and above.Blow parallel to isobars
THERMAL WIND
It is generated by a difference in Tº between two columns of air
over large áreas and at great upper height
On the picture we can see that the PGF maintain cte when is aproching to the low
pressure meantwhile the geostropic wing is increasing.
SURFACE WIND
Causes winds to flow accross the isobars at angle rather than parallel to the isobars
Wind speed increase when increase the inclination of the isobars Surface

GLOBAL CIRCULATION
NORTHEM HEMISPHERE
Flying from HIGHT to LOW= Wind from the right
Flying from LOW to HIGHT= Wind from the left
SOUTH HEMISPHERE
Flying from HIGHT to LOW= wind from right
Flying from LOW to HIGH=wind from the left

BUY´S BALLOT´S= wind blow clockwise around depression in the SH

LOCAL WINDS
SEA BREEZEàThe day time, when the land heats up quicker than the sea. The air above the
land becomes warmer and rises, causing the pressure in the warmer air column over the land to
be greater than that at a similar height over the sea.
LAND BREEZEà, wind is blowing from land to sea. It occurs during the night when the land
Surface cool down more rapidly than the sea Surface. Characteristics, wind 5Knots, cloudless
night

MOUNTAIN WINDàIt is a down-slope (KATABATIC) wind blowing from the higher (colder) áreas
along the mountain sides down towards the lower (warmer) áreas in the valleys as a result of
termal effect
VALLEY WINDà Is an up-slope (ANABATIC) wind blowing from the colder vallew (lowe) áreas up
towards the mountain top as a result of termal effect.

FOHN WIND EFFECT

When air is cooled as it is forced to rise over high ground, first at the dray adiabatic
lapse rate (DALR) and then after the dewpoint /condensation level is reached, at the
SALR . After the condensation level, cloud will form, usually on the hillside, and moisture
will be lost falling as either rain or dew

MOUNTAIN WAVES
CHARACTERISTICS
Wind speed more than 20 Knots at the top
Wind blow right angles to the mountain range
Wind speed increase with the altitude
Atmosphere stable
Three fenomenonts—ROTOR (ROLL), CAP, LENTICULAR CLOUDS

JET STREAM
Simply narrow bands of high-speed upper termal winds at very high
altitudes
Jet stream are strong, narrow current in the upper tropopause or
stratosphere characteristic by strong vertical and vertical windshear
(CAT). The wind mus be greater than 60Knots
Jet stream occur as a result of strong horizontal temperatura constrants in the atmosphere
TYPICAL DIMENSIONSàLength = average 1500NM /Width=few hundred/ Thickness=5000-20000ft
TYPES OF JET STREAM

SUBTROPICAL JET STREAM

• 40000ft 80-150Knots
• Strongest in Winter
• Maximum wind speed, tropical air bellow the tropopause
• Mid latitudesà Lenght, 1000NM widht 150NM
POLAR JET STREAM
• Winter lower altitudes than in summer / WESTERLY /Strongest in Winter/ 60º latitude
• Occur due the different of Tº at the polar áreas and the subtropical Tº
• Speed greatestà Between a trhough and a ridge (125-140Knots)
• COREà Will find in the warm air, just bellow the warm air tropopause.
• CATàLocated on depression side.
TROPICAL EASTERLY JET
• Summer period JUST in NORTH HEMISPHERE /easterly direction
• Where the subtropical air meets the tropical air. This is know as intertropical jet stream
• 40000ft
CAT
PRIMARY CAT
• On the “cold air” (polar) side of the jet core
• Approximately at the “cold air” tropopause level (below the “warm air” tropopause level)
• Strongest CAT to be found just below the core and extending approx 4000ft lower below the core
SECONDARY CAT
• At the border of the upper level front
• Above the warm air tropopause level close to the frontal zone (above the core)

TURBULENCE
FEATURES
Increase with the speed, and during summer days during early afternoon
Decrease when the air is more stable
FORMATIONà Strong wind, rough terrain, steep lapse rate
GREATEST TURBULENCEà CUMULO-NIMBUS /ALTOCUMULUS LENTICULARES
TERMAL TURBULENCEàvertical movement of air due convection in unstable air
MECHANICAL TURBULENCEà Terrain or other obstructions are interfering with the normal airflow

THERMODYNAMICS
HUMIDITY
RELATIVE HUMIDITYàis defined as the relationship between the actual moisture
content in the air divided by the amount required for saturation with no Tº or
pressure change. When the relative humidity reache 100% the air become satúrate.If
the Tº increase, the RH decrease
Depend the moisture content and Tº of the air
+WATER VAPOUR=+RH
Relation between actual wáter vapour and saturated wáter vapor content
ACTUAL MIXING RATIO/SATURATED MIXING X 100
DEW POINTàAs the Tº to which a given parcel of humid air must be cooled, at cte barometric pressure, for
saturation to occur and therefore for the wáter
vapour to start condensing into liquid
wáter.Difference between Tº and dew point is
greater in DRY AIR
Is the Tº at which a parcel of air become
saturated. That is , its capacity to hold wáter
vapor is equal to that which it is actually holding
HUMIDITYàIs the wáter vapor in the air

CHANGE OF STATE OF
AGGREGATION
 ADIABATIC PROCESSES
No energy transfer, NOT heat neither added nor
removed from a system
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (DALR)
Is the adiabatic Tº change for unsaturated air as it rises.
Unsaturated air is Known as DRY AIR.
Change in Tº is a rather regular drop of 3º per 1000ft (1ºC/100m) of height increase
DALR is cold quicker than SALR

SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR)

Is the adiabatic change in temperatura for saturated air as it rises
SALR commences at a height where a parcel of air´s temperatura is reduced to its dew
point temperatura, 100 relative humidity. 1,8ºC/1000ft or 0,6ºC/100m.
Descent down slope is lower rate than DALR

ENVIROMENT LAPSE RATE (ELR)

It is the rate of temperatura change with height of the general surrounding atmosphere
The ISA assumes an ELR of 2ºC per 1000ft

STABILITY
Depend of Tº and HUMIDITY
UNESTABLE ATMOSPHERE (Warm than surrounding)
• Parcel tend to gain altitude after being released
• Form cúmulos
• Good visibility in showers
STABLE ATMOSPHERE (Colder than surrounding)
• ISOTHERMAL LAYERS
• Vertical motion of rising air tend to become weaker
• +STABILITY=Cold air in lower part of the layer
ABSOLUTE STABILITY
ELR<SALR<DALR = INVERSION
ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
ELR>DALR>SALR
NEUTRAL FOR DRY AIRà ELR=DALR

SUBSIDENCEàInversion over a large área with haze, mist

CLOUD BASE (two opcions)

(Tº-DEW POINT) x 400= Cloud base
SURFACE Tº-DEW POINT)/ 3(DALR) X 1000=Cloud base
 CLOUDS

CLSIFICATION ALTITUDE TIPES COMPONENTS

LOW LEVEL 0-6500ft ST / SC / NS
MEDIUM LEVEL 6500ft-23000ft AC / AS / NS
HIGH LEVEL 16500ft-45000ft CI / CS / CC ICE CRISTAL
EXTENSIVE VERTICAL 3 levels CU / CB

CLOUDS ARE FORMED

1. Moisture is present in the air
2. A lifting action to cause a parcel of air to rise (Convection, Turbulence, Frontal, Orographic)
3. Adiabatic cooling of the rising air
If a parcel of air containing wáter vapor is lifted sufficiently, it will cool adiabatically, and its capacity to hold wáter
vapor will decrease . Therefore its relative humidity increases until the parcel of air cools to its dewpoint Tº where
its capacity to hold wáter vapor is equal to that which it is actually holding, and the parcel of air is said to be
saturated.

STRATIFORM CLOUDSà Lower vertical extend, low visibility and low ceiling ( ST/SC/NS/AS/CS/CI)
CUMULIFORM CLOUDSà Large wáter dropletd stability, turbulence
STABLE CLOUDSàAir mass there is not vertical motion of the air. As a result get STRATIFORM clouds
INESTABILITY CLOUDSà Air mass has a great vertical motion of the air. CUMULIFORM clouds
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
• HIGHT= Low cloud base /cloud top SALR=ELR
• LOW=Hight cloud base/ Cloud top SALR=ELR
FENOMENOS
• SUBSIDENCEà Disipate clouds
• ADVECTIONà Produce clouds and fog
• CONVERGENCE
• GROUND RADIATIONà no form clouds
TYPES OF CLOUDS
STRATUS (ST)
• Drizzle or snow grains
• Create by the radiation during the night from the surface
NIMBOSTRATUS (NS)
• BASE (2000-5000ft) TOP (15000ft-20000ft)
• Moderate turbulence and severe icing. Poor visibility, FREEZING RAIN
• Grey cloud layers, often dark, Formate by lifting
STRATOCUMULOS (SC)
• Ground level-6500ft
• Light to moderate turbulence and icing
• Patches sheets or grey
ALTOCUMULOS (AC)
• 6500-23000ft
• Light to moderate turbulence and icing
• Relative thin and characterized by globular masses or rolls in layers or patches
ALTOSTRATUS (AS)
• 6500-23000ft
• Light to moderate turbulence and or icing
• Uniform greying or bluish cloud sheet, fibrous or uniform
• Componentsà Ice cristal and wáter droplets
CIRROCUMULUS (CC)
• 16500ft-45000ft
• No turbulence , no icing
• CONSISTà of ice cristal and occasionally freezing wáter droplets
CIRRUS (CC)
• Horizontal visibility more than 1000m, nil icing
• Detached clouds in the form of White
CIRROSTRATUS (CS)
• Optical phenomenoà HALO
• Ice cristal
CUMULOS (CU)
• Modearte visibility / Icing risk
• Turbulence at and below the cloud base
• Create by CONVECTION
CUMULOLIMBUS (CB)
• Ground level-45000ft
• Moderate to severe turbulence and icing
• Visibility por
• FORMà Ice-crystal, wáter droplets, and supercooled
AC LENTICULARIS
• 6500ft-23000ft
• Severe turbulence
• Indicate the presence the mountain waves
• Are formed due the presence of mountain wave son the lee side of the mountain
AC CASTELLANOUS
• Inestability in the middle troposphere

TOWERING CUMULOS
• Great vertical extend, upper part
frequently
• Tº in the cloud higher than surrounding

FOG
Parcels of low-level air content with the ground that have small surpended wáter droplets
and reduce visibility
TYPES
RADIATION FOG
• Little winds (bellow 5 Knots) , no clouds, moist air, 500ft,
• Heat loss from ground at night
• Over the sea NO form
• Most frecuently over the land and hight pressure
• DISIPATIONà Increase wind velocity near the gorund
• Radiation fog + wind and lift= become a low stratos
ADVECCION
• Horizontal movement of warm air and moist
1. A warm, moist air mass across a colder Surface, which cooled from below
2. Light to moderate wind
3. Sea fogà very cold air pass over a warmer sea
• Over Surface a lower Tº
• Day and night may be exist
FRONTAL FOG
• Usually form in the cold air ahead of a warm occluded front as a prefrontal widespread fog. Form due
interaction of two masses

MISTàReduce visibility between 1000m and 5000m due to water

droplets in the atmosphere
 PRECIPITATION
DEVELOPMENT
TYPES OF FORMATION
• COALESCENCE (collision)àMid altitudes, produce only drizzle or very light
rain
• BERGERON-FINDEISENàOccur just in clouds with ice cristal, Based on difference of máximum vapor
pressure over Winter and over ice of the same Tº.
UPWARD CURRENTSà Growth rate of precipitation.

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

STEADY PRECIPITATION
• NIMBOESTRATOS
• Stratifrom clouds with Little or no turbulence
• STRATUSàDizzle fall
• Satble clouds
SHOWERS PRECIPITATION
• CONVECTIVE CLOUDS
• Towering clouds and cumulolimbos
HEAVY PRECIPITATION
• +TSRA = CB +RA=NS

RAIN FREEZING PRECIPITATION

Rain showersàTCU/CB/CU
Freezing rainàDevelopment warm air which rain fall down bellow
Tº<0
SNOW Greatest impact with visibility
SNOW GRAINSàFall from STRATUS or SUPERCOOLED FOG
ICE PELLETSàDiameter less than 4mm / Occur a hight altitude
HAIL Associated with severe turbulence
HAILSTONESàIn continental región in mid-latitudes
INTENSIVE Described with light, moderate and heavy
DRIZZLE Small wáter droplets 0,2 to 0,5 in diameter
Stratus , mid-latitudes

FALLSTREAKS OR VIRGA
• Water or ice particles falling out of
• A cloud that evaporate before reaching the ground

AIR MASSES
An airmass is a large parcel of air with fairly similar Tº and humidity propiertis throughout
WARM AIR MASS
• Stable
• Fog, por visibility
• Nimboestratus
• NOT turbulence
• Stratiform clouds

COLD AIR MASS

• UNSTABLE
• Cumuliform clouds, turbulence and good visibility
• Showers and gusty wins

FRONTS
A front is a boundary layer between two different air masses
Air masses have different characteristicsà Depend the origen, path over Surface and diverging or converging
FRONTAL ACTIVITYàDescribes the interaction between at least two masses as one air masses replaces another
STATIONARY FRONTà There is not horizontal motion perpendicular to the front (wind has its direction parallel to
front
WARM FRONT
• Boundary produced between two air masses, where the warmer, less dense air
mass rises up and replaces at altitude, the coolder air mass at the Surface
• The top of the warm front is characteristics with cirrus clouds, could be up to
600NM ahead of the Surface front
• Inclinedà 1:150
• QFE and QNH decrease
• Precipitation from NB clouds are FREEZING RAIN
• Low levels, low clouds base and por visibility
• AIR STABLEà Clouds stratiform, uniform precipitation
• CLOUDSà ST-NB-AS-CS-CI

WIND Tº PRESSURE VISIBILITY PRECIPITATION

BEFORE Increase COOL Falling Reducing to poor LIGHT
AT Variable decrease Variable decrease LOWEST point Very poor MOderate à Heavy
AFTER Veers in NH Rise Tº Slight rise GOOD Intermediate

COLD FRONT
• Boundary between two air masses, where the colder, denser air mass replaces the warmer air mass from
the Surface upward
• The slope of the cold front is steepà 1:50
• Cumulos and CB clouds are associated with thunderstorms and only covering around 30-50NM
• UNESTABLE AIR
• Good visibility between showers
• Altimeterà First increase and then decrease
• 300Km behindà Clouds scatteres and isolated showers
• COLD AIR, pushed under a warm air mass

WIND VISIBILITY PRESSURE Tº

BEFORE POOR Usually FALL
AFTER VEER HN GOOD Stop falling and DROP Tº
BACK SH start RISE
OCCLUDED FRONT
An occluded front is a combination of both a cold and warm front
The cold front move faster than warm front and the cold front inevitably will catch up (overtake)
with the warm front

POLAR FRONT
• Boundary between polar and tropical
• WARM SECTORà Is a tropical air
• Move along front towards the east
• Average in HN more southerly during Winter than
summer
ARTIC FRONT
• Boundary between polar air and artic air

PRESSURE SYSTEM
Is a circulating airmass that is classified as either a low or high, which the direction of pressure change toward the
center of the airmass at the Surface

ANTICYCLONE ( HIGHT PRESSURE)

CHARACTERISTICS
• PRESSURE GRADIENTàThe pressure will be rise meanwhile your are approaching to the center
• AIRFLOW PATTERNàCONVERGE ( upper layers) SUBSIDING ( at the centre) DIVERGE (at the lower layers)
• WEATHERà Clear upper skies with a Little or NO low level cloud formation. It is so because descending
stable air in a hight-pressure system is a warmer as it descends. Dew point Tº is
increased and the relative humidity is reduced. LIGHT WINDS
• MOVEMENTàGenerally are greater in EXTEND but a WEAKER pressure gradient
and SLOWER moving.
SUBSIDENCE
• Produce, dry air and inversión (STABLE LAYERS)
• Downward air flow in large áreas Hight pressure
RIDGEàIs a U-shaped extensión to a hight-pressure system

NON FRONTAL DEPRESSION (LOW PRESSURE), CYCLONE

CHARACTERISTICS
• PRESSURE GRADIENTàAir pressure rises as you move away from its center
• AIR FLOW PATTERNàCONVERGENCE (inflow) lower level, RISING AIR (center)
DIVERGENCE (upper layers)
• AIRMASSàMade up of at least two different air masses
• MOVEMENTàLow pressure system generaly more INTENSE than highs because they
are more concentrated in terms of área and have a stronger pressure gradient
• WINDàCounterclockwise around a low-pressure system in the NH
• TYPESàFRONTAL/ THERMAL / TROPICAL / OROGRAPHIC

The low pressure usually formo ver Surface dry, sunnny regions, over land and produce
HEAVY rain and thunderstormand the Tº rise in áreas in relation to the envioroment
TROUGHàIs a V-SHAPED extensión of a low pressure system. Air flows into a through
(convergence) and rises.

DRIFT NH
From HIGHTàLOW= Drift to the RIGHT and altimeter OVERREAD
From LOWàHIGHT=Drift to the LEFT and altimeter UNDERREAD

AIR PRESSURE AFFECT AN AIRCRAFT´S FLIGHT LEVEL

A change in atomospheric pressure causes a barometric pressure error in the altimeter
When flying from HIGH TO LOW your actual flight level is lower than your altimeter (altimeter OVERREAD)
When flying from LOW TO HIGH your actual flight leve lis higher than your altimeter (altimeter UNDEREAD)
TROPICAL REVOLVING STORM
HURRICANE
• Summer and autum
• FORMà Surface Tº +27 and formation áreas 5º-15º away
• EYEà Wind speed lower than 63Knots descending, extend from the Surface to the TOP, visible from the
satellites
• Form the earth Surface up to the tropopause the core is warmer than its surrounding

FLIGHT HAZARD
ICING
The formation of ice is the change os the state of wáter to a solid form when the Tº is less than the freezing
point of wáter (0ºC). ICE risk present in clouds between +10ºC and -45ºC
SUBLIMATIONà Process of turning wáter vapor immediately into ice when the Tº is less than 0ºC
AIRFRAME ICING
• NOT-occur in clear sky-condition
• WORSTà -15Cº
• Supercooled wáter droplets and ice cristal
HAZARD TO AVIATION
• AERODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE EFFECTà Ice buildup on an aircrafts´s wing causing reduced stalling
angle, and máximum lift capabilities, increase stall speed and drag
• CONTROL SURFACE EFFECTà Restricted the movement and even loss of control in extreme
circustances
• INCREASE AIRCRAFT WEIGHT EFFECTSàThe position of the CG change and required a higher lift
• REDUCE ENGINE POWERà Ice buildup in the engine jet intake or piston can restrict the airflow into
the engine, a power loss and even engine failure extreme circustances
• VEN BLOCKAGE EFFECTà Ice buildup on pitot and static port will produces error in the aircraft´s pressure
system (IAS, VSI, ALTIMETER)
TYPES (depend CLOUD Tº and DROPLET SIZE)
CLEAR ICE
• Supercooled wáter droplets spreading during the freezing process
• Slow freezing
• TRANSPARENT
• Could occur AIRFRAME ICE
• Flight into freezing rain
• WATER DROPLETSà Freeze slowly and spread out extensively
• Difficult to remove from the aircraft Surface
• +Probable into CB clouds

RIME ICE
• Forming leading-edge SMALL supercooled wáter drop
• Small supercooled , freeze inmediately and créate rime ice
• Stratiform cloudà -10ºC -20ºC NS -10ºC -30ºC

MIXED CLEAR
• -3ºC to -25ºC
• NOT icing bellow -45ºC
• Consist CLEAR ICE and RIME ICE
• NS cloudà -7ºC -13ºC

HOAR FROST
• Water vapour turning directly into ice cristal on aircraft Surface
• Climbing trhough INVERSION
• Descend in very cold air
• Tº lower than dew point
SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS (SWD)
Exist in a non frozen liquid form in the atmosphere air temperatura down to as low as -45Cº well below the normal
freezing point of wáter (0ºC)
Such supercooled wáter drop will freeze only partially on coctact with a colder, subzero Surface. SWD will turn into
ice as it is washed back along the colder aircraft Surface. This is because the SWDs reléase latent heat as it start to
freeze.
NOT exixt bellow -45ºC

CLOUDS
• CBà highest risk ice -2ºC and -15ºC
• ALTOCUMULOS and ALTOSTRATUSà Light moderate icing
• NOT icingà CI/CS

TURBULENCE
The turbulence vary with time, from place to place and in magnitude
TYPES OF MAGNITUDE
• LIGHTà
• MODERATEàPilot should decrease the speed and climb above
• SEVEREàAircraft may be out of control, occupant are forced violently
Turbulence is mainly considered to be vertical gust
• CONVERTIVE TURBULENCEà Caused by solar radiation heating the ground and producing rising termal
currents
• OBSTRUCTION AND OROGRAHICà Generated by the terrain
Horizontal turbulence:
• JETS STREAM
• WAKE TURBULENCE
SURFACE TURBULENCEà Wind blown over and around Surface obstacle, such as hills, tres, and building
CAT (CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE)
NO signs of visible moisture content in turbulence air
Is defined “Turbulence that occurs in the free atmosphere away from visible convective activity. CAT include high
level frontal and jet stream turbulence and strong vertical windshear
• LOW LEVELS OF CATàCaused by= Tº inversión/ difference between the Surface and gradient wind/ Local
Surface wind (land, sea breeze)/ Terrain generate winds
• JETSTREAM àThe most severe CAT can be found level or just above the ject core in the warm air but on
the cold air polar side of the jet
• FRONTSàProduce a horizontal windshear wich can produce CAT
• THUNDERSTORMà Serious CAT windshear can be found a low level

WINDSHEAR
Any variation of wind speed and or direction from place to place, including updrafts and downdrafts
Causes turbulence and loss of energy disturbance to an aircraft´s flight path
Affect to the speed and flight paths of the aircraft
Could occur any level (low or médium or high)
LOW LEVEL OF WINDSHEAR
• INVERSION
• CAT
• FRONT
• MICROBUST AND THUNDERSTOM GUST
MEDIUM AND HIGHT LEVEL OF WINDSHEAR
• JETSTREAM
• FRONTS
AFFECT TO THE AIRCRAFT
Aircraft´s dynamic speed is reduced as a result of the reduction in wind speed
Aircraft weight is increased as a result of downdraft
In case of TAILWINDàUndershoot windshear effect causing downdraft and decrease IAS
In case of HEADWINDà Overshoot windshear and updraft and increase IAS
MICROBUST
Severe downdraft, vertical wind that you could find under thunderstorm or under CB. They are usually higly
concentraded, only about 5Km across and found in the middle of thunderstorm. Always best to wait for it to pass
because the downdraft and the rapid reveals of wind direction of a microbust can be fatal to the aircraft.
1-5 min Downdraugh, high speed and Tº lower (CB)
MICROBUST AFFECT TO THE AIRCRAFT
1. Initially, when entering a zone underneath a CB cloud with a
microbust present, an aircraft will experience an updraft and has
the effect on an aircraft´s flight path
• IAS wil be RISE
• RATE OF DESCEND will be REDUCE
2. Approaching the centre área underneath a CB cloud , with microbust, the aircraft would start to
experience a strong downdraft, which would be a severe change
• LOSS os headwind which cause the aicraft´s nose to fall
• IAS start to FALL
• ROD starts to INCREASE with tendency to go below the glide path
3. A the aircraft´s flight path progessed to the far side of the microcust the aircraft then experience a severe
downdraft and a tailwind directly from the cloud base
• ENERGY LOSS on INCREASE OF TAILWIND
• IAS continue to FALL
• ROD continue INCREASING

TORNADOES
• Diameterà 100-150m
• SPEEDà 20-40Knots
• North Americaà Spring and summer

INVERSIONS
LOW LEVELà It has the effect that could cause vertical WINDSHEAR(change speed and direction wind)
INVERSION BY SUBSIDENCEà Performance and improve visibility

MOUNTAIN AREAS
MOUNTAIN WAVE
• Strong wind and turbulence in the mountain
• MOST turbulenceà ROTOR
• ALTOCUMULOS LENTICULARES
ROTOR
• Low level circulation
• Wind direction at the lower side of the rotor is
opposite to the prevaling wind
VALLEY INVERSIONà Radiation cooling

VISIBILITY
Greatest horizontal distance at which a specific object can be seen in daylight conditions
Is reduced by particles are present in the atmosphere (wáter, ice, pollution, sand, dust, volcanis ash.
FOG>1000m
RAINFALL greater visibility than DRIZZLE
VISIBILITY REPORTED
• METEROLOGICAL REPORT
• RVR

THUNDERSTORM
FORMATION
1. A high moisture content in the air (HUMIDITY)
2. A trigger lifting action (convection, turbulence, frontal, orographic)
3. Adiabatic cooling of the rising air
4. A highly unstable atmosphere (ELR>SALR)
HAZARD TO AVIATION
• Severe windshearàloss of airspeed, structural damage, flight path deviation
• Severe turbulenceà Possible loss control, and structural damage
• Severe icingà clear ice fromed from supercooled wáter droplets (SWD)
• Airframe structural damage, reduce visibility
 1. INTIAL STAGE (developing stage)
• Continuos UPDRAUGHT
• 15-20min
• Condensation take place throughout the ascend
of the convective currents
2. MATURE STAGE
• 20-30min
• STAR OF PRECIPITATION
• Greatest intensity, most hazordous stage ( Hail, turbulence, windshear, microbust, lighting, icing…)
• Produce UP and DOWN
3. DISSIPATING STAGE
• DOWNDRAUGHT
• Well development ANVIL SHAPE (cause windshear, downdward vertical currents)

FRONTAL THUNDERSTORM
• Cold front approaching a mountain range evening
• Rising air due to falling pressure at air mass boundaries
• COLD FRONT
CONVECTIVE THUNDERSTORM
• Produce both UP and DOWNDRAUGH
• Most difficult to detect
• Isolated thunderstorm
• Greatest summer in afternoon

OROGRAPHIC THUNDERSTORM
• At any time during day and
night

CLIMATOLOGY
ITZI (INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE)
• It is an área where the trade winds blowing from the north hemisphere convergence with the trade winds
blowing from the southern hemisphere.
• Typical weather frequent CBàStrong convergence
• More variation over continental than over ocean
• WINDS BLOWN FROM àSE and NE
• Different wind directions on both sides of the zone

MONSOON
• Start àJune southern India to reach Pakistan July

TRADE WINDS
• ONLY lower parts of the troposphere
• Originate SUB TROPICAL HIGH and move to ITCZ
• Wind zone sitúate north and south of ITCZ
• Blow from horse latitudes and doldrums

EASTERLY WAVE
• Between hight pressure and ITCZ
• Thunderstorm and rain
 LOCAL WINDS

FOEHN WINDS
Dry warm katabatic (downslope/descending) wind formed due to dry adiabatic warming of the
descending air on the downwind (leeward) of the mountain. The Tº on the lee side is normally
higher than on the windward side of the montain at the same level

COLD LOCAL WINDS

1. MISTRALàNortherly cold and strong Katabatic wind blowing toward the mediterranean
sea. Very gusty and strong wing that occur during Winter early spring
2. BORAàCold katavatic wind. Blow toward ADRIABATIC SEA. GUST
3. PAMPEROSàSoutherly cold and strong wind from Antartica, blow over southern America.
Occur mainly in Winter.

WARM LOCAL WINDS

1. SIROCCOàSouth/SW strong wind with dust and sand blowing over the mediterranean from Africa. It is a
Winter phenomeno
2. HARMATTAàNorth-Easterly wind formed over the Sahara desert. Occur in Winter. It créate a dust storm
that reduce the visibility

WEATHER FORECAST REPORT

INSTRUMENTS
• BAROMETRIC PRESSUREàMeasue ANEROID BAROMETER and record BAROGRAPH
• STORMSCOPEàInstrument to detect electrical discharge
• MERCURY BAROMETERàMeasure pression
• RADIOSONDEà(ballon up) measure pression, Tº and humidity
• PHYCHOMETERàHumidity, compare dry bult Tº with lowest Tº to which air is cooled by the evaporation

RVR
• The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway markings
or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line
• REPORTàVisibility decrease below 1500m
• RVR better than metereological visibility
• INSTRUMENTàTRANSMISOMETERS
• METAR/SPECI/ATIS
• SUFFIXà D (decreasing tendency) U (Increasing tendency) N (no change)
• P (when RVR is greater than the máximum measure value ) M (less)
• EXAMPLEàR24/P1500=RVR for runway 24 is greater than 1500m

PRECIPITATION OBSCURATION DESCRIPTORS OTHER

DZàDrizzle BRàMist MIàShallow TSàThunderstorm
RAà Rain FGàFog BCàPatches SQàSqualls
SNàSnow FUàSmoke PRàPartial FCàTornado
SGàSnow grains VAàVolcanic ash DRàDrifting DSàDust Storm
ICàIce cristal DUàDust BLàBlowing SSàSand storm
PEàPellets SAàSand SHàShowers POàSans/dust whirls
GRàHail HZàHaze FZàFreezing
AIRMET
Is a recorder telephone message that gives the metereologic forecast for a
particular área

METEREOLOGICAL REPORT
Is an observation of the actual weather at a specific time
Commum metereological report
1. METAR/SIGMENT, and SPECI
2. ATIS
3. In-flight weather reports (VOLMET, ATIS and radio communications with ATS or FIS)

METAR
• Abbreviation for the “Aerodrome Metereological Report”, issued each 30 min. It is not a forecast
• Routne aviation weather report for an aerodrome. It is an observation of the actual weather given by a
metereological observed at the aerodrome
• CLOUD BASEàgiven AGL
• GUSTà (G) Increase wind less than 1 min, short distance (reported +10Knots above the mean wind
speed)
• FOGàReported bellow 1000m (1Km)
• SQUALLàIncrease wind 16Knots at least 1 min
• VALIDàAt the time of the observation
• WIND SPEEDàAverage speed of the previous 10min (TRUEº)
• VV//= Vertical visibility is missing or not measurable
• CAVOKà9999 NSC NSW /NOT clouds bellow 5000ft or MSA
/NOT CB or TCB
• QNHàReduce down to the nearest HPa
• RVR reportedàvalue representative of the Touchdown zone
• TREND àIs a forecast landing of any significant weather
changes expected in the next 2 hours

SIGMENT
• Is a metereological report that advises of significant
metereological condition that may affect the safety of flight
operation in a general geographic áreas. Can report:
• Active thunderstorm / TRS / Severe line squalls / Severe
airframe icing/ Mountain waves / Heavy rain/ Severe turbulence/
Widespread dust or standstorm / Volcanic ash/

SPECI
• Is a Special Weather Report for an aerodrome, issued when a
significant change of the weather conditions have been observed
• Transmitted VHF VOLMET
• EXAMPEà windshear, microbust, severe turbulence
• Tº increase of 2ºC or more
• Wind direction change of 60º or more/ speed 10Knots
• SIgnificant change in cloud base, passes through 100ft,200

ATIS
• Is a prerecorder tape broadcast on an appropiate VOR or VHF
cannel to reduce workload on ATC communications frecuencies
VOLMET
• Is a continuous broadcast on a VHF/HF frecuency or metereological information for aircraft in flight and
contains METAR/SPECI/TAF and SIGMENT.
• Multiple airports (normally 10)
• That includes
1. The actual weather report
2. The landing forecast
3. A forecast trend for the 2 hours following
4. A SIGMENT
ACARSàMeans of transmiting operational message including TAF and METAR from ground to AIR (picture)
METEREOLOGICAL FORECAST
A forecast is a prediction, or prognosis, of what the weather is likely to be for a given route, área or aerodrome
TAF

TAF
• TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST
• It is a weather forecast given by a qualified metereologic forecaster based at the aerodrome
• CLOUD BASEà Given above aerodrome level (AAL)
• VALIDITYàStated in the TAF (minime 9h and máximum 24h)
• CLOUDàAmount, type, heigh of base
• TAF AMDàRevised TAF
• PROB-à30%- 40%
• VV001=Vertical visibility 100ft
• BCMG=BECOMING, It indicates a permanent change in the forecast conditions occuring at some time
during the specific period
• TEMPO= TEMPORARY variation in the general forecast weather lasting less than 1 h

AERODROME WARNING
It is a special information abut adverse weather conditions for all aircraft and aerodrome facilities on ground,
refering to pehnomenosàFrost, dust storm, hoar froast, rime, hail, snow, freezing precipitation, tropical ciclones..

EXTRA
Abbreviations relating to CB clouds
• ISOLàIndividuals CBs (isolated)
• OCNLàWell separated CBs (occasional)
• FREQà CBs with Little or not separation (frequent)
• EMBDàThunderstorm clouds contained in layer of other clouds (embedded)

ISOHIPSASàSame heigh in a chart of cte pressure

ISOBARSàClosely, strong wind are present (same pressure)
ISOTACASàLines point equal wind speed
ISOTHERMASàequal Tº

FRONT
COLD FRONTàBLUE
STATIONARY FRONTàRED/BLUE
WARM FRONTàRED
OCCLUSSIONàVIOLET