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Application of a prototype for atmospheric water capture in urban agriculture,

a case study: Mentha piperita L.

Article  in  RESEARCH JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY AND ENVIRONMENT · July 2018

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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

Application of a prototype for atmospheric water

capture in urban agriculture, a case study:
Mentha piperita L.
Alexandra Valderrama1, Mónica Tatiana Herrera1, Carlos Peña-Guzmán1*and Quelbis Quintero2
1. Environmental Engineering Faculty, Universidad Santo Tomas, Research Group INAM-USTA, Bogotá, COLOMBIA
2. Environmental Engineering Faculty, Universidad Autónoma de Colombia, Grupo Bioindustrias, Bogotá, COLOMBIA
*[email protected]

Abstract This practice has exhibited consistent growth. According to

This paper presents a prototype for atmospheric water Bourque,9 it is estimated that more than 800 million urban
capture using Peltier modules that condense water residents engage in UA depends on factors including zone-
vapor. The prototype offers several benefits: water related characteristics, weather, economy, society and
culture.29 UA’s growth has been proportional to the rate of
quality generated by clean air, ease of transportation
growth and cities’ demands. However, water demand has
and installation, harvest of water from 500 m.a.s.l. to emerged as a serious issue, for there is scarce availability and
2000 m.a.s.l. (for temperature and humidity). The supply of this resource.3
water generated by the prototype was used to irrigate
a Mentha piperita L. crop for which two weighing Looking at water scarcity, one significant issue is related to
lysimeters of 50% and 100% of humidity were installed exceeding the recharge rate; key determinants of exceeding
to determine the water demand of the plant in its life this rate are economic development, agricultural and
cycles and thereby determine the number of plants that industrial demand and demographic growth.25,33 Hanjra and
the prototype can support. Qureshi19 found that approximately 80% of global
consumption of water is agricultural; thus, the lack of control
over irrigation water in urban centers creates pressure—in
Results showed that the prototype captures
terms of quantity and quality—on water resources,
approximately 86.68 mL of water/day with relative exacerbating current issues of water access.37
humidity, temperature and current the most decisive
variables for water capture; for Mentha piperita L., the According to Allen et al,2 crop’s water demand is only
total consumption of water for 50% of relative humidity partially met by precipitation and (complementary)
was 1698.165 mL in a 46.5 cm2 area. Having irrigation systems. Yet, in developing countries, especially
calculated water consumption, we determined that the where weather is a factor (e.g. the El Niño phenomenon),
prototype can support up to 6 plants with UA has come to rely more heavily on irrigation systems.
characteristics similar to those of the case-study plant. Consequently, rural and urban growers use groundwater or
Therefore, this type of technology represents an interbasin transfer for their crop; this situation,
alternative for irrigation in urban agriculture given the unsurprisingly, has put serious pressure on water
resources.17
prototype can be adapted to a larger scale with
improved effectiveness. There are a number of nonconventional methods for water
capture with the potential to increase water supply and
Keywords: Urban agriculture, irrigation, water demand, reduce the gap between freshwater supply and demand
Peltier effect, condensation. including desalinization, rainwater capture, residential
wastewater reuse, agricultural drainage, capture of
Introduction atmospheric water vapor.35 Of these, the capture of
Urban agriculture (UA) has assumed a crucial role in the atmospheric water vapor has had a significant impact in
economic growth of cities small and large by significantly developed countries given its advantages over other
reducing poverty and addressing problems of food methods, advantages attributable to the fact that it is
insecurity, primarily in areas with major population growth; adaptable to extreme conditions and utilizes air as a principle
such countries are found on the continents of Africa and of renewable clean water.
Latin America, where 40 and 50%, respectively, of the urban
population depend on UA.37 De Zeeuw et al36 defined UA Since 1999, several ways to capture atmospheric water vapor
as: “the growing of plants and trees and rearing of livestock have been developed. For example, in 1999, the optimization
within or on the fringe of cities (intra-urban and peri-urban of cloud capture was embraced in Europe due to its
agriculture, respectively), including related input provision, performance, reliance on environmental sources, low cost
processing and marketing activities and services.” The (of installation, operation and maintenance) and quality of
advantages of UA are numerous: social inclusion, food water produced.1 Subsequently developed techniques
security, job opportunities, preservation of green spaces and include: solar radiation collectors based on the use of
vegetative cover and adaptability to climate change.8 physical processes of dew formation,22 earth collectors,
23
Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

which consist of tilted vertical channels that accumulate Each module is composed of two ceramic plates (electrically
water from atmospheric air, cooling the vapor until it reaches isolated) with interspersed pairs of semiconductive
dew point,3 water desalinization via hybrid humidification– elements—one “P” (positive) type and the other “N”
dehumidification using an air conditioning system,27 (negative) type—joined by copper that is spread over a flat
refrigerated radiation systems that condense atmospheric surface; plates are connected electrically in series and
vapor in large surfaces such as roofs, taking advantage of the thermally in parallel which enables the provision of a
radioactive properties of passive refrigeration,1 the recovery hot/cold surface generator.
of condensed water from air conditioning systems, the use of
desiccant systems and modified solar systems,14 among On the heat surface, there is a heat sink that prevents heat
others. transfer and eliminates excessive temperatures to which the
module may be exposed. A fan ensures that air reaches the
In addition to the aforementioned capture technologies, a set heat sink and allows for the free flow of air. In this phase,
of techniques has emerged in recent years and led to greater low temperatures are required for the cold surface to reach
productivity and innovation. This set utilizes thermoelectric dew-point temperatures.
phenomena. Some of these mechanisms act as coolers,
heaters, or energy sources.21 The cold surface of the prototype has a 0.1-mm thick
aluminum sheet in the shape of a downspout so as to ensure
One thermoelectric-related technology uses the “Peltier that water drops fall (i.e. gravity) and a small fan to increase
Effect”. In the words of Riffat and Ma,32 “The Peltier effect ventilation. The exterior of the prototype has a recipient for
is controlled by the Peltier coefficient, defined as the product storage and holes in the sides to allow for the free flow of air
of Seebeck coefficient of the semiconductor material and the (fig. 1B).
absolute temperature.” This refers to a cooling effect
occurring as current passes from the n (-)-type material to The prototype was evaluated in terms of water volume
the p (+)-type material as well as a heating effect caused by generated; this volume was studied in comparison to relative
a current passing from the p-type material to the n-type humidity (RH), temperature, amperage and dew-point
material, thereby generating a transfer of heat from one side temperature. This last aspect is especially important, for it
to the other.24 provides the air temperature necessary to ensure the
condensation.11 Data collection was done over 23
These modules are commonly used for refrigeration,23 air consecutive days at 6-hour intervals. The temperature and
conditioning systems,4 electricity sources by generating RH were determined using a hygro-thermometer and the
electric tension via the difference in temperatures18 and current with an ammeter. Dew-point temperature was
water-capture collectors by condensing atmospheric air.26,28 calculated to evaluate its relationship with the water volume
This last use is the most important one for the purposes of generated. To this end, the Murrey equation was used10:
the present research.
237.3
𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤 =
This study presents a prototype of atmospheric water capture
1
using the Peltier module; the effectiveness of this prototype 𝑅𝐻
ln(100) 𝑇
was evaluated in terms of the quantity and quality of water [ 17.27 ]+[237.3+𝑇]
{ }
generated. The prototype was used with a Mentha piperita
L. crop as a source of irrigation to examine the crop’s
where Tdew is the temperature of dew point (°C); T is the
development. Furthermore, the conditions for improvement
average temperature (°C) and RH is the average relative
were determined by means of the search for the control of
energy and best performance, which were, in turn, based on humidity (%).
air humidity and air temperature conditions. The water
Then, physicochemical assays were done to determine water
volume needed for irrigation was calculated by determining
the evapotranspiration (ET) of Mentha piperita L. with quality for irrigation supply. The physical parameters
included pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids
weighing lysimeters.
(TDS), temperature, turbidity and concentration of dissolved
oxygen (DO). These variables were evaluated in situ using
Material and Methods the Hanna HI9829 multiparameter meter. With water
This research was done in Bogotá, the Colombian capital, samples stored in 500 mL plastic bottles and preserved by
specifically in the Villa María neighborhood of the Suba means of freezing, the chemical parameters of nitrites,
municipality (4°43'59.2068" N, 74°6'35.2584" W). The ammonia nitrogen and sulfur were measured in the
project was carried out in 2 simultaneous stages: laboratory using colorimetry.
construction of the prototype and determination of the crop’s
(Mentha piperita L) water demand. Determining the water demand of Mentha piperita L.: It
bears repeating that proper water-resource management for
The design consists of a 1-mm thick aluminum box as seen a given crop entails the study of its particular water
in figure 1A; inside the box, there are two Peltier modules. requirements and ET. To this end, the use of a lysimeter to
24
Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

measure ET is ideal, for it allows researchers to calculate the set to 100% and 50% of available humidity i.e. 27% and 20%
water volume entering and exiting containers with an of soil humidity for Lysimeters 1 and 2 respectively; to avoid
isolated soil mass,34 providing exact figures for a crop’s the fringe effect, 4 gutters were installed on the sides of the
water consumption.30 The lysimeters used in this experiment lysimeters (figure 2A for more on the lysimeters’ specific
were equipped with a weighing system, which enabled the characteristics).
calculation of ET via mass differences.16
Each lysimeter has a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gutter with a
Two weighing lysimeters were designed and installed to downspout and hydraulic lids and reinforced with a metallic
study the experimental Mentha piperita L crop over 91 days, structure in the shape of arms to enhance resistance/strength
a period encompassing all phenological phases (i.e. planting, and acts as a support. The lysimeters were also equipped
crop development stage, midseason stage and late-season with a weighing system with two load cells per lysimeter
stage). The lysimeters were placed on a 1.2-m high metallic (Loadstar, TAF-050-025-A*C01, model CELDA ILOAD
structure and 2% slope to facilitate runoff. These two were TR). The actual setup can be seen in figure 2B.

A) B)
Figure 1: A) Water-Capture Prototype (1) Peltier modules, (2) Fans, (3) recipient, (4) Power supply B) Photograph.
To build the prototype, the materials presented in table 1 were used

Table 1
Materials used to build the prototype for atmospheric water capture
Amount Materials Characteristics
1 Computer source 12V and 10 A
2 Peltier module TEC1-12706
1 Heat sink 9 x 21 x 5 cm
1 Aluminum sheet (0.1 mm) 28 x 5 cm
1 Beaker 150 ml
1 Thermal paste Temperature range: 50 to 260° C
1 Medium fan 12V and 0.9 A
1 Small fan 12V and 0.15 A
1 Computer charger Output: 12V - 2Amp
1 Hygro-thermometer Temp: Outdoor -50 a 70° C, Indoor 0 to 50° C; Hum: 20 to 90%
1 Aluminum box 25 x 23 x 24 cm
1 Ammeter EX830 – AC and DC current 0.1 to 1000 A

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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

A) B)
Figure 2: A) Weighing lysimeters for Mentha piperita L. (1) Lysimeter 1 (2) Lysimeter 2 (3) Load sensor (4)
LoadVUE software B) Photograph of a weighing lysimeter used to study Mentha piperita L.

The data produced by the load cells were recorded and changed the module’s capacity. In other words, if a constant
visualized using LoadVUE software. The measuring interval current had been maintained, the module would not have
of the force of the weight of the load was configured for undergone fluctuations.
every 30 minutes for 24 hours. Data were gathered over 91
days, starting at 8 a.m. The time (8 a.m.) is significant only The water-capture peak was observed on day 9, reaching
as we supplied at this hour to establish a baseline against nearly 30 mL d-1 over a 6-hour period. On day 9, there was
which we could do the variation in weight related to water a considerable reduction in temperature, dropping to 15°C,
consumption (i.e. we supplied water at 8 a.m. every day to one of the lowest observed during the entire sampling period.
ensure the lysimeters maintaining their initial conditions of There was also an increase in RH to 80%; the current used
100% and 50% of available humidity). by the module to capture this volume was 5A. The lowest
water volume captured was observed on day 4, with a value
Irrigation was provided in the form of tap water as well as of approximately 15 mL d-1, which coincided with the lowest
the water produced by the prototype. The water was RH (40%) and the highest temperature (24°C) observed
distributed using a pipe with a gate valve. during the study period. The highest current (6A) utilized by
the module was also observed on day 4. Therefore, we
Results and Discussion concluded that higher temperatures combined with lower
Volume of water captured: The sampling intervals were RH led to increased currents (A). The data in figure 3 reveal
done every 6 hours i.e. 4 daily samples for a period of 23 that similar behavior was observed for amperage and
days. This produced a total of 92 samples. The 6-hour temperature: As temperatures increased, so did the current.
intervals were used to compensate for the low water quantity
captured by the prototype during shorter time intervals. We also looked at the most productive ranges of RH. These
Figure 3 displays the measured variables’ behavior during ranges presented values over 80% on days 9, 10 and 12,
the time period (with intervals of 6 hours/day). though, in figure 3, on these same days, there was also an
inversely proportional relationship with temperature i.e.
The shaded area in figure 3 represents days with values temperatures were low, which may indicate that the highest
exceeding 100 mL d-1 of water captured: On the shaded days water volumes were correlated with suboptimal temperature
(Days 14 and 17), temperatures did not exceed 18°C and RH compensated by RH. This behavior was exhibited on the
was nearly 60%. Day 1 began at 12:00 (noon); thus, water final test days (days 20 to 23), for which water volumes were
quantity was minimal. Dew-point temperatures were not high, temperatures were moderately high and RH was high.
highly representative. However, they presented peaks in
amperage, which meant that to obtain these water volumes, Dew point was not observed to impact water volume. To a
currents must have exceeded 5A. As seen in figure 3, the large extent, dew point remained constant and primarily
greatest water volumes were observed at temperatures below correlated with fluctuations in temperature, which is unusual
20°C and with an RH over 60%. because studies on water condensation26,28 have considered
this variable (dew point) a point of control for water volume.
Initially, temperatures higher than 20°C affected water However, in our case, RH and temperature were more
volume, yet these temperatures no longer significantly impactful in terms of water volume.
affected volume. This may be attributable to the Peltier
module’s absorptive or docking capacity with the power As the results indicate, the highest volumes of water
source, for the source provided an alternating current that generated by the prototype were between 106.2 and 100.8
mL d-1.

26
Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

Figure 3: Behavior of water captured, temperature, humidity (RH), dew point and amperage during
the sampling period

Table 2
Spearman’s correlation coefficient and p-value for temperature (°C), RH (%), dew point (°C), amperage (A)
and water captured (mL)

Spearman’s correlation coefficient p-value

Temperature -0.486 Temperature 0.000
RH 0.450 -0.755 RH 0.000 0.000
Dew point 0.063 0.360 0.218 Dew point 0.625 0.004 0.089
Amperage -0.535 0.868 -0.862 0.009 Amperage 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.944
Water Dew Water Dew
Temperature RH Temperature RH
captured point captured point

In turn, analysis was carried out on the study variables using temperature was of greater significance than RH. In table 2,
Spearman’s correlation coefficient by means of the relationships between temperature, dew-point
nonparametric methods i.e. the data analyzed did not fit a temperature and RH are displayed showing that humidity
normal distribution. The level of significance for this was inversely related to temperature.
analysis was 0.05. In table 2, the degree of relationship
between water captured, temperature, RH, dew point and As for the variable amperage, an inverse correlation was
current (A) is shown. There was an inverse relationship observed with water captured. For the former, lower
between water captured and temperature: As temperatures temperatures and higher RH led to more water captured,
increased, the prototype’s water-capture capacity decreased. which meant that less current was required. That is, when
The level of significance of variables water captured and ambient conditions favored prototype productivity, the
temperature confirmed a statistically significant correlation energy demand was significantly reduced. Amperage also
between the two. presented high positive and negative correlations with
temperature and RH respectively. Figures 3 and 4 were
RH and water captured were directly (positively) correlated created with MATLAB software.
with higher RH correlated with higher water-capture
capacity. This variable had a p-value of 0, a high significance We forecast the generation of water for 30 days beyond the
for the proposed alternative hypothesis, giving the variable end of the study period using temperature, RH and water-
humidity a decisive role in the capture of atmospheric water. volume data. With these data, a multivariate regression was
Dew point’s potential correlation with water captured and performed and the equation illustrated in figure 4A was
RH was ruled out in light of the low level of significance formulated. Only temperature and RH were used for the
between these variables (0.089 and 0.625, respectively); yet, equation because these two were more tightly correlated;
a moderately positive correlation was observed between dew furthermore, they could be easily measured in real time (a
point and temperature, revealing that for dew point, crucial consideration when studying water supply to crops).
27
Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

Figure 4: A) Volume of water captured by the prototype and the forecast; B) Behavior of the forecast of volume of
water captured with temperature and ambient RH

Figure 4B shows the result of the 30-day forecast for which the condensation of the atmospheric vapor or may be caused
behavior was similar to that observed in the real-time by bovine excrement—in the zone, there is a small area
measurement. Namely, we observed that temperature reserved for cattle. Another potential explanation is the
decreases and RH increases were correlated with higher quantity of nitrogen/nitrous oxides (NOx) generated by cars,
volumes of water capture. By the same token, temperature for the experimental zone is near a parking lot. In irrigation
increase and RH decrease were correlated with lower water, nitrites and ammonia nitrogen may lead plants to have
volumes of water captured. Thus, the equation too many nutrients, which stimulates overly rapid
development and diminished the capacity to survive pests,
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 0.3294 ∗ 𝑅𝐻 + 0.1187 ∗ 𝑇 i.e. makes plants more disease prone. 12

can be used to forecast the water volume obtained from the Determining the water demand of Mentha piperita L.: To
prototype based on temperature and ambient RH. determine crop water requirements, the volume of water
supplied for irrigation was compared to daily ET in the
Physicochemical characteristics of the water: In table 3, stages of cultivation to identify plants’ total consumption for
we present the physicochemical characterization of the water each lysimeter.
captured and compare it to international standards for
irrigation. ET for Lysimeter 1 fluctuated between 4.350 mm d−1 during
the planting stage, 38.099 mm d−1 during the crop-
Using the Chilean,20 FAO5 and EPA15 standards as a development stage, 247.984 mm d−1 during the midseason
baseline, we can say that the parameters of pH, conductivity, stage and 54.631 mm d−1 during the late-season stage (figure
TDS, turbidity and sulfates meet international requirements 5A). ET for Lysimeter 2 fluctuated between 3.480 mm d−1
for irrigation. In contrast, the concentration of DO, nitrites during the sowing stage, 25.879 mm d−1 during the crop-
and ammonia nitrogen presented values outside the limits development stage, 291.198 mm d−1 during the midseason
established by the Chilean standard and the FAO stage and 46.238 mm d−1 for during the late-season stage
respectively. (figure 5B).

The high concentrations of DO, which exceeded the values Figure 5 also shows the plants’ development during stages
established by Chilean standards for high-quality irrigation of cultivation. Generally speaking, linear behavior was
water, may be explained by the water captured not the observed. Lysimeter 2, as seen in figure 5B, had a better
method of capture or production; that is, the water was response to the variable’s behavior. Thus, for the
captured directly from the atmosphere, which increased the development of a crop with this type of plant, a water volume
likelihood of higher levels of oxygen molecules. For crops, corresponding to 50% of available humidity would lead to
this excess may entail “oxidative stress,” which, according optimal results for ET and growth. For Lysimeter 1, the
to Demidchik,13 is induced by excessive production and plants reached a size of 26 cm and for Lysimeter 2, they
accumulation of molecules that contain activated oxygen, reached a size of 30 cm (as seen in figures 5A and 5B
thereby causing the plants’ metabolism to form highly toxic respectively). ET increased proportionally to the plants
substances and leading to the damage (or death) of some during the growth period. During the midseason stage, ET
plants. was constant, with evaporation only slightly influential.
Beginning in the maturing period (i.e. late-season stage), a
The nitrites and ammonia nitrogen in the samples may be the reduction in ET was observed, primarily due to the increased
result of natural occurrence in the air i.e. they may seep into foliage and limited water, for water volume stayed constant
during the crop’s productive cycle.
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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

Table 3
Comparison of standards for the parameters measured
Parameters Value Units Acceptable value Acceptable value Acceptable value
Measured (SI) for irrigation for irrigation for irrigation
(Chilean standard) (FAO) (EPA)
pH 7.49 - 6.5 - 8.5 6.5 – 8.4 6.5 - 8.5
Concentration DO 12.37 mg L-1 7.5 - -
Conductivity 0.0269 S m-1 <0.075 0-3 -
TDS 78 mg L-1 500 0 - 2000 500
Turbidity 0.8 NTU 30 - -
Temperature 16.4 °C - - -
Nitrites 0.07 mg L-1 0.06 - 1.0
Ammonia nitrogen 5.29 mg L-1 - 0-5 -
Sulfates 129 mg L-1 150 - 250

A)

B)

Figure 5: Relationship between growth and evapotranspiration (ET) Mentha piperita L.

A) Lysimeter 1 B) Lysimeter 2

With respect to the consumption of water in the Lysimeters, follows: planting-8.743 mL; crop development-120.339 mL;
Lysimeter 1 consumed less water than Lysimeter 2, which midseason-1354.073 mL and late season-215.009 mL.
can be attributed to plant growth and ET as well as the
humidity assigned to each Lysimeter. On day 8 for The following relationships were established between the
Lysimeter 1 and day 10 for Lysimeter 2, water loss occurred water demand of Mentha piperita L. at each growth stage
due to direct evaporation from the soil; this, in turn, was and the minimum, maximum and average volumes of
reduced as the plants developed and started to rely on atmospheric water captured by the prototype (table 4).
transpiration and evaporation, a behavioral pattern that
continued throughout the crop’s growth stage until the soil As seen in table 4, the prototype can supply up to 2 gutters
was covered by the foliar zone and most ET was the result (6 plants) daily in the majority of their phases, except for the
of transpiration. midseason stage. During this stage, ET and water demand
are higher. The required water deficit is represented by the
On balance, the total water requirements were around figures in red in table 4. However, it should also be noted
345.066 mL for Lysimeter 1 and 366.796 mL for Lysimeter that for the other stages, the volume of water captured not
2 during the entire productive cycle of Mentha piperita L. only met but exceeded the water demand. In some cases, the
which was evaluated over a 91-day period. Over this period, accumulated water offset any prior deficit. For example, if
average ET values were 3.792 and 4.030 mm d-1 for working with 2 gutters at 50% of available humidity, the
Lysimeters 1 and 2 respectively. The optimal conditions minimum amount of water that the prototype accumulated in
were observed at half field capacity (Lysimeter 2), the sowing and cultivation stages was 69.06 mL which was
equivalent to 50% of available humidity, in a 46.5-cm2 area. sufficient to offset the deficit during the midseason stage.
For the different stages, the best conditions per plant were as

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 Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment_____________________________________________Vol. 22 (7) July (2018)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.

Table 4
Difference in the water consumption (mL/day) per plant in each stage and each available humidity in terms of water
captured from the prototype (average, maximum and minimum)
50% of Available Humidity 100% of Available Humidity
Planting Development Midseason Late Planting Development Midseason Late
Consumption (Cons) 1.25 10.91 22.20 7.17 0.65 13.42 21.02 6.76
Plant/Day
1 Gutter (3 Plants) 3.75 32.73 66.59 21.50 1.95 40.25 63.06 20.29
2 Gutters 7.49 65.45 133.18 43.00 3.89 80.49 126.11 40.57
Min. Water Captured 71 71 71 71 71 71 71 71
Max. Water Captured 106.2 106.2 106.2 106.2 106.2 106.2 106.2 106.2
Avg. Water Captured 86.68 86.68 86.68 86.68 86.68 86.68 86.68 86.68
Dif. Cons Min- Gutter 1 67.25 38.27 4.41 49.50 69.05 30.75 7.94 50.71
Dif. Cons Min- Gutter 2 63.51 5.55 -62.18 28.00 67.11 -9.49 -55.11 30.43
Dif. Cons Max- Gutter 1 102.45 73.47 39.61 84.70 104.25 65.95 43.14 85.91
Dif. Cons Max- Gutter 2 98.71 40.75 -26.98 63.20 102.31 25.71 -19.91 65.63
Dif. Cons Avg- Gutter 1 82.93 53.95 20.09 65.18 84.73 46.43 23.62 66.39
Dif. Cons Avg- Gutter 2 79.19 21.23 -46.50 43.68 82.79 6.19 -39.43 46.11

Conclusion available humidity of 50% and 100%. However, the former

Based on the prototype data from the 23 days of testing, we percentage represents the ideal conditions for the crop as
can say that the time interval from 12 a.m. to 6 a.m. produced demonstrated by the relatively stronger development of
the most condensed water, reaching up to 103mL day-1. plants for Lysimeter 2-it is likely that plants for Lysimeter 1
Furthermore, the Spearman correlation analysis revealed received too much water, which induced excess water stress.
that the volume of water captured is directly and indirectly
related to the variables RH and temperature respectively (i.e. References
humidity = direct relationship, temperature = indirect 1. Al-hassan G.A., Fog water collection evaluation in Asir region -
relationship). These results match the observed Saudi Arabia, Water Resources Management, 23(13), 2805–2813,
measurements, for which lower water quantities were doi: 10.1007/s11269-009-9410-9 (2009)
observed in conjunction with temperatures over 20°C and
2. Allen R.G., Pereira L.S., Raes D. and Smith M.,
RH under 60%, such that optimal results would be obtained
Evapotranspiración del cultivo, Guías para la determinación de los
when using the prototype at temperatures under 20°C and requerimientos de agua de los cultivos, FAO (Food, Estudio FAO
RH over 60%. Riego y Drenaje, FAO (Food, Roma, Italia, FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), doi: M-56 (2006)
It should be noted that the supply of energy is crucial; if the
appropriate current is not administered to both Peltier 3. Aly A.A., Technical Review on the Extraction of Water, Heat
modules, the temperatures do not exhibit uniform and Mass Transfer, 4(3), 213–228 (2010)
distribution and unequal amounts of water are produced,
even if the recommended conditions are otherwise followed. 4. Atta R., Solar Water Condensation Using Thermoelectric
Coolers, International Journal of Water Resources and Arid, 1(2),
142–145 (2011)
With regard to water quality for irrigation, it is estimated that
the prototype meets the requirements of the selected 5. Ayers R.S. and Westcot D.W., Water Quality for Agriculture,
international standards. The values exceeding the FAO of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 97 (1985)
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