FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 9

CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION IN-CIRCUIT METERS

This chapter explains the basics of circuit Some electrical devices have meters built into
measurement. It covers devices used to measure them. These are in-circuit meters, which monitor the
volt age, current, resistance, power, and frequency. operation of the circuit in which they are installed.
This chapter does not cover all the available testing Some examples of in-circuit meters are the generator
instruments. Instead, it describes those instruments or alternator meter on some automobiles; the volt-
most commonly found on Army watercraft. age, current, and frequency meters on ship
switchboards; and the electrical power meter that
Because of the high cost of repair and replace- records the amount of power consumed in a building.
ment parts, the marine engineman/engineer must
correctly diagnose and repair defects in electrical It is not practical to install an in-circuit meter
equipment. With the correct choice of meters, it is in every circuit. However, it is possible to install an
possible to determine any circuit values needed to in-circuit meter in each critical or representative
troubleshoot the electrical system. circuit to monitor the operation of a piece of equip-
ment. A mere glance at an in-circuit meter on a
This chapter uses schematic symbols and control board is often sufficient to tell if the equip-
schematic diagrams to explain terms. Many of these ment is working properly. It is important to become
schematic diagrams represent a meter in the circuit, familiar with in-circuit meter values during all facets
as shown in Figure 9-1. of the system operation. Only after observing
familiar “normal” readings can an engineer readily
identify abnormal system operation.
An in-circuit meter will indicate when an
electrical device is not functioning properly. The
cause of the malfunction is determined by
troubleshooting, the process of locating and repair-
ing faults in equipment after they have occurred.

OUT-OF-CIRCUIT METERS
The current in a DC circuit with 6 volts across
a 6-ohm resistor is 1 ampere. The circled A in In troubleshooting, it is usually necessary to use
Figure 9-1 is the symbol of the ammeter. An ammeter an out-of-circuit meter that can be connected to the
is a meter used to measure current in amperes. Thus, electrical equipment at various testing points. Out-
it is an ampere meter, or ammeter. The ammeter of-circuit meters may be moved from one piece of
in Figure 9-1 is measuring a current of 1 ampere equipment to another. They are generally portable
with the voltage and resistance values given. and self-contained.
The quantities in an electrical circuit (voltage, BASIC METER MOVEMENTS
current, and resistance) are important. By measur-
ing the electrical quantities in a circuit, it is easier to There are many different types of meter move-
understand what is happening in that circuit. This is ments. The first discussed below is based on the
especially true when troubleshooting defective cir- principle of interaction of magnetic fields.
cuits. By measuring the voltage, current, and resis-
tance, the reason the circuit is not doing what it is
supposed to do can be determined.

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Compass and Conducting Wire If the battery is disconnected, the north end of
the compass will point to the south magnetic pole
An electrical conductor in which current flows (located at the north geographic pole [Figure 2-10]).
has a magnetic field generated around it. If a com- This is indicated by the broken line compass needle
pass is placed close to the conductor, the compass pointing to the right. When a battery is connected,
will react to that magnetic field (Figure 9-2). current flows through the circuit, and the compass
needle aligns itself with the magnetic field of the
conductor, as indicated by the solid compass needle.
The strength of the magnetic field created around
the conductor depends on the amount of current.
Because of the magnetic principle that unlike poles
attract, a compass incorrectly identifies the North
Pole as magnetic north. The North Pole of the earth
is, in fact, the magnetic south pole.
In Figure 9-2 view A, the resistance in the
circuit is 6 ohms. With the 6-volt battery shown,
current in the circuit is 1 ampere. In view B, the
resistance has been changed to 12 ohms. With the
6-volt battery shown, current in the circuit is l/2 or .5
ampere. The magnetic field around the conductor in
view B is weaker than the magnetic field around the
conductor in view A. The compass needle in view B
does not move as far from magnetic south.
If the direction of the current is reversed, the
compass needle will move in the opposite direction
because the polarity of the magnetic field has
reversed. In view C, the battery connections are
reversed; the compass needle now moves in the
opposite direction.
A crude meter to measure current can be made
using a compass and a piece of paper. To make a
simple meter, use resistors of known values and mark
the paper to indicate a numerical value (Figure 9-3).
The first galvanometers were developed this way. A
galvanometers is an instrument that measures small
amounts of current. It is based on the electromag-
netic principle.
The meter in Figure 9-3 is not very practical for
electrical measurement. The amount the compass
needle swings depends on the closeness of the com-
pass to the conductor carrying the current, the direc-
tion of the conductor in relation to magnetic south,
and the influence of other magnetic fields. In addi-
tion, very small amounts of current will not overcome
the magnetic field of the earth, and the needle will
not move.
The compass and conducting wire meter is a
fixed conductor moving magnet device since the

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compass is, in reality, a magnet that can move. The

basic principle of this device is the interaction of
magnetic fields: the field of the compass (a per-
manent magnet) and the field around the conductor
(a simple electromagnet).

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Movement

A permanent magnet moving coil movement is

based upon a freed permanent magnet and a coil of
wire that can move, as in Figure 9-4. When the switch
is closed, causing current through the coil, the coil
will have a magnetic field that will react to the mag-
netic field of the permanent magnet. The bottom
portion of the coil in Figure 9-4 will be the north pole
of this electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract,
the coil will move to the position shown in Figure 9-5.
The coil of wire is wound on an aluminum
frame or bobbin. The bobbin is supported by jeweled
bearings that let it move freely (Figure 9-6).
The first problem is solved by attaching
To use this permanent magnet moving coil hairsprings to each end of the coil (Figure 9-7).
device as a meter, two problems must be solved. These hairsprings can also be used to make the
First, a way must be found to return the coil to its electrical connections to the coil. By using hair-
original position when there is no current through the springs, the coil will return to its initial position when
coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the there is no current. The springs will also tend to resist
amount of coil movement. the movement of the coil when there is current

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through the coil. When the attraction between the concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, curved
magnetic fields (from the permanent magnet and the pole pieces are attached to the magnet to ensure the
coil) exactly equals the force of the hairsprings, the turning force on a coil increases steadily as the cur-
coil will stop moving toward the magnet. rent increases. These same curved pole pieces are
found in a motor.
As the current through the coil increases, the
magnetic field generated around the coil increases. Figure 9-9 shows the meter movement as it
The stronger the magnetic field around the coils, the appears when fully assembled.
farther the coil will move. This is a good basis for a
meter.

The second problem is solved using a pointer

attached to the coil and extended out to a scale. The
pointer will move as the coil moves. The scale can be
marked to indicate the amount of current through the This permanent magnet moving coil meter
coil (Figure 9-8). movement is the basic movement in most analog
(meter with a pointer indicator hand) measuring
instruments. It is commonly called d’Arsonval move-
ment because it was first employed by the Frenchman
d’Arsonval in making electrical measurements.
Figure 9-10 is a view of the d’Arsonval meter move-
ment used in a meter.

Compass and Alternating Current

Up to this point, only DC examples have been

used. Figure 9-11 illustrates what happens when AC
is used. It shows a magnet close to a conductor
carrying AC at a frequency of 1 hertz. The compass
needle swings toward the east part of the compass
(down) as the current goes positive (view A). (The
lower portion of the figure shows the sine wave of the
current.) In view B, the current returns to zero, and
the compass needle returns to magnetic south (right).
As the current goes negative (view C), the compass
needle swings toward the west portion of the compass
Two other features are used to increase the (up). The compass needle returns to magnetic south
accuracy and efficiency of this meter movement. as the current returns to zero (view D).
First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to

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If the AC frequency is increased, the compass

needle will swing back and forth at a higher rate of
speed. At a high enough frequency, the compass
needle will not swing back and forth, but simply
vibrate around the magnetic north position. This
happens because the needle cannot react fast enough
to the very rapid current alternation. The compass
(a simple meter) will indicate the average value of the
AC as zero. A device known as a rectifier is needed
to let the compass react to the AC in a way that can
be useful in measuring the current.
A rectifier is a device that changes AC to a form
of DC. Figure 9-12 shows that an AC passing
through a rectifier will come out as a pulsating DC.

This cycle of current going positive and nega-

tive and the compass swinging back and forth will
continue as long as AC is in the conductor.

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Figure 9-13 shows what happens to the com- electrical movement. The electrodynamics meter
pass. When the compass is placed close to a wire and movement and the moving-vane meter movements
the frequency of the AC is high enough, the compass also work on the principle of magnetism.
will vibrate around a point that represents the
average value of the pulsating DC. THERMOCOUPLES

Chapter 2 described how an EMF could be

developed from heat. As the dissimilar metals
increased in temperature, the EMF increased
proportionally. When an external circuit was con-
nected to the dissimilar metals, current flow was
established. During this process the thermocouple
monitors temperature.
Many Army vessels use the thermocouple to
monitor the main propulsion engine cylinder firing
temperatures. Rather than have the meter face
calibrated in current or voltage values, the meter face
is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit. As the cylinder
temperature increases, there is an increase in current
flow through the thermocouple. The current flow
and temperature are directly proportional and will
increase and decrease together.

Connecting a rectifier to a d’ArsonvaI meter AMMETERS

movement creates an AC measuring device. When
AC is converted to DC, the d’Arsonval movement An ammeter is a device that measures current.
will react to the average value of the pulsating DC, Since all meter movements have some resistance, a
which is the average value of one-half of the AC sine resistor will be used to represent a meter in the
wave. A d’Arsonval meter movement can indicate following explanations. DC circuits will be used for
current in only one direction. If the d’Arsonval meter simplicity of explanation.
movement were used to indicate AC without a rec-
tifier or DC of the wrong polarity, the movement Multimeter Ammeters Connected in Series
would be severely damaged. The pulsating DC is
current in a single direction, so the d’Arsonval meter
movement can be used as long as proper polarity is In Figure 9-14 view A, R1 and R2 are in series.
observed. The total circuit current flows through both resistors.
The total circuit resistance Rt is —
Another problem encountered in measuring
AC is that the meter movement reacts to the average
value of AC. The value used when working with AC
is the effective value (rms value). Therefore, a dif- In view B, R1 and R2 are in parallel. The total
ferent scale is used on an AC meter. The scale is circuit current does not flow through either circuit.
marked with the effective value, even though it is the The total circuit resistance Rt is —
average value to which the meter is reacting. That is
why an AC meter will give an incorrect reading if
used to measure DC.

OTHER METER MOVEMENTS

If R1 represents an ammeter, the only way in
which total current will flow through the meter (and
The d’Arsonval meter movement (permanent thus be measured) is to have the meter (R1) in series
magnet moving coil) is only one type of meter move- with the circuit load (R2), as shown in view A.
ment. Many other mechanical devices react to

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In complex electrical circuits, you are not al- Connecting a multimeter ammeter in parallel
ways interested in the total circuit current. You may with one of many electrical loads would give an
be interested in the current through a particular incorrect reading. In this situation, current would
component. In any case, an ammeter is always con- be divided between the resistance in the loads and
nected in series with the circuit that will be tested. the very low resistance in the ammeter. It would
Figure 9-15 shows various circuit arrangements with not give the true total current moving through that
ammeters properly connected for measuring current section of the circuit.
in various portions of the circuit.

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Should the multimeter ammeter be connected

across a constant potential source, such as the gener-
ator terminals, the minimal resistance in the ammeter
would not be sufficient to restrict the majority of the
generator’s total current. This would be the
equivalent of a shorted circuit. The excessive current
draw through the meter movement would damage The high circuit resistance keeps current from
the meter. It may not be apparent at first, but if the the generator down. Figure 9-17 shows the ammeter
ammeter is connected in parallel, across a higher placed improperly in the circuit.
resistance electrical load, a shorting situation results.
Figure 9-16 shows a circuit. Figure 9-17 shows what
happens when a meter is connected across the high-
resistance load. Even though current is proportion-
ally divided between the meter and the load in a
parallel circuit, the extreme difference in resistance
will put most of the generator’s available current
through the meter. The total resistance (Rt) in a
parallel circuit is always less than the smallest resis-
tor. With less resistance in the circuit, an increased
current will be delivered. Note the change in total
current (It) from the initial circuit in Figure 9-16 to
the total current in Figure 9-17 with the addition of
the improperly placed meter.

Figure 9-17 shows the meter incorrectly con-

nected across a constant potential source. To say
that the meter is connected only in parallel with the
(R1 represents the electrical system loads. load can be misleading. For all electrical purposes,
There is no meter connected in the circuit above.) the meter is connected directly to the generator ter-
minals (dotted lines). Current takes the path of least
resistance. In this situation, the generator current
flow will respond to the minimal resistance of the
meter and increase its current output.

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The new total resistance (Rt) of the circuit is

found as follows:
There is an excessive current flow through the
meter.
Whenever you connect the ammeter portion of
the multimeter, always break the circuit and connect
your meter in series with the load. The small resis-
tance of the meter is now added to the total electrical
system loads (Rt) and will only serve to slightly
decrease the total generator current output.

The total resistance of this circuit has changed In-Circuit Ammeters Connected in Parallel
from 500 ohms to 3.97 ohms. With this drastic
change in circuit resistance, generator current flow This section explains how in-circuit meters are
will increase accordingly: connected in parallel for correct meter readings.
This is another example of real-life applications of
electrical circuit rules.
The ammeter in the instrument panel of the
landing craft mechanized and the ammeters of many
larger vessels are not designed to interrupt the
electrical system they are monitoring. A device
known as a shunt or parallel path is used. Physically
small meters, monitoring hundreds of amperes,
could not withstand that amount of current without
Use the circuit rules and Ohm’s Law to deter- burning up their meter movements. The shunt is a
mine how this new current is divided between the calibrated parallel path that allows the majority of
load and the meter: current to bypass the meter. A shunt is a relatively
heavy-gauge copper bar (Figure 9-18), readily able to
The load: conduct a great amount of current flow. The meter
and the shunt are calibrated to each other so that the
meter reacts to changes in current accurately. The
shunt is always of a lesser resistance than the meter.
Figure 9-18 shows how the shunt and ammeter are
connected in the circuit.
If either the meter or the shunt are replaced
separately, a component with the exact charac-
teristics and ohmic value must be ensured. If an
ammeter or shunt of a differing value is installed, the
meter reading would not be accurate. It would
The current through the load has not changed. change the relationship between the meter and its
parallel path. Otherwise, the meter may actually
The ammeter: show a system charging properly when, in actuality,
the system is deficient.
Ammeters are also connected to current trans-
formers so that the current through the meter maybe
reduced accordingly. The same rules apply for
replacing these current transformers and their
meters that apply to the ammeter and its shunt.

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Chapter 8 discusses the principles of current and Ammeter Sensitivity

voltage transformation.
Ammeter sensitivity is the amount of current
Effects on Circuit Being Measured necessary to cause full-scale deflection (maximum
reading) of the ammeter. The smaller the amount
The ammeter affects the operating charac- of current, the more sensitive the ammeter. For
teristics of the circuit. When the meter is installed, the example, an ammeter with a maximum current read-
generator’s total current (It) changes accordingly. ing of 1 milliampere would have a sensitivity of 1
milliampere. It would be more sensitive than an
The current and voltage potential produced in ammeter with a maximum reading of 1 ampere and a
the vessel’s ship service generators are of such a large sensitivity of 1 ampere. Sensitivity ears be given for a
and deadly amplitude that a meter normally has min- meter movement, but ammeter sensitivity usually
imal overall effects on the distribution system. How- refers to the entire ammeter and not just the meter
ever, like all components, devices, or conductors in movement.
the system, accumulative effects can be achieved.
Conductor length, improper or corroded connec- Range Selection
tions, and the introduction of meters (all otherwise
insignificant loads) can contribute to an increased Today’s meters are extremely sensitive to the
circuit resistance overall. For this reason, meter con- ranges and types of currents tested. Before any range
nections, as well as all device connections, must be selection is ever made, determine whether the cir-
made correctly to ensure conclusive troubleshooting cuits are alternating or direct current circuits. If the
practices. Under normal circumstances, the intro- incorrect type of current is chosen, the meter will
duction of meters into a circuit is only a concern when become damaged, or its fuse will open (blow). In
printed circuitry is addressed. either case, the meter will be rendered ineffective.

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The range switch is another very important part Clamp-on Ammeter

of the meter. To use the meter correctly, the range
must be properly selected. If the current to be The clamp-on ammeter (Figure 9-20) may be
measured is larger than the meter scale selected, of the digital or the analog (movable needle) type.
the meter movement will have excessive current This meter is restricted to AC circuits. At the top of
and may become damaged. Therefore, it is impor- the meter is a set of jaws used to surround the wire
tant to always start with the highest range when using being tested. The beneficial part of this meter is its
any meter. ability to operate by detecting the magnetic field
generated by the current moving in the conductor.
If current can be measured on several ranges, This ability prevents the circuit from being opened
use the range that results in a reading near the middle and having to physically insert the meter. Current
of the scale (Figure 9-19). This is important enough readings can also be taken from easily accessible
for digital meters to use bar graphs to indicate what locations in the circuit.
percentage of the meter scale is in use.
The clamp-on ammeter operates on the same
principle that the transformer uses. The jaws of the
ammeter are clamped around the conductor. The
current-carrying conductor of the circuit being tested
represents the primary winding. The jaws of the
ammeter are the secondary winding. The current
moving through the circuit generates its own
magnetic field that surrounds the conductor. This
AC magnetic field can induce a voltage and resulting
current flow in the jaws of the ammeter.
The greater the current through the circuit
conductor, the greater the magnetic field surround-
ing that conductor. Increased induction between the
conductor and the ammeter means a greater current
reading on the ammeter.

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The conductor does not need to have the others and to prevent damage to the ammeter or the
insulation stripped back. The only requirements equipment being serviced. The following list con-
for clamp-on ammeters are – tains the minimum safety precautions for using an
ammeter:
The induction ammeter may only be used
on AC systems. The DC electrical sys- Always connect multimeter ammeters in
tem does not have a constantly changing series with the circuit under test.
field. Therefore, without relative motion
between the magnetic field of the conduc- Always start with the highest range on an
tor and the jaws of the induction ammeter, ammeter (or any meter).
it is impossible to induce an EMF in the
meter movement. De-energize and discharge the circuit
completely before connecting or discon-
The ammeter must measure one conduc- necting the ammeter.
tor at a time. If the ammeter jaws are
encircling both wires of a two-wire electri- In DC ammeters, observe the proper cir-
cal system, there will be no reading. The cuit polarity to prevent the meter from
current traveling from the power source to being damaged.
the load sets up a magnetic field in one
direction. The same current returning to Never use a DC ammeter to measure AC.
the power supply from the load creates a
magnetic field in the opposite direction. Observe the general safety precautions of
These two magnetic fields cancel each electricity.
other out.
Ground all metal case meters to the hull
Digital clamp-on ammeters, or induction of the ship. Many old metal case meters
ammeters, are provided with a peak hold setting. provide a grounding jack for this purpose.
This lets the user have the highest transient current
reading displayed and maintained for a period of
time. This becomes very important in electrical sys-
tems because of the fluctuating currents when motors
are started.
When checking a circuit where the value of
current is far below the lowest reading on the meter
scale, the wire can be looped around the jaws of the
ammeter. Doubling the conductor passes through
the meter jaws doubles the magnetic field strength
(Figure 9-21). Since only one wire is used, the cur-
rent is traveling in the same direction and the mag-
netic field is doubled. Divide the meter reading by
two. This also applies when looping the conductor
any number of times through the jaws of the ammeter.
Simply divide the current reading by the number of
loops for the actual conductor current. This is an
important concept because this type of setup is used
in the current transformers of switchboards in Army
Ships.

Ammeter Safety Precautions VOLTMETERS

When using an ammeter, certain precautions The voltmeter measures the voltage in a circuit
must be observed to prevent injury to yourself and or any EMF-producing component. The meter more

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accurately measures any difference in potential be maximum electrons on one side of the load, and
between any two places to which the meter leads are no electrons on the other side of the load. This would
connected. be a maximum voltage reading. A negligible resis-
tance, such as a good fuse, would have the same
Voltmeters Connected in Parallel amount of electrons on each side of the fuse element.
There would then be no difference in potential and 0
voltage reading.
Ammeters or their shunts are always connected
in series with the electrical load. Voltmeters are
always connected in parallel. Figure 9-22 and the
following figures use resistors to represent the
voltmeter movement. Since a meter movement can
be considered as a resistor, the concepts shown are
true for voltmeters and resistors. For simplicity, DC
circuits are shown, but the principles apply to both
AC and DC voltmeters.
When a voltmeter is connected across or paral-
lel to a load, the measurement value indicates how
much of the voltage was used up pushing current
through the electrical load. Voltage is easily referred
to as difference in potential here. Connecting the
voltmeter across the terminals of a generator
measures the difference in potential or the difference
between the area where negative electrons are, as
opposed to the area where they are not (the area of
positive ions). If the same combination of negative
electrons and positive ions were at each terminal of
the generator, then there would be no difference in
potential, or zero voltage.
To have a difference in potential, there must be
an electron imbalance somewhere. When a gener-
ator is operating properly, negative electrons are
excited. The negative electrons leave their atoms and
accumulate atone terminal of the generator. Positive
ions accumulate at the other terminal. Both these
electrical particles have opposite magnetic
polarities. As long as the generator keeps operating,
the only way these negative electrons can recom-
bine with the positive ions is through the electrical
distribution system. Voltage is a measurement of
how great the difference in potential is. The greater
the difference in potential, the greater the force avail-
able to push the electrons to the positive ions.
When a load is placed in the circuit, its resis-
tance determines how many electrons will be able to A good example of this is the series circuit in
leave the negative terminal during any given period Figure 9-23, which shows two loads in series with the
of time. Since a quantity of electrons exists on each generator. Place a voltmeter across the R2 load.
side of the load, the difference between them is the Measure the difference in potential between the
difference in potential dropped from the original negative side of the R2 load and the positive side of
generator voltage source. If there is a high resis- the R2 load.
tance, such as an open condition, then there would

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Do not be concerned with the minimal influ-

ence the meter has on the circuit, but transcribe the
current value to 11 and 12.
Using the voltmeter, there is a reading of 80
volts across the R2 resistance. By using Ohm’s Law,
verify this reading:

This is the difference in potential across the

R2 resistance. When the meter is repositioned to
read the voltage across R1, a difference in poten-
tial between the negative side and the positive side of
the resistance is registered. In this case, there are 40
volts. Figure 9-24 effectively shows the differences in
potential.

To determine the electrical values, find the

total resistance of the circuit (Rt):

Since this is a series circuit and current is con- At point A, there is full generator voltage avail-
stant, find the total current (It) allowed to flow able (120 volts). At point B, 80 volts are left. This
through the circuit in one second: means that the R1 resistance was sufficient enough
to use up, or drop out of the circuit, 40 volts when
moving 4 coulombs of electrons through the 10-ohrn
resistance in one second. At point C, no voltage is
left after completing all the work pushing electrons
through the resistances. The voltmeter does not read
the points A or B or C, but rather a difference
between points A and B as well as between points B
and C. Since voltage is the potential force and a
difference between each side of a resistor exists, a
difference in the potential (or voltage) is recorded.

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Sensitivity of Voltmeters The megger is widely used for measuring

insulation resistance, such as between a wire and
Voltmeter sensitivity is expressed in ohms per another surface on the other side of the insulation.
volt (ohms/volt). It is the resistance of the voltmeter The range of a megger extends to more than 1,000
at full-scale reading in volts. Since the voltmeter’s megohms.
resistance does not change with the position of the
pointer, the total resistance of the meter is the sen- The ohmmeter consists of a DC ammeter,
sitivity multiplied by the full-scale reading. The with a few added features. The added features are a
higher the sensitivity of a voltmeter, the higher the DC source of potential (usually a 9-volt battery)
voltmeter’s resistance. Since high-resistance and one or more resistors (one of which is variable).
voltmeters have less loading effects on circuits, a Figure 9-25 shows a simple ohmmeter circuit.
high-sensitivity meter will provide a more accurate
voltage reading.
Voltmeter Safety Precautions

Just as with ammeters, voltmeters require

safety precautions to prevent injury to personnel and
damage to the voltmeter or equipment. The follow-
ing is a list of the minimum safety precautions for
using a voltmeter:
Always connect voltmeters in parallel.
Always start with the highest range of a
voltmeter.
In DC voltmeters, observe the proper cir-
cuit polarity to prevent damage to the
meter.
The ohmmeter’s pointer deflection is control-
Never use a DC voltmeter to measure AC led by the amount of battery current passing through
voltage. the moving coil. Before measuring the resistance of
an unknown resistor or component, the test leads of
Observe the general safety precautions of the ohmmeter are first shorted together (Figure 9-25),
electricity. With the leads shorted, the meter is calibrated for
proper operation on the selected range. Whale the
OHMMETERS leads are shorted, meter current is maximum, and the
pointer deflects a maximum amount, somewhere
The two instruments most commonly used to near the zero on the ohms scale. Consult the
measure resistance are the ohmmeter and the manufacturer’s manual to zero the ohmmeter. The
megohmmeter (megger). AN/PSM-45 and AN/PSM-45A digital multimeter
calibrates automatically when the test leads are
The ohmmeter is widely used to measure resis- shorted together. Analog meters have a variable
tance and check the continuity of electrical circuits resistor (rheostat) that requires manual adjustment
and components. Using an ohmmeter to determine to zero (with the test leads shorted together). When
continuity provides the engineer with information on the test leads are separated, the meter should indi-
the circuit’s ability to conduct current. The cate infinity, or the meter’s maximum resistance
ohmmeter is inaccurate below the 3- to 5-ohm level. reading. Always turn the ohmmeter off when it is not
Its range usually extends to only a few megohms. in use to prevent the leads from accidentally dis-
charging the meter battery.

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FM 55-509-1

Ohmmeter Use would read a still higher circuit resistance. Move-

ment of the moving coil is proportional to the amount
After the ohmmeter is adjusted for zero read- of current flow.
ing, it is ready to be connected in a circuit to measure
resistance. Figure 9-26 shows a typical circuit and When using an ohmmeter in complicated cir-
ohmmeter arrangement. cuits, the circuit must be disconnected at the com-
ponent being checked. If other parallel paths are
The circuit must always be de-energized. This accidentally measured with the ohmmeter, the
prevents the source voltage from being applied resistance reading will be less than the smallest resis-
across the meter, which could damage the meter tance, providing an incorrect interpretation of the
movement. test results.

Ohmmeter Ranges

The amount of circuit resistance to be

measured may vary over a wide range. In some cases,
it may only be a few ohms; in others, it may be as
great as 1,000,000 ohms (1 megohm). To enable
the meter to indicate any value being measured with
the least error, scale multiplication features are
used in most ohmmeters. There are various scale
indicators for checking diodes and capacitors as well.
The many different meters require the specific
information attained from their technical manual.
TM 11-6625-3199-14 is the reference for the
AN/PSM-45A multimeter. This is required reading
before trying to operate this multimeter.
Ohmmeter Safety Precautions

The following safety precautions and operating

procedures for ohmmeters are the minimum neces-
sary to prevent injury and damage:
The test leads of the ohmmeter are connected in
series with the circuit to be measured (Figure 9-26). Be certain the circuit is de-energized and
This causes the current produced by the 9-volt bat- discharged before connecting an
tery of the meter to flow through the circuit being ohmmeter.
tested. Assume that the meter test leads are con-
nected at points a and b of Figure 9-26. The amount Do not apply power to a circuit while
of current that flows through the meter coil will measuring resistance.
depend on the total resistance of resistors R1 and R2
and the resistance of the meter. Since the meter has When finished using the ohmmeter, switch
been preadjusted (zeroed), the amount of coil move- it to the OFF position.
ment now depends entirely on the resistance of R1
and R2. The inclusion of R1 and R2 raises the total Always adjust the ohmmeter for zero after
series resistance, decreasing the current, and thus you change ranges and before making
decreasing the pointer deflection. The pointer will resistance measurement.
now come to rest as a scale figure indicating the
combined resistance of R1 and R2. If R1 and R2, or MEGOHMMETER
both, were replaced with resistors having a larger
value, the current flow in the moving coil of the meter
would be decreased further. The deflection would An ordinary ohmmeter cannot be used for
also be further decreased, and the scale indication measuring resistance of multimillions of ohms, such

9-16
 FM 55-509-1

as in conductor insulation. To adequately test for leads from each other. Crank or operate the megger.
insulation breakdown, it is necessary to use a much There should be a maximum resistance or infinite
higher potential than is furnished by the battery of an resistance reading. Next, connect the two megger
ohmmeter. An instrument called a megohmmeter test leads to each other and operate the megger. The
(megger) is used for these tests. The megger is the meter should indicate zero resist ante. Do not touch
most useful engineering tool for determining the con- the megger leads when the megger is being operated.
dition of electrical insulation. Thus, it determines the
condition of the electrical component and possible
future operational readiness of the vessel.
In catastrophic cases, the insulation is burned
off the conductor by excessive current heat. In this
case, the component requires replacement. More
often, the component insulation resistance is slowly
reduced over a period of months. Proper monitor-
ing of the major electrical components will provide
information on the expected servicing requirements
for the device. In this manner, major component
maintenance can be projected ahead of time, instead
of managed by crisis.
Megger Construction

The megger (Figure 9-27) is a portable instru-

ment that consists of two primary elements:
A hand- or electric-driven DC generator
(G). This supplies the necessary voltage
for making the measurement.
The instrument portion, which indicates
the value of the resistance being measured.
The instrument portion is the opposed coil
type, as shown in view A. Coils a and b are mounted
on the movable member c, with a fixed relationship
to each other, and are free to turn as a unit in a
magnetic field. Coil b tends to move the pointer
counterclockwise, and coil a tends to move the
pointer clockwise.
Coil a is connected in series with R3 and the
unknown resistance, Rx, to be measured. The com-
bination of coil, R3, and Rx forms a direct series path
between the positive ( + ) and negative (-) brushes of
the DC generator. Coil b is connected in series with
R2, and this combination is also connected across the
generator. There are no restraining springs on the
movable member of the instrument portion of the
megger. Therefore, when the generator is not
operated, the pointer floats freely and may come to
rest at any position of the scale. When checking the
megger for proper operation, isolate the two megger

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FM 55-509-1

Megger Ratings Megger Testing

Army meggers are rated at 500 and 1,000 volts. Many regulatory texts require the periodic test-
To avoid excessive test voltages, most meggers are ing of insulation. The Institute of Electrical and
equipped with friction clutches. When the megger is Electronic Engineers requires the additional testing
cranked faster than its rated speed, the clutch slips, of idle apparatus. A log book will be maintained for
and the generator speed and output voltage are not these megger resistance readings. As equipment
allowed to exceed their rated value. When extremely ages and becomes contaminated with grease and dirt,
high resistances (for example, 10,000 megohms or the resistance of the insulation decreases. When
more) are to be measured, a high voltage is needed to these decreases in resistance are noted, preventive
cause sufficient current to flow to actuate the meter maintenance can be planned. Sometimes, cleaning
movement. For extended ranges, a 1,000-volt megger alone will restore the insulation dielectric strength
is available. Usually, meggers are only used on circuits and return the component to operational condition.
with a normal voltage of 100 volts and up. When It is recommended that all major electrical com-
testing insulation, always refer to the appropriate TM ponents over 100 volts be megger tested every two
or the manufacturer’s recommendations. years. Generators and critical electric motors can be
megged before missions to evaluate and project their
Megger Use future operating condition.

Motor windings and components are tested to As with the ohmmeter, the megger is never
ensure that the conductors are not coming in direct used on an energized circuit. Additionally, the meg-
contact with their housing, frame, or other individual ger is never used on a circuit in which solid state
conductor turns because the insulation has been components cannot be isolated. The high potential
damaged. The difference in potential, provided by of the megger will destroy rectifiers, voltage
the 9-volt ohmmeter battery, may not be substantial regulators, radio equipment, and other electronic
enough to correctly indicate an insulation problem in equipment. Make sure that the electrical component
a 450-volt electrical system. The 9-volt push may not undergoing testing is completely isolated from the
be sufficient to bridge some damaged insulation. rest of the circuit.
There would then bean indication of infinite (maxi-
mum ohms) resistance. What appears to be an One megger test lead is connected to the
acceptable insulation reading would, in fact, be de-energized conductor. The other megger test lead
inconclusive. The higher voltage of the 450-volt is connected to the noncurrent-carrying conductive
electrical system would have no trouble bridging the material adjacent to the conductor’s insulation. To
gap in the damaged insulation. The megger, avail- test a cable, one test lead would go to the de-ener-
able in 500- and 1,000-volt power supplies, would gized normally current-carrying copper conductor of
detect this damage in the insulation and measure the a cable, and the other test lead would be connected
resistance required when pushing the current past to the noncurrent-carrying armor shielding. In
the damaged section of insulation. The megger another example, a megger lead could be connected
provides an accurate indication of electrical insula- to a motor winding lead, and the other megger test
tion under system operating conditions. lead could be connected to the motor housing. In
both of these cases, there should be no continuity.
The ohmmeter does not allow a conclusive test There should be a great deal of resistance between
for conductor insulation. This is because the small the current-carrying conductor and the housing with
which the engineer is likely to come in contact.
potential in the ohmmeter is not sufficient to force
electrons across small distances or high-resistance The megger is then operated for a period of at
insulation. For this same reason, the megger is not least 30 seconds. Refer to the component
suitable for testing the continuity of a conduct or. The manufacturer’s information for the specific results of
higher potential of the megger would allow com- a test. However, if these specifications are no longer
pleted circuit readings where the low potential available, any change in the insulation resistance
ohmmeter would detect defects in conductor con- must be considered suspect.
tinuity. The megger and the ohmmeter should always
be used together when substantiating the condition
of electrical components.

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 FM 55-509-1

Megger Safety Precautions Parallax can be a problem when reading analog

meters. To prevent improper meter value recogni-
When using a megger, observe the following tion, a mirror is placed just above the scale. When
minimum safety precautions to prevent injury to per- properly viewing the meter, the reflection of the
sonnel or damage to the equipment: pointer will not be seen. Although portable analog
meters are being phased out, in-circuit analog meters
Use meggers on high-resistance measure- are not. The problem of parallax is nowhere more
ments only, such as insulation evident than when paralleling AC generators. Even
measurements. though some switchboard meters do not have a mir-
ror, a perfect match of the voltage for each generator
Never touch the test leads when the meg- is required. Each of the two (or more) voltmeters
ger is being operated. must be viewed directly from the front to confirm
exact voltage readings.
De-energize and discharge the circuit
before connecting a megger. FREQUENCY METERS
Disconnect the component being checked All AC sources are generated at a set frequency
from other circuitry before using the megger. or range of frequencies. A frequency meter provides
a means of measuring this frequency. Two common
Use only on circuits with a normal voltage types of frequency meters are the vibrating reed
of 100 volts or greater. frequency meter and the moving disc frequency
meter.
MULTIMETER
Vibrating Reed Frequency Meter
A multimeter is the most common measuring
device in the Army. The name multimeter comes The vibrating reed frequency meter is one of
from multiple meter, and that is exactly what it is. the simplest devices for indicating the frequency of
It combines a DC ammeter and voltmeter, an AC an AC source. It is used on power panels to monitor
ammeter and voltmeter, and an ohmmeter. the frequency of AC. Figure 9-29 is a simplified
diagram of one type of vibrating frequency meter.
Digital Multimeters
The current, whose frequency is to be
Several models of digital multimeters have measured, flows through the coil and exerts maxi-
been fielded for use in the Army. Always follow mum attraction on the soft iron armature twice
instructions for use in the applicable TMs. Digital during each cycle (Figure 9-29). The armature is
multimeters have a display screen and give their attached to the bar, which is mounted on a flexible
readings as numerals on the screen, usually using support. Reeds having natural vibration frequencies
liquid crystal display (LCD). of 110, 112, 114 and so on up to 130 hertz are mounted
on the bar (view B). The reed having a frequency of
110 herlz is marked 55 hertz. The one with 112 hertz
Analog Multimeters is marked 56 hertz. The one with 120 hertz is marked
60 hertz, and so forth.
Analog multimeters are those with d’Arsonval
movements using a needle and scale. Most analog When the coil is energized with a current
multimeters have been replaced by digital multi- having a frequency between 55 and 65 hertz, all the
meters, but the marine engineman/engineer may still reeds are vibrating slightly. But the reed having a
be issued analog multimeters. natural frequency closest to that of the energized
current whose frequency is to be measured vibrates
Parallax Error more. The frequency is read from the scaled value
opposite the reed having the greatest vibration.
Analog multimeters have a mirror built into the
scale to aid in reducing parallax error (Figure 9-28).

9-19
FM 55-509-1

In some instruments, the reeds are the same

lengths but are weighted by different amounts at the
top so that they will have different natural rates of
vibration.
The indicator dial of Figure 9-29 view C shows
an end view of the reeds. If the current has a fre-
quency of 60 hertz, the reed marked 60 hertz will
vibrate the greatest amount, as shown.

Moving Disc Frequency Meter

Moving disc frequency meters can be found in

out-of-circuit meters as well as in-circuit meters.
Figure 9-30 shows a moving disc frequency meter.
One coil tends to turn the disk clockwise, and the
other, counterclockwise. Magnetizing coil A is con-
nected in series with a large value of resistance.
Coil B is connected in series with a large inductance,
and the two circuits are supplied in parallel by the
source.
For a given voltage, the current through coil A
is almost constant. However, the current through
coil B varies with frequency. At a higher frequency,
the inductive reactance is greater, and the current
through coil b is less. The reverse is true at a lower
frequency. The disc turns in the direction deter-
mined by the stronger coil.
A perfectly circular disc would tend to turn
continuously. This is not desirable. Therefore, the
disc is constructed so that it will turn only a certain
amount clockwise or counterclockwise about the
center position, which is commonly marked 60 hertz.
To prevent the disk from turning more than the
desired amount, the left half of the disk is mounted
so that when motion occurs, the same amount of
disc area will always be between the pole of coil A.

9-20
 FM 55-509-1

Therefore, the force produced by coil A to rotate the

disk is constant for a constant applied voltage. The
right half of the disc is offset, as shown in the Figure
9-30. When the disk rotates clockwise, an increasing
area will come between the poles of coil B. When it
rotates counterclockwise, a decreasing area will
come between the poles of coil B. The greater the
area between the poles, the greater will be the disc
current and the force tending to turn the disk.
If the frequency applied to the ammeter should
decrease, the reactance offered by L would decrease,
and the field produced by coil B would increase. The
field produced by coil A would remain the same.
Thus, the force produced by coil B would tend to
move the disk and the pointer counterclockwise until
the area between the poles was reduced enough to
make the two forces equal. The scale is calibrated to
indicate the correct frequency.
If the frequency is constant and the voltage is
changed, the currents in two coils, and therefore the
opposing forces, change by the same amount. Thus,
the indication of the instrument is not affected by a
change in voltage amplitude.

9-21