AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE

Raspberry

Directorate of Plant Protection National Institute of Plant

Quarantine and Storage Health Management
N. H. IV, Faridabad, Haryana Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,
Telangana
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation
Ministry of Agriculture
Government of India

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The AESA based IPM – Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) was compiled by the NIPHM working
group under the Chairmanship of Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, DG, NIPHM, and guidance of
Shri. Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS, JS (PP). The package was developed taking into account the
advice of experts listed below on various occasions before finalization.

NIPHM Working Group:

Chairman : Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, Director General

Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor
: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)
Core Members :
1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques Expertise.
2. Dr. O. P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.
3. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise
4. Dr. Dhana Raj Boina, Assistant Director (PHM), Entomology Expertise

Other Members :
1. Dr. N. Srinivasa Rao, Assistant Director (RPM), Rodent Pest Management Expertise.

Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:

1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),
2. Shri. R. Murali, Deputy Director (Entomology),
3. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),
4. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)

Contributions by External Experts:

1. Directorate of Research, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar-813210

2. Director of Research, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli-415712,
Dist- Ratnagiri
3. Director of Research Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana

Information on Region-wise Distribution of Pests Provided by:

For internal circulation only. Not for sale.

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 CONTENTS

Raspberry plant description

I. Major Pests
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
2. Diseases
3. Weeds
4. Rodents
5. Birds

II AESA based IPM

A. Agro-ecosystem analysis
B. Field scouting
C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for fruit borer and cutworm
D. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps
E. Light traps

III. Ecological engineering for pest management

IV. Crop Stage-wise IPM

V. Rodent pest management

VI. Insecticide resistance and its management

VII. Nutritional deficiencies/disorders

VIII. Common weeds

IX. Description of insect pests

X. Description of diseases

XI. Description of rodent pests

XII. Safety measures

A. At the time of harvest
B. Post-harvest storage

XIII. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM

XIV. Basic precautions in pesticides usage

XV. Pesticide application techniques

XVI. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief

XVII. References

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 AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE FOR RASPBERRY

Raspberry - Plant description:

Raspberries (Rubus spp.) are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate
regions of the world. Most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive
from hybrids between Rubus idaeus and R. strigosus. Some botanists consider the Eurasian
and American red raspberries all belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, with
the European plants then classified as either R. idaeus subsp. idaeus or R.
idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R.
idaeus sub sp. strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus. Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars
that are thorn less and more strongly upright, not needing staking.
Raspberry is the name given to two plant species in the genus Rubus, R. idaeus (red
raspberry) and R. occidentalis (black raspberry) grown for their edible fruit. Raspberry plants
have perennial root systems and biennial stems which are known as canes. The canes are
woody, erect and shrub-like and generally undergo a period of growth one year and fruit
production the next although primocane varieties exist that produce fruit in the first year. The
canes may possess spines. Raspberry plants produce white or pink flowers with five petals
which are surrounded by green sepals. After the plant has been pollinated, an aggregate berry
is produced which consists of numerous druplets which are held together into the familiar
raspberry fruit by tiny hairs. Raspberry canes can grow from 0.5 to in excess of 2 m (1.6–6.6 ft)
in height and red raspberry will produce a commercial yield of fruit for 16–20 years, while black
raspberry has a shorter lifespan and will produce for 4–8 years.
An individual raspberry weighs 3–5 g, and is made up of around 100 drupelets, each of
which consists of a juicy pulp and a single central seed. A raspberry bush can yield several
hundred berries a year. Unlike blackberries and dewberries, a raspberry has a hollow core once
it is removed from the receptacle.

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 I. PESTS

A. Pests of National Significance

1. Insect and mite pests
1.1 Hadda beetle: Epilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fabricius) (Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae)
1.2 Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
1.3 Cut worm: Agrotis spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
1.4 Aphid: Aphis spp. (Homoptera: Aphididae)
1.5 Two spotted spider mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Arachnida: Acari:
Tetranychidae)
1.6. Thrips: Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

2. Diseases
2.1 Bacterial blight: Pseudomonas syringae Van Hal
2.2 Powdery mildew: Sphaerotheca macularis Braun and Takam
2.3 Fruit rot disease: Alternaria alternata Keissi and Cladosporium
cladosporiodes Bensch
2.4 Cane Botrytis (Gray mold wilt): Botrytis cinerea De Bary
2.5 Cane blight: Leptosphaeria coniothyrium Sacc.
2.6 Spur blight: Didymella applanta Niessl
2.7 Fire Blight: Erwinia amylovora Burrill and Winslow
2.8 Anthracnose: Elsinoe veneta Jenkins
2.9 Botrytis Fruit Rot: Botrytis cinerea Pers.
2.10 Root Rots: Pythium spp, Phytophthora spp, Rhizoctonia spp and Fusarium spp
2.11 Bacterial Blight: Pseudomonas syringae Van Hall
2.12 Crown Gall and Cane Gall: Agrobacterium tumifaciens Smith & Townsend,
Agrobacterium rubi Young et al.
2.13 Verticillium Wilt: Verticillium dahlia Kleb, Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke &
Berthold
2.14 Leaf spot: Sphaerulina rubi Demaree & Wilcox
2.15 Tomato Ringspot Virus
2.16 Mosaic virus

3. Weeds

Broad leaf weeds

3.1 Pig Weed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. (Amaranthaceae)
3.2 Spiny Amaranth: Amaranthus spinosus L. (Amaranthaceae)
3.3 Little mallow (cheese weed):Malva parviflora L (Malvaceae)
3.4 Sowthistle: Sonchus oleraceus (Asteracea)
3.5 Tropical spiderwort: Commelina benghalensis L. (Commelinaceae)
3.6 Horse purslane: Trienthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
3.7 False Amaranth: Digera arvensis Forrsk. (Amaranthaceae)
3.8 False Daisy: Eclipta prostrarta L. (Asteraceae)
3.9 Toothed Dock: Rumex dentatus L. (Polygonaceae)
3.10 Wood sorrel: Oxalis corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae)

Grassy weeds
3.11 Bermuda grass: Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Poaceae)
3.12 Conch grass: Agropyron repens (Poaceae)

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 3.13 Large crabgrass: Digitaria sanguinalis L.(Scop.) (Poaceae)
3.14 Wire grass: Eleusine indica L. (Poaceae)
Sedges
3.15 Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
3.16 Annual sedge: Cyperus compressus L. (Cyperaceae)
4.Rodents
4.1 Soft furred field rat: Rattus meltada
4.2 Indian mole rat/ smaller bandicot: Bandicota bengalensis
4.3 common house rat: Rattus rattus
5. Birds

II. AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS (AESA) BASED INTEGRATED PESTS MANAGEMENT

(IPM)
A. AESA

The IPM has been evolving over the decades to address the deleterious impacts of synthetic
chemical pesticides on environment and manage the crop pests by adopting various IPM
practices on eco-friendly manner, viz., Cultural, Mechanical, Biological, Botanical & Chemical.
The economic threshold level (ETL) was the basis for several decades but in modern IPM (FAO
2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take decisions based on larger range of field
observations. The health of a plant is determined by its environment which includes physical
factors (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and biological factors (i.e. pests, diseases and
weeds). All these factors can play a role in the balance which exists between herbivore insects
and their natural enemies. Understanding the intricate interactions in an ecosystem can play a
critical role in pest management.

Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-

ecosystem. Farmer has to learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the field situation and
how to make proper decisions for their crop management. This process is called the AESA.
Participants of AESA will have to make a drawing on a large piece of paper (60 x 80 cm), to
include all their observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it requires the
participants/farmers to observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for
the discussions that follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.

AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and

farmers to analyze the field situations with regards to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant
health and the influence of climatic factors and their relationship for growing a healthy crop. The
basic components of AESA are
 Plant health at different stages
 Built-in compensation abilities of plants
 Pest and defender population dynamics
 Soil conditions
 Climatic factors
 Farmers past experience

Principles of AESA based IPM:

Grow a healthy crop

 Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests

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  Treat the seed with recommended pesticides especially biopesticides
 Select healthy seeds and seedlings
 Follow proper spacing
 Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring)
 Nutrient management especially through organic manures and biofertilizers based on
the soil test results should be followed. If the dose of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high
the crop becomes too succulent and therefore susceptible to insects and diseases. If the
dosages are too low, the crop growth is retarded. So, the farmers should maintain proper
soil fertility level through integrated nutrient management approach for best results.
 Proper irrigation
 Crop rotation

Observe the orchard regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)
Farmers should
 Monitor the orchard situation at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural
enemies, weather factors etc.)
 Make decisions based on the orchard situation and P: D ratio
 Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)

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Plant Compensation ability
Compensation is defined as the replacement of plant biomass lost to herbivores has been
associated with increased photosynthetic rates and mobilization of stored resources from
source organs to sinks (e.g., from roots and remaining leaves to new leaves). Plant tolerance to
herbivory can arise from the interaction of a variety of plant traits and external environmental
factors. Several studies have documented compensatory regrowth via side braches, through
increased growth and photosynthetic rates.

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Understand and conserve defenders

 Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations

of the agro-ecosystem
 Avoid the use of chemical pesticides especially with broad-spectrum activity

Insect zoo

In orchard various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful.
Generally farmers are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on
pests are not easy to observe in crop field. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance
farmers’ skill to identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this method, unfamiliar/unknown
predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the field and brought to a place for
study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and some
known insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined whether
the test insect is a pest (feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).

Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):

Identifying the number of pests and beneficial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate
pest management decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the
numbers of pests and defenders. The P: D ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of
natural enemy as well as the type of pest. The natural enemies of Raspberry pests can be
divided into 3 categories 1. parasitoids; 2. predators; and 3. pathogens.

Model agro-ecosystem analysis chart

Date:
Village:
Farmer:

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 Decision taken based on the analysis of field situation

Soil conditions :
Weather conditions :
Diseases types and severity:
Weeds types and intensity :
Rodent damage (if any) :
No. of insect pests :
No. of natural enemies :
P: D ratio :
The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2:
1. However, some of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests.
Wherever specific P: D ratios are not found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio. Whenever
the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no need for adoption of other management
strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable, the farmers can be
advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the type of pest.
In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of microbial
biopesticides (Botanicals, Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum, pseudomonas
fluorescens .etc) and biochemical biopesticides (Insect regulators, Pheromone traps etc) can
be relied upon before resorting to synthetic chemical pesticides.

Decision making

Farmers become experts in crop management

Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers
have learned to make these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. abiotic and biotic
factors of the crop ecosystem. The past experience of the farmers should also be considered for

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decision making. However, as orchard conditions continue to change and new technologies
become available, farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.

 Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation

 Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers

AESA methodology
 Go to the orchard in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the
orchard and choose 10tree/acre randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants
and record your observations:
 Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the vine .
 Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
 Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms
and severity.
 Weeds: Observe weeds in the orchard and their intensity.
 Water: Observe the water situation in the orchard.
 Weather: Observe the weather condition.
 While walking in the orchard, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Use a
sweep net to collect additional insects. Collect plant parts with disease
symptoms.
 Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and discussion.
 If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
 Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
 Each group will then analyse the orchard situation in detail and present their
observations and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
 Each drawing will show a plant representing the orchard situation. The weather
condition, water level, disease symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest
insects will be drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial insects) will be drawn on
another side. Write the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part where
the pests and defenders were found. Try to show the interaction between pests
and defenders.
 Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management
recommendation.
 The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now
present their analysis in front of all participants.
 The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes
sure that all participants (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in
this process.
 Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision
on what orchard management is required in the AESA plot.
 Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
 Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.

Data recording

Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart

 Keep records of what has happened
 Help us making an analysis and draw conclusions

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Data to be recorded
 Plant growth (weekly): Height of plant; Number of leaves
 Crop situation (e.g. for AESA): Plant health; Pests, diseases, weeds; Natural enemies
;Soil condition; Irrigation; Weather conditions
 Input costs: Seeds; Fertilizer; Pesticides; Labour
 Harvest: Yield (kg/acre); Price of produce (Rs./kg)

Some questions that can be used during the discussion

 Summarize the present situation of the orchard?

 What crop management aspect is most important at this moment?
 Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?
 Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?
 What is the situation of the beneficial insects?
 Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders?
 Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?
 Do you think the crop is healthy?
 What management practices are needed at this moment?
 When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are
being discussed.
 Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial
weather conditions for pest buildup?
 What problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?
 Summarize the actions to be taken.

Advantages of AESA over ETL

One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing all the time,
and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a certain density of insects
cannot be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of natural enemies in
decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers cannot base their decisions on just a simple
count of pests. They will have to consider many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth
stage, natural enemies, weather condition, etc.) and their own economic and social situation
before they can make the right crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural
enemies, plant compensation ability and abiotic factors are not considered. In AESA based IPM
emphasis is given to natural enemies, plant compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D ratio.

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AESA and farmer field school (FFS)

AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer orchard. It is season-long
so that it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop and their related management
practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory and relying on an experiential
learning approach and therefore it has become an integral part of FFS.

Farmers can learn from AESA

 Identification of pests and their nature of damage

Identification of natural enemies
 Management of pests
 Water and nutrient management
 Influence of weather factors on pest buildup
 Role of natural enemies in pest management

FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills

Active involvement of the farmers

Participatory
Farmers learn from other IPM
farmers

Not classroom training

Practical
Active involvement of the farmers

Group meetings

Regular meetings Throughout cropping season

Guided by IPM facilitator

AESA based IPM
training for farmers Learning through Design studies to solve problems
field experiments
Learning by doing

Problem oriented Farmers choose topics

Learning about crop ecology

Understanding role of beneficial insects

B. Field scouting
AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake their exercise. However, other
farmers also can do field scouting in their own fields at regular intervals to monitor the major
pest situation.
Surveillance on pest occurrence at the main orchard should commence soon after crop
establishment after transplanting and at weekly intervals thereafter. In each of the fields, select
five spots randomly. Select five random plants at each spot for recording counts of insects as
per procedure finalized for individual insects.

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Sampling in fruit crops:

A person doing sampling is known as an inspector or scout. The fruit crops are perennial in
nature and before starting the surveillance process an inspector or scout who is going to
implement the activity should know about the nature of crop as well as different crop stages and
its growth stages. Knowing crop and its nature helps in identifying the important pests and
diseases because the pests and diseases infest and infect, respectively, certain stage or part of
the plant.

Sampling patterns:

Different methods of sampling are reported and being utilized for sampling in crops as well as in
fruit plants such as random, scattered etc. However, some of them are specific to the
crop/disease/pests and growth stage (some of them are to be utilized at initial stage and/or for
subsequent plant growth stage). Also the sampling methods may differ based on the nature and
requirement of the study such as estimating disease incidence and/or disease severity. For a
common orchard study, the assessment methods should not only be easy and quick in use for a
wide range of conditions, but also adequately reliable, reproducible, and accurate/precise.
However, this is not always possible. Generally, in fruit crops the following sampling patterns
are used:

 Zig-zag pattern. Sampling a fallow orchard or one with no obvious symptoms in the
current crop to see the incidence as well as sampling of viral, wilt disease.
 Circle pattern. Sampling within the drip line of trees and shrubs and for powdery
mildew, downy mildew and leaf spot diseases etc.
 Star pattern. Sampling from a damaged area.

Sampling frequency:

Sampling frequency or interval depends on pest generation interval or number of generations

per year, potential for population increase between generations, stage of crop- pathogen
infection etc. Generally, if initial survey is already implemented and some results are with the
surveillance manager, then based upon the results of pest/disease incidence/intensity and
weather parameters, the surveillance frequency/interval is decided to get comprehensive view
of the pests and diseases development/population dynamics as well as biocontrol agent’s
population (if present in the crop ecosystem). In subsequent survey, monitoring for the pest,
pathogen, and biocontrol agent must be carried out to get the following detailed information:

 Relative pest measuring estimates: Counting the representative samples in a given

area.
 Absolute pest measuring estimates: Counting all individuals in a population in a given
area which determine total pest population size in a given area. It is very effective pest
surveillance research tool but very time consuming, therefore, not practical and/or not
economically feasible.
 Get an idea of number of pests per unit: To estimate pests per plant and/or area to
make the decision.
 Get an idea of weather at the site: In addition to the pest estimation, the prevailing
weather conditions, which may affect pest development and/or population buildup, are
observed and recorded.
 Get an idea of biocontrol agents: To strengthen the management strategies, biocontrol
agent population size, if available, in a given area is to be determined.

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Sucking pests:
Aphids and mites: Count and record the number of both nymphs and adults on five randomly
selected leaves per plant.

For diseases:
Whenever scouting, be aware that symptoms of plant disease problems may be caused by any
biotic factors such as fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens or abiotic factors such as weather,
fertilizers, nutrient deficiencies, pesticides and abiotic soil problems. In many cases, the cause
of the symptom is not obvious. Close examination, and laboratory culture and analysis are
required for proper diagnosis of the causal agent of disease. Generally fungal diseases cause
the obvious symptoms with irregular growth, pattern & colour (except viruses) however abiotic
problems cause regular, uniform symptoms. Pathogen presence (signs) on the symptoms can
also be observed like fungal growth, bacterial ooze etc. Specific and characteristic symptoms of
the important plant diseases are given in description of diseases section.

Root sampling: Always check plants that appear unhealthy. If there are no obvious symptoms
on plants, examine plants randomly and look for lesions or rots on roots and stems. Observe the
signs of the causal organism (fungal growth or ooze). It is often necessary to wash the roots
with water to examine them properly. If the roots are well developed, cut them to examine the
roots for internal infections (discolouration & signs). Count the total number of roots
damaged/infested/infected due to rot should be counted and incidence should be recorded.

Leaf sampling: Examine all leaves and/or sheaths of each plant for lesions. Leaf diseases
cause most damage during the seedling and flowering stages of plant growth. Observe for the
symptoms and signs on the infected plant parts. Determine the percent area of leaf infection by
counting the number of leaves (leaf area diameter)/plant infected due to disease and incidence
should be recorded.

Stem, flower and fruit sampling: Carefully examine the stem, flower, and fruit of plants for
symptoms and signs of fungal or bacterial diseases. The stem, flower, and fruit should be split
or taken apart and examined for discoloration caused by fungi and bacteria. Count the number
of stems, flowers and fruit infected due to disease and percent disease incidence should be
recorded.

C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Fruit borer:

Pheromone traps for @ 4-5/acre have to be installed, if available. Fix the traps to the supporting
pole at the height of mid canopy. Change of lures should be made at 2-3 week interval (regular
interval) or based on loss of lure efficacy. During each week of surveillance, the number of
moths/trap/week should be counted and recorded year round. The trapped moths should be
destroyed and removed after each recording.

D. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps

Set up yellow pan water trap/sticky traps 15 cm above the canopy for monitoring aphid @ 4-5
traps/acre. Locally available empty tins can be painted yellow coated with
grease/Vaseline/castor oil on outer surface may also be used.

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E. Light traps
Set up light traps 1 trap/acre 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping of
fruit borer and cut worm. Light traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should
be installed and operate around the dusk time (6 pm to 10 pm).

III. ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING FOR PEST MANAGEMENT

Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for
considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to effect
habitat manipulation and to enhance biological control. Ecological engineering for pest
management is based on informed ecological knowledge rather than high technology
approaches such as synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004a,b).

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Below ground:

There is a growing realization that the soil borne, seed and seedling borne diseases can be
managed with microbial interventions, besides choosing appropriate plant varieties. The
following activities increase the beneficial microbial population and enhance soil fertility.
 Crop rotations with leguminous plants which enhance nitrogen content.
 Keep soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
 Add organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, crop residue
which enhance below ground biodiversity of beneficial microbes and insects.
 Application of balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers based on soil test report.
 Application of biofertilizers with special focus on mycorrhiza and plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR)

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Above ground:

Natural enemies play a very significant role in control of foliar insect pests. Natural enemy
diversity contributes significantly to management of insect pests both below and above ground.
Natural enemies may require:
1. Food in the form of pollen and nectar.
2. Shelter, overwintering sites and moderate microclimate etc.
3. Alternate hosts when primary hosts are not present.

In order to attract natural enemies following activities should be practiced:

 Raise the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the field border by arranging
shorter plants towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural
enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest population
 Grow flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the field
 Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally such as Tridax procumbens,
Ageratum sp, Alternanthera sp etc. which act as nectar source for natural enemies,
 Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the P: D ratio is favourable. The
plant compensation ability should also be considered before applying chemical
pesticides.
 Reduce tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.
 Select and plant appropriate companion plants which could be trap crops and pest
repellent crops. The trap crops and pest repellent crops will also recruit natural enemies
as their flowers provide nectar and the plants provide suitable microclimate.

Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants, parasitoids and predators

(natural enemies) number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen and insects etc.

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The major predators are a wide variety of spiders, ladybird beetles, long horned grasshoppers,
lacewing, earwigs, etc.

Plant Suitable for Ecological Engineering for pest Management

Attractants

Corn Sunflower Dill

Marigold Buckwheat Wheat

Mustard French bean Alfalfa

19
 Berseem

The flowering plants suggested under Ecological Engineering for pest management strategy are
known as attractant plants to the natural enemies of the selected pests. The information is
based on published research literature; however, the actual selection of flowering plants could
be based on availability, agro-climatic conditions and soil types.

20
21
 IV. CROP STAGE-WISE IPM

Management Activity
Pre-sowing/ planting*
Common cultural practices:
 Collect and destroy diseased and insect infected plant
parts.
 Provide irrigation at critical stages of the crop
 Avoid water stagnation.
 Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical spray,
when 1-2 larval parasitoids are observed
Common mechanical practices:
 Collection and destruction of eggs and early stage
larvae
 Handpick the older larvae during early stages
 The infested leaves and branches may be collected
and destroyed
 Handpick the caterpillars and the pupae which are
found on leaves and destroy them in kerosene mixed
water.
 Use yellow sticky traps for aphids @ 4-5 trap/acre.
 Use light trap @ 1/acre and operate between 6 pm and
10 pm
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for monitoring adult
moths activity (replace the lures with fresh lures after
every 2-3 weeks)
 Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging
predatory birds such as King crow, common mynah etc.
 Set up bonfire during evening hours at 7-8 pm
Common biological practices:
 Conserve natural enemies through ecological
engineering
 Augmentative release of natural enemies
Nutrients  For raspberry cultivation, site should contain sufficient
organic matter.
 To increase organic matter statues, apply 10 to 20
tonnes/ acre farmyard manure at the time of field
preparation.
 Grow green manure crop to improve organic matter
content in soil.
 Apply recommended dose of fertilizers
Weeds  The soil is ploughed during summer with a soil turning
plough to eliminate weeds problem.
Damping off  Give optimum irrigation

22
Sowing / planting
Nutrients  Apply fertilizers based on the soil test report and recommendation for particular
zone. Generally, 30 kg each of P and K per acre should be applied at the time
of planting.
Weeds  Keep the berry rows weed free during the first season by harrowing &
ploughing, Plough the field at the time of planting.
 Tips should be pinched to facilitate branching when vines reached the trellies
 Pruning should be restricted to the lower parts of vine hanging on the ground,
during winter when vines are dormant

Vegetative stage
Common cultural practices:
 Collect and destroy crop debris
 Provide irrigation at the critical stages of the crop
 Avoid water logging
 Avoid water stress during flowering stage
 Follow judicious use of fertilizers
 Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical pesticide spray, when 1-2
larval parasitoids are observed in the crops field.

Common mechanical practices:

 Collect and destroy disease infected and insect infested plant parts
 Collect and destroy eggs and early stage larvae
 Handpick the older larvae during early stages
 Use yellow sticky traps @ 4-5 trap/acre
 Use light trap @ 1/acre and operate between 6 pm and 10 pm
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for monitoring adult moths activity
(replace the lures with fresh lures after every 2-3 weeks)
 Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging predatory birds such as
King crow, common mynah etc.

Common biological practices:

 Conserve natural enemies through ecological engineering
 Augmentative release of natural enemies
Nutrient  In case of slow growth of plants, nitrogen @ 30 kg per acre may be applied in
soil around the plants. First half dose is given one month after planting and
second half dose is given at the time of flowering.
 Apply fertilizers as a band on each side of the row in the early spring before
growth begins.
 Foliar applications of liquid fertilizers (containing 0.5% N, 0.2% P2O5 and 0.5%
K2O) during August to February are also beneficial for all raspberry growing
areas.
 Adjust the amount of fertilizer applied depending on plant growth and yield.
Weeds  Use straw or plastic mulch to suppress the weeds between the rows. or
 Keep the rows weed-free by inter-row ploughing or machine tool weeding or
hoeing.
 Cover crops such as Oats, Rye or Rye grass may be sown between the rows
when plants are set.
Hadda Cultural control:

23
beetle  Remove and destroy all the infected leaves, twigs and fruits to prevent further
spread of pests
Fruit Mechanical control:
borer  Deep ploughing is likely to kill the diapausing pupae.
 Hand picking of the caterpillar and pupae during the early stages of
infestation reduces the pest damage
 Remove the damaged and punctured fruits by caterpillars and grubs
because these are source of pathogen infection
Biological control:
 Conservation and augmentation of natural predators like coccinellids,
Chrysoperla, spiders, dragon flies must be followed
 Augmentation of biocontrol agents like Trichogramma brasiliensis, T.
chilonis and T. pretiosum should be carried out
Aphid and Cultural control:
mites  Remove and destroy all the infected leaves, twigs and fruits to prevent further
spread of pests
 Deep summer ploughing to expose soil inhabiting or resting stage of various
stages of insect pests
 In summer, keep the vines open, avoid crowding and excessive shading of
vines
 Plant the crop in well prepared, fertile land, but do avoid applying nitrogenous
fertilizer, as this will promote new growth, which makes the plants juicy and
attractive to aphids
Mechanical control:
 Collect and destroy different developmental stages of insect pests
Biological control:
 Conserve predators such as ladybird beetle, syrphids, coccinellids, chrysopids,
wasp, surface bugs, spiders, different species of parasitic wasps and predatory
mites through ecological engineering
Two
Cultural control:
spotted
spider  Cultural practices can have a significant impact on spider mites. Dusty
mite conditions often lead to mite outbreaks.
 Apply water to pathways and other dusty areas at regular intervals. Water-
stressed trees and plants are less tolerant of spider mite damage.
 Be sure to provide adequate irrigation. Midseason washing of trees and
vines with water to remove dust may help prevent serious late-season mite
infestations.
Biological control:
 Some of the most important are the predatory mites, including the western
predatorymite, Galendromus (formerly Metaseiulus) occidentalis, and Phyt
oseiulus mite species.
 Various other insects are also important predators—sixspotted
thrips (Scolothrips sexmaculatus), the larvae and adults of the spider mite
destroyer lady beetle (Stethorus picipes), the larvae of certain flies
including the cecidomyid Feltiella acarivora and various general predators
such as minute pirate bugs, bigeyed bugs, and lacewing larvae.

Thrips
Cultural control

24
  Thrips species that feed on many different plant species often move into
gardens and landscapes when plants in weedy areas or grasslands begin
to dry in spring or summer.
 Avoid planting susceptible plants next to these areas, and control nearby
weeds that are alternate hosts of pest thrips. Grow plants that are well-
adapted to conditions at that site.
 For example, plants adapted to grow in full sun can be stressed when
planted in shady conditions and may be more susceptible to thrips
damage.
 Provide appropriate cultural care to keep plants vigorous and increase their
tolerance to thrips damage. Keep plants well irrigated, and avoid excessive
applications of nitrogen fertilizer, which may promote higher populations of
thrips.
 Old, spent flowers can harbor thrips, so their removal and disposal is
sometimes recommended. However, the general benefit of this practice in
landscapes is unknown; and old blossoms also commonly shelter
beneficial predators of thrips.

Biological control

 Predatory thrips, green lacewings, minute pirate bugs, mites, and certain
parasitic wasps help to control plant-feeding thrips.
 To conserve and encourage naturally occurring populations of these
beneficials, avoid creating dust and consider periodically rinsing dust off of
small plants, avoid persistent pesticides, and grow a diversity of plant
species.

Cane Mechanical control:

botrytis,  Avoid plant damage either by the cultural practices or mechanical injury, or
cane insect infestation
blight and  Avoid successive contact of diseased and healthy plants carrying out
spur cultural practices in the field.
blight  Maintain proper air circulation by pruning and cutting and maintain good
water drainage
 Avoid pruning or tipping when plants are wet or just before a rain
 Maintain wind break to reduce damage to canes by wind
 Use disease free material
 Remove old canes at ground and destroy them.
Powdery Cultural control:
mildew  Remove diseased material in fall and destroy
 Maintain proper row spacing and plant canopy aeration

Bacterial Cultural control:

blight  Maintain proper plant canopy aeration
 Harden plants for winter properly

Root Rots Cultural control:

 Maintain well drained soil

25
  Use certified and disease free stocks
 Do not follow strawberries, potatoes, tomatoes or raspberries in the rotation
 Remove and destroy infected plants
Mosaic Cultural control:
 Avoid the sites where tomato has been grown in previous season
 Control insect pests i.e vector (Aphids)
Mechanical control:
 Diseased plants should be rogued out and destroyed
Botrytis Cultural control:
Fruit Rot  Avoid dense planting
 Increase air circulation, rigorous pruning, efficient weed control, avoid high
applications of nitrogen
 Harvest regularly and sell as soon as picked
 Pick directly into shallow containers for market

Crown Cultural control:

Gall and  Plant only certified, disease-free nursery stock, and take care not to wound
Cane Gall the plants, especially the root systems, at planting time.
 Try to plant only in sites with no history of the diseases
 Remove and burn the diseased roots and tops of the plant. Dispose of the
soil surrounding the roots of the affected plant.

VerticilliuCultural control:
m Wilt  To minimize this disease, choose a planting site with no known history of
this problem.
 Avoid land recently planted with tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, peppers,
strawberries, raspberries, or stone fruits; and land infested with horse
nettle, ground cherry, red-root pigweed, and lamb's-quarter
Leaf spot Cultural control:
 Keep rows narrow and weeds controlled to improve drying of the plants in
the row.
Tomato  Follow common cultural, mechanical and biological practices
Ringspot Cultural control:
Virus  Planting stock that is free of tomato ringspot virus
Reproductive stage
Weeds  Left over weeds should be removed from the field before seed
shattering to avoid further spread of weed seeds
 Continue the straw or plastic mulch to suppress the weeds between
the rows.
Fruit Mechanical control:
borer  Collect and destroy different such as infected fruits fallen on ground
developmental stages of insect pests
 Collection and destruction of eggs and early stage larvae
 Handpick the older larvae during early stages
 The infested leaves and branches may be collected and destroyed

Biological control:
 Make the release of different laboratory reared bioagents when necessary
 Conservation and augmentation of natural enemies such as ladybird

26
 beetle, syrphids, coccinellids, chrysopids, wasp, surface bugs, spiders,
different species of parasitic wasps and predatory mites
Birds Cultural control:
damage  Plants should be trained with the help of supporting wires to form a roof like
structure to protect fruit from sun burn and bird damage.
Mechanical control:
 Fruits are frequently damaged by birds if these are allowed to overripe in
the field. Therefore, over ripening of the fruits may be avoided to minimize
the damage
Fruit rot, Cultural control:
Botrytis  Staking of plant to avoid direct contact of fruits with soil borne pathogen.
fruit rot  Avoid dense planting
and fire  Increase air circulation, rigorous pruning, efficient weed control, avoid high
blight applications of nitrogen
 Harvest regularly and sell as soon as picked
 Pick directly into shallow containers for market
 Cool fruit as quickly as possible
Cane  Follow common cultural, mechanical and biological practices
botrytis,
cane
blight,
spur
blight,
Powdery
mildew,
Bacterial
blight,
Root
Rots,
Mosaic,
Botrytis
Fruit Rot,
Crown
Gall, Cane
Gall,
Verticilliu
m Wilt,
Leaf spot
and
Tomato
Ringspot
Virus

V. INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the

sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the
expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species’
(IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to one insecticide confers resistance to another
insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter product.

27
Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance
develops depend on several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present in
the population, how rapidly the insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the migration
and host range of the insects, the insecticide's persistence and specificity, and the rate, timing and
number of applications of insecticide made. For instance, insect pests that survive in large
populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide, especially when
insecticides are misused or over-used.
General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid insecticide
resistance is prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as part of a
larger integrated pest management (IPM) approach.
1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when control
measures are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control decisions.
After treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
2) Focus on AESA. Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-chemical
management options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply biopesticides/chemical
insecticides judiciously after observing unfavourable P: D ratio and when the pests are in most
vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and intervals as per label claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural enemies
as well as plants that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures as
possible viz., cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work. More preference
should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully. While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper
application of insecticides in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques as
per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide,
insecticides in the same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of
action and rotate/alternate insecticide classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes. Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population by
providing unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent "refuge" fields, or habitat attractions
within a treated field that facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may outcompete and
interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and therefore the impact of
resistance.

VII. COMMON WEEDS

1. Pig Weed: Amaranthus viridis 2. Spiny Amaranth: 3. Little mallow (cheese

Hook. F. (Amaranthaceae) Amaranthus spinosus L. weed) Malva parviflora L
(Amaranthaceae) (Malvaceae)

28
 4. Sowthistle : Sonchus 5. Tropical spiderwort : 6. Horse purslane : Trienthema
oleraceus Asteracea Commelina benghalensis L. portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
(Commelinaceae)

7. False Amaranth : Digera 8. False Daisy : Eclipta prostrarta L. 9. Toothed Dock : Rumex
arvensis Forrsk. (Asteraceae) dentatus L. (Polygonaceae)
(Amaranthaceae)

10. Wood sorrel : Oxalis 11. Bermuda grass : Cynodon 12. Conch grass : Agropyron
corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae) dactylon (L.) Pers. (Poaceae) repens (Poaceae)

13. Large crabgrass : Digitaria 14. Wire grass : Eleusine indica 15. Purple nutsedge : Cyperus
sanguinalis L.(Scop.) (Poaceae) L. (Poaceae) rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)

29
 16. Annual sedge : Cyperus
compressus L. (Cyperaceae)

VII. DESCRIPTION OF INSECT AND MITE PESTS

1). Epilachna beetle/ Hadda beetle/Spotted leaf beetle:

Spotted beetles are distributed from East Asia to South Asia and Australia. They are
polyphagous, and feed predominantly on cucurbits, brinjal, potato, and kidney bean as well as
eggplant. These beetles are considered to be one of the most serious groups of pests
damaging eggplant. In addition, they also feed on other solanaceous plants such as S. nigrum,
S. xanthocarpum, S. torvum, Datura sp., Physalis sp. and Withania somnifera (L.).
Biology:
E. vigintioctopunctata (in Latin, viginti means 20 and octo means 8) has 28 black spots on the
forewing (elytra). E. dodecastigma (dodecam means 12 in Greek) has 12 black spots on the
elytra. However, beetles with 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 or 26 spots have been observed under field
conditions, due to mating between females of E. dodecastigma and males of E.
vigintioctopunctata.
Egg: The females lay eggs mostly on the lower leaf surfaces. Each female lays about 100-400
eggs. The egg is spindle-shaped and yellowish in color. Eggs are laid in clusters of 10-40. The
egg period varies from two to five days.
Grub: The grub is creamy white or yellowish in color with black spiny hairs on the body. The
grub period is two to five weeks depending on the temperature. Grubs pupate on the leaves
and stem.
Pupa: The pupa resembles the grub but is mostly darker in color, although it sometimes is
yellowish in color. The pupa bears spiny hairs on the posterior, but not the anterior, part of the
body. The pupal period is one to two weeks.
Adult: The subfamily Epilachninae contains plant-feeding ladybird beetles because most other
ladybird beetles are predators, not plant pests. These brownish or orange- colored,
hemispherical beetles are larger than other ladybird species.
Life cycle

30
 4. Adult
25-30 days

ys
da
14
7-

Hadda beetle,
3. Pupa 1. Eggs
Epilachna
vigintioctopuncata

14
-3 ys
5
da da
5
ys 2-

2. Grub

1. http://bugguide.net/node/view/573366/bgimage
2. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/Epilachna-vigintioctopunctata.php
3.http://www.pestnet.org/SummariesofMessages/Pests/PestsEntities/Insects/Beetles/ Henosepilachnasp,Guam.aspx
4. http://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/lynf/lynf.html

Damage symptoms:
 The grub and adult have chewing mouthparts. Hence, they scrape the chlorophyll from
the epidermal layers of the leaves
 The feeding results in a typical ladder-like window. The windows will dry and drop off,
leaving holes in the leaves. In severe infestations, several windows coalesce together
and lead to skeletonization— the formation of a papery structure on the leaf
Skeletonization on leaves

Damage symptom
http://www.drkaae.com/InsectIDPt2/Chapter1Beetle%20Part1_files/image016.jpg
Parasitoid:
Larval and adult: Pediobius foveolatus
Predators: Reduviid bug/ assassin bug, Pentatomid bug,
*For management refer to page number---24 & 27---------------------
2). Fruit borer:
Biology:
Eggs: Eggs are spherical, dome-shaped with a flat base, 0.5 mm in diameter, yellowish and
turn brownish as the embryo develops. They are laid singly on tender leaves and take 2-4 days
for hatching.
Larvae: Full grown larva may be green, pale yellow, pale brown or greyish but always with a

31
dark stripe on the lateral sides of the body. Body also bears inconspicuous tubercles and
scattered small hairs. There are 6 larval instars and the entire larval development takes 20-25
days.
Pupa: Pupation takes place in the soil. Pupal period is 10-15 days. Moths emerge and make
their way through the soil.
Adults: Adult moths are medium sized, with a wing span of 3-4 cm. They are extremely
variable in colour from buff to light brownish to greyish-brown, marked with dark greyish
irregular lines on the fore wing and a broad blackish band near the outer margin. Hind wing is
dull whitish in colour, with outer margin broadly black. Sometimes there is a dark spot in the
middle of fore wing.
Life cycle:

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/76/pests
Damage symptoms:
 They feed on leaves and tender shoots and bore into the fruits
 Fungus and other diseases follow in the damaged fruits. One larva may feed on several
fruits before completing development
Predators: Lacewing, Lady beetle, Spider, Fire ant, Dragon flies, Robber fly, Reduviid bug,
Praying mantis, Black drongo, Wasp, Common mynah (King crow), (Geocoris sp), Big-eyed
bug, Earwig, Ground beetle, Pentatomid bug
*For management refer to page number---24 & 27---------------------
3). Cut worm:
Adult cutworm and armyworm moths appear between April and July.
Biology:
Egg: Females lay about 500 eggs on lower grass leaves over a 2- to 3-week period.
Larvae: Armyworms feed for 3 to 4 weeks, and are full grown at 1½ to 2”long. Armyworm
larvae have 6 growth stages, or instars. The final instar lasts about 10 days
Pupae: Some species overwinter as a naked pupa in the soil, while some continue to develop
through winter. Duration of the pupal stage is normally 12 to 20 days.
Adults: The adult preoviposition period is about seven to 10 days. Adult period varies around
10-20 days.
Life cycle:

32
 2. http://utahpests.usu.edu/ipm/htm/advisories/small-fruit-and-vegetable-advisory/articleID=8341
4. http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/black_cutworm.htm
Damage symptoms:
 Early season cutworms are a rare problem.
 Larvae may be present as buds swell and open and feed at night on primary buds and new
growth.
 Cutworms and armyworms are the caterpillars of several species of night-flying moths.
Plump, smooth and often, greasy-looking with greenish, brownish, grayish, or striped
bodies up to 1 ¾”long, cutworms curl up tightly when disturbed. About the same size,
armyworms are plump, sparsely-haired, and generally green to brown with dark longitudinal
stripes running down the sides and back. Armyworms lay white or greenish eggs masses
that darken as they near hatching.

Damage symptom
http://www.berriesnw.com/BerryDisordersDetail.asp?id=54
Predators: Lacewing, Lady beetle, Spider, Fire ant, Dragon flies, Robber fly, Reduviid bug,
Praying mantis, Black drongo, Wasp, Common mynah (King crow), (Geocoris sp), Big-eyed
bug, Earwig, Ground beetle, Pentatomid bug
*For management refer to page number-------------------------
4). Red spider mite:
Adult mites are 0.3-0.5 mm, greenish-yellow with two dark spots on the back. Nymphs are
similar in appearance only smaller. Eggs are clear and round. All stages occur predominantly

33
on the lower leaf surface.
Biology:
Female two-spotted spider mites overwinter in crop debris on the ground. The overwintering
adults are orange in colour. In spring they move to new growth and feed on leaves closest to
the ground. There are many generations per year and eggs, nymphs, and adults are frequently
present at the same time. As populations build and leaves age or become damaged, mites
move up the plant to newer, more succulent growth. The time for one generation to develop,
from egg to mature adult, ranges from to five days at 24ºC to three weeks at 12ºC.
Damage symptoms:
 Stippling on leaves
 Webbing and defoliation

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub360/notes/rasptssm.htm
Stippling on leaves Webbing and defoliation
Predators: Predatory mites, Predatory thrips and Oligota spp
*For management refer to page number-----24 &27--------------------
5). Aphids:
Aphids may be green, black, brown, red, pink, or some other color depending on the sap color
of the host plant. They are usually slow-moving insects with pear-shaped bodies ranging from
1 /16 to 1 /8 inch long. There may be various sizes of wingless aphids (nymphs and adults) in a
dense colony on a stem, on the underside of the foliage, or on the flowers.
Biology:
The life history of aphids is somewhat complicated and varies with the species. The simple life
cycle is as follows: Overwintering eggs on branches and stems hatch in the spring to produce
a wingless form known as the stem mother. The unfertilized stem mother gives birth to living
young in great numbers. Several generations may occur in this fashion, but in due time some
individuals will develop wings (alates) and migrate to another host. Here they may deposit
eggs for the winter or, after a few generations, migrate back to the original host to lay eggs.
Life cycle:

34
1. http://www.flickr.com/photos/23293858@N04/2672985270/
2. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/2902/2902-1081/2902-1081.html
3. http://www.flickr.com/photos/25848431@N02/7479982150/
Damage symptoms:
 Aphids are sucking insects that feed by thrusting a long beak into the plant tissue.
 They withdraw great quantities of sap, some of which they execrete as "honeydew".
 The honeydew makes the plant sticky. When trees are heavily infested with aphids,
sidewalks, lawn furniture, and automobiles may become wet with honeydew.
 A sooty mold often develops with the honeydew blackening stems and foliage.
 This fungus is not parasitic to the plant, but reduces the amount of photosynthetic area.
 Leaves of plants may be distorted by aphids feeding on the undersides.
 Succulent stems may wilt or growth may be arrested by colonies of aphids. On the
other hand, damage caused by aphids feeding on the bark of trees or woody shrubs
cannot be readily seen.

Damage symptom
http://www.onthegreenfarms.com/fruit-vegetable/how-to-grow-organic-raspberries/
Nymphal and adult parasitoids: Aphidius colemani, Aphelinus spp.
Predators: Syrphid larva
*For management refer to page number-----24 & 27--------------------

35
 Natural enemies for Rasberry of insect pests
Parasitoid:
Larval and adult

1. Pediobius foveolatus
http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Pediobius_foveolatus.htm
Nymphal and adult

1. Aphidius colemani 2. Aphelinus spp.

1. http://biobee.in/products-and-services/solutions/bio-aphidius/
2. http://australianmuseum.net.au/image/Aphelinus-wasp-stings-aphid-Denis-Crawford/kool
Predators:

1. Lacewing 2. Lady beetle 3. Spider 4. Fire ant

5. Dragon fly 6. Robber fly 7. Reduviid bug 8. Praying mantis

36
 9. Wasp 10. Big-eyed bug 11. Oligota spp 12. Syrphid larva

13. Earwig 14. Ground beetle 15. Pentatomid bug 16. Predatorymites

17. Predatory thrips

Birds

9. Black drongo 10. Common mynah

1. http://www.macro-world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_spider
4.http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/queensland-launched-a-war-against-the-fire-ant-invasion-but-12-years-later-
they8217re-still-on-the-march/story-fnihsrf2-1226686256021
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly
6. http://www.warpedphotosblog.com/robber-fly-and-prey
7 http://www.corzonneveld.nl/selected/2007/tessin/Malvaglia/Rhinocoris%20Apis%20287%20med.jpg
8. http://spirit-animals.com/praying-mantis/
9 http://somethingscrawlinginmyhair.com/2011/09/17/yellowjacket-with-prey/
10. http://bugguide.net/node/view/598529
11http://www.fugleognatur.dk/forum/show_message.asp?MessageID= 560188&ForumID=33
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphid
13. http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnhallmen/2901162091/
14.http://www.mattcolephotography.co.uk/Galleries/insects/Bugs%20&%20Beetles/slides/Ground%20Beetle%20-
%20Pterostichus%20madidus.html
15.http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/rider/Pentatomoidea/Genus_Asopinae/ Eocanthecona.html
16. http://www.dragonfli.co.uk/natural-pest-control/natural-enemies
17. http://biocontrol.ucr.edu/hoddle/persea_mite.html
18 http://nagpurbirds.org/blackdrongo/picture/1639
19 http://nickdobbs65.wordpress.com/tag/herbie-the-love-bug/

37
 IX. DESCRIPTION OF DISEASES

1). Botrytis Fruit Rot:

Disease symptoms:
 As berries ripen, few infected druplets can develop a watery rot and golden or tan color
 Soft, gray fungal spores grow on these watery spots when humidity is high Mid to late part
of the season when problems arise

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm
Infected berries
Favourable conditions:
 High relative humidity in cooler weather, (16-26oC) encourages the mold growth
 Post harvest, high relative humidity in the cooler encourages mold growth
 Infected berries leak on to other berries, spreading disease
Survival and spread:
 Overwinters on canes, dead leaves and mummified berries
 Spores (conidia) are dispersed by air, water or harvesting and ultimately infect different
floral parts including stamens and petals.
 For man Pre-harvest, wet weather during blossom time, disease remains latent
 Disease is spread by spores by wind and splashing water (rain and overhead irrigation)
 More mature and over ripe fruit becomes, the greater the risk
For management refer to page number—26 & 27-------------
2. Cane Botrytis (Grey Mold Wilt):
Disease symptoms:
 Appear mid summer
 Pale brown lesions (with no purple cast)
 Often have conspicuous band patterns or watermarks, due to the irregular growth patterns
of the fungus
 When primocanes turn brown in the fall, the lesions become indistinguishable from healthy
tissue
 after several weeks of low temperatures the lesions turn gray or white
 Sclerotia form during winter and emerge as shiny black blisters in the spring
 When the surface tissues are scraped away healthy green tissue underneath is exposed
 Cane botrytis does weaken the stem
 In spring difficult to tell difference between spur blight and cane botrytis, in fact both can be
present on the same cane as both occupy the same ecological niche and do similar things
to plant growth

38
 Pale brown lesion on canes
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub360/notes/raspcanebotf1.jpg

Favourable conditions:
 Wet weather or high humidity
 Poor air circulation
 Spread mainly by wind but also by splashing water (rain or overhead irrigation)
 Disease overwinters on canes
Survival and spread:
 Spores (conidia) are dispersed by air, water or harvesting and ultimately infect different
floral parts including stamens and petals.
*For management refer to page number----25 & 27--------------------
3. Cane Blight:
Disease symptoms:
 Dark brown to purplish cankers form at wound on new canes
 As cankers enlarge and extend down the canes, lateral shoots can suddenly wilt and die
 Wilting death may also occur on the side shoots of second-year canes
 Affected canes are brittle and snap off easily
 Fruiting canes often die between flowering and fruiting
 Scrape the brown spot on cane with knife, will be brown discoloration under the bark
Infected canes

Infected twig
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm
Favourable conditions:
 Two most important factors for disease; a wound for the disease to enter and water to wash
the organism into wound

39
  Wet weather, spores ooze from the fruiting bodies
 Spores spread on the wind
 Young canes are susceptible
Survival and spread:
 Overwintering sclerotia produce grey masses of conidia in damp spring weather
 However, botrytis inoculum can come from many sources of decaying plant debris
*For management refer to page number- 25 & 27-----------------------
4. Spur blight:
Disease symptoms:
 Dark red, purple or chocolate brown spots below the spur, on young bark around buds of
new shoots
 Canes have silvery grey appearance in the winter
 Diseased areas enlarge and girdle the stem, as a result the leaves fall off, especially on the
lower parts of stem
 Infected bark may dry out and crack by late summer
 Yields and winter hardiness are reduced
 Fungus survives year to year on the infected canes

Purple or chocolate brown spots below the spur Infected bark

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm
Favourable conditions:
 Cool rainy weather
 Spores spread by wind and splashing water
 Spores present at all times
 Disease enters at leaf nodes and stems
Survival and spread:
 Primary spores (ascospores) are discharged from May to August.
 Inoculum comes only from old fruiting canes.
 Secondary spores (conidia) are also produced. Conidia splashed about in July and August
probably cause the most damage.
*For management refer to page number---25 & 27---------------------
5. Powdery Mildew:
Disease symptoms:
 Powdery white growth on leaf underside, growing tip or fruit
 Young canes, stunted, distorted, spindly and can die back
 Young berries fail to mature to full size, wither and die

40
 Powdery white growth on plant and inflorescence
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm
http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berrytool/raspberry/leavesstems/Rasppowderymildew.htm
Favourable conditions:
 Most prevalent in years when weather is dry and air circulation is poor, (warm and humid
weather)
 Can affect winter hardiness
Survival and spread:
 Resting spores in soil and airborne spores
*For management refer to page number-26 & 27-------------------
6.Anthracnose:
Disease symptoms:
 Purple spots with grey-white centres form on new canes, leaves and petioles
 Spots enlarge on canes to form sunken pits
 On second-year canes, these lesions can coalesce into cankers that girdle the cane and
cause it to dry out and crack. Infected canes are more susceptible to winter injury and
produce weak growth in the spring
 Fruit infections occur when there is abundant inoculum and wet weather in the green fruit
stage
 Fruit symptoms include shrunken brown druplets or withered, dry seedy fruit

Purple spots with grey-white centres Infected canes

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub360/notes/raspanth.htm
Favourable conditions:
Infection requires three to twelve hours of wetness; only very young green tissue is infected
Survival and spread:
 Ascospores are rain-splashed and air-borne from infected canes in early spring
 Conidia are rain-splashed from overwintering infected canes in the spring and throughout
the summer to new growth
*For management refer to page number------------------------
7. Fire Blight:
Disease symptoms:

41
  Can girdle canes. Lesions become water soaked
 Carmel colored bacterial ooze comes out of lesions in beads during humid periods
 Diseased plant parts become purplish black
 Infected berries do not mature, become brown, dry up, become very hard and remain on
pedicel

Disease symptom
http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/opp9186
Favourable conditions:
 Apple bacterial pathogen strain will attack raspberry, but not vice versa
 Warm temperatures (18-25oC) and light rain favor infections, prolonged host flowering due
to wet cool springs
 Flowers, fruit, cane tips that are succulent become infected
Survival and spread:
 Bacteria remain present on diseased plant material
 Honeybees and other insects, birds, rain and wind can transmit the bacterium to susceptible
tissue. Injured tissue is also highly susceptible to infection, including punctures and tears
caused by plant-sucking or biting insects,
 Bacteria enter in the plant, either flower or tough mechanical damage
*For management refer to page number-------27-----------------
8. Bacterial Blight:
Disease symptoms:
 Very similar to fire blight symptoms
 Blackening or browning of tissue
 Slow in spreading unlike fire blight
 Can also be confused with several other disorders like winter injury, cane borer, or some
herbicides
Favourable Conditions:
 Cool and moist weather
Survival and Spread:
 Overwinters on the canes and buds
 Bacteria is systemic in the plant, and infection spreads as long as weather is cool and wet,
once weather begins to warm up disease subsides until fall
*For management refer to page number—26 & 27----------------------
9.Crown Gall and Cane Gall:
Disease symptoms:

 Crown and cane gall are characterized by the spongy, rough, pinhead- to golf ball-sized,
tumor-like swellings that become brown, woody knots with age.
 Crown galls develop in the spring on the underground parts--the roots and crown of the

42
 plants.
 Cane galls develop as whitish eruptions on the fruiting canes in mid-June.
 These eruptions later turn brown and then black and begin to disintegrate.
 More intense gall formation seems to occur in years with higher incidence of winter injury.
 The diseases cause the production of dry, seedy berries and the stunting and prevention of
new cane formation.
 Weakened canes are broken easily by the wind and are more susceptible to winter injury.
 The plants might show water stress and nutrient deficiency symptoms since the movement
of water and nutrients throughout the plant is disrupted.
 With cane gall, black and purple raspberries are more often infected than red raspberries
and blackberries.

Disease symptoms
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm

Survival and spread:

 Both diseases are caused by soil-borne bacteria (crown gall: Agrobacterium tumifaciens
and cane gall: Agrobacterium rubi) that infect the plant only through wounds.
 Wounds can result from natural causes (e.g., insect feeding, frost damage) or from
mechanical causes (e.g., pruning, cultivating, harvesting).
 The bacteria overwinter in the soil and in galls.

Favourable conditions:

 Bacteria are then spread by splashing rain, running water, cultivation, and pruning from soil
and infected plants.
 As the galls enlarge, the soil can become heavily infested and will remain so for many
years.
*For management refer to page number---26 & 27---------------------
10.Root Rots:
Disease symptoms:

 Unthriftiness
 Appear to be suffering from lack of moisture or nutrients, but when these are added,
there is no response
 Leaves are smaller than normal, shorter petioles and become wilted or discolored
 Fruiting canes produce fruit that is stunted and never sizes up

43
 berries may be seedy
 Roots are dark brown to black, with discoloration extending to the crown
 Rootlets are sparse or non - existent

Disease symptoms
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub360/notes/raspphytof2.jpg
http://1dct5c1pgitquqsqt26j9h41.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/IMG_1594_WR-225x300.jpg

Survival and spread:

 A soil-borne fungus causes Phytophthora root rot.

 The fungus produces spores that swim in water and infect roots and crowns when
soil conditions are very wet.

Favourable conditions:

Infections can take place whenever soil temperatures are over 10ºC and the soil is wet, but most
frequently in spring and fall.

*For management refer to page number—26 & 27----------------------

11.Verticillium Wilt:
Disease symptoms:

 Shoots are stunted and leaves, starting at the base of the infected plant, turn yellow, wilt,
and drop.
 The entire shoot will wither and die shortly thereafter.
 Raspberry canes might show a blue or purple streak from the soil line extending upward.
 This purple streak is not detectable on raspberry canes.
 Fruiting canes, infected the previous year, either die in the spring or develop yellow and
stunted leaves.
 If the canes die before reaching maturity, the fruit becomes mummified. Losses are heavier
in black raspberries than in red raspberries.

44
 Disease symptom
http://pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/pathogen-articles/pathogens-common-many-plants/fungi/verticillium-wilt-pacific-northwest

Survival and spread:

These fungi can exist in the soil prior to planting or may brought in on planting stock or may
move in on wind-blown soil.
 The fungi can survive either in plant debris or free in the soil.
Favourable conditions:

 The fungus is favored by cool weather and is most severe in poorly drained soils following a
cool, wet spring

*For management refer to page number—26 & 27----------------------

12.Leaf spot:

Disease symptom:
 Greenish black spots develop on the upper leaf surface of new leaves.
 These progress to whitish grey with a distinct margin and sometimes a shot hole in the
centre.
 Severely infected leaves drop prematurely.

Disease symptoms
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm
http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berrytool/raspberry/leavesstems/images/raspleafspot68-opt.jpg

45
Survival and spreads:

 The fungus infects only raspberries and overwinters on old leaves and canes. Young rapidly
expanding leaves are infected.

Favourable conditions:

 Infections occur throughout the summer especially during periods of wet weather.

*For management refer to page number- 26 & 27-----------------------

13.Mosaic disease
Virus diseases cause various symptoms that include leaf curl and pucker and a yellow-mottled
discoloration known as mosaic. Virus infected plants often produce small crumbly berries and low
yields.
Disease symptoms:
 Poor vigor, low yields and poor fruit quality
 Short stand longevity
 Leaf symptoms most evident during cool weather, can range from puckering, curling and
crinkling
 Berries may be dry seedy and lack flavor

Disease symptoms
http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/opp9186/$FILE/raspberry_mosaic.jpg
Survival and spread:
 Aphids transmit raspberry mosaic and raspberry leaf curl virus from infected to healthy
plantings.
*For management refer to page number---26 & 28---------------------

46
 Disease cycles:
1. Fruit rot disease:

2. Cane blight:

47
3. Powdery mildew:

4. Anthracnose:

48
5. Fire Blight:

6. Bacterial blight:

49
 X. SAFETY MEASURES
A. At the time of harvest:
All varieties will begin to produce fruit in their second season. In some cases, ever-bearers may
bear small berries in their first autumn. In early summer, berries will ripen over a time of about 2
weeks. It is needed to pick berries every couple of days. Try to harvest berries on a sunny day
when they are dry. Don't tug too hard on your raspberries when picking.
B. During post-harvest storage
Raspberries can be kept refrigerated for about 5 days. If the fruit is to be made into preserves, it
should be done straight off the plant. Raspberries can be frozen. Make a single layer of berries
on a cookie sheet. When frozen, place into airtight bags.

XI. DO’S AND DON’TS IN IPM

S. Do’s Don’ts
No.
1. Deep ploughing is to be done on bright sunny Do not plant or irrigate the field after
days during the months of May and June. ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
The field should be kept exposed to sun light desiccation of weed’s bulbs and/or rhizomes
at least for 2-3 weeks of perennial weeds.
2. Adopt crop rotation of Cover crops between Avoid mono-cropping of the cover crops
the rows. between the rows.
3. Grow only recommended varieties. Do not grow varieties not suitable for the
season or the region.
4 Plant early in the season Avoid late planting as this may lead to
reduced yields and incidence of diseases.
5 Always treat the seeds with approved Do not use seeds without seed treatment with
chemicals/bio products for the control of seed biocides/chemicals.
borne diseases/pests.
6. Sow in rows at optimum depths under proper Do not sow seeds beyond 5-7 cm depth.
moisture conditions for better establishment.
7. Apply only CIBRC recommended pesticides Non-recommended pesticides should not be
against a particular pest at the applied in the Orchard field.
recommended dose, at the right time, with
right methods with standard equipments
e.g. Flat-fan or flood- jet nozzles for
herbicides.

8. Maintain optimum and healthy plant stand. Orchard plants should not be exposed to moisture
deficit stress at their critical stages.

9 Use NPK fertilizers as per the soil test Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.
recommendation.
10 Use micronutrient mixture after sowing based Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
test recommendations. sowing without test recommendations.
11 Conduct AESA weekly in the morning Do not take any management decision
preferably before 9 a.m. Take decision on without considering AESA and P: D ratio
management practice based on AESA and P:
D ratio only.
12 Install pheromone traps at appropriate period. Do not store the pheromone lures at normal
room temperature (keep them in refrigerator).

50
13 Release parasitoids only after noticing adult Do not apply chemical pesticides within
moth catches in the pheromone trap or as per seven days of release of parasitoids.
field observation
14 In case of pests which are active during night Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
spray recommended biopesticides/ chemicals most of the insects are not active during this
at the time of their appearance during period.
evening time.
15 Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
undersurface of the leaves, particularly for surface of leaves.
mites.
16 Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
pesticide residue in the soil and produce. days before harvest.
17 Follow the recommended procedure of trap Do not apply long persistent on trap crop,
crop technology. otherwise it may not attract the pests and
natural enemies.

XV. REFERENCES

 http://zorach.wordpress.com/2010/06/15/black-raspberries-and-japanese-wineberries/
 http://ppqs.gov.in/ipmpakpra.htm
 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=zBA2zCQiceAC&pg=PA410&lpg=PA410&dq=Hadda++beetle+natural+enemies&sour
ce=bl&ots=loWRMJ35Qo&sig=v9eIZl56M4y4bozrrw3q2a3jUDE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oMRpU6fqF8SXuATov4G4Cw&ved=0C
C8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hadda%20%20beetle%20natural%20enemies&f=false
 http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/opp9186
 http://fruit.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Raspberry-Pest-Management-for-Home-Gardeners.pdf
 http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/rasppest/rasppest.htm
 http://urbanext.illinois.edu/raspberries/insects.cfm
 http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard-garden/fruit/integrated-pest-management-for-home-raspberry-growers/
 http://www.berriesnw.com/BerryDisordersDetail.asp?id=54
 http://eol.org/data_objects/13157307
 http://www.almanac.com/plant/raspberries
 http://www.asparagusgardener.com/aspraspberryplants.html
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry
 http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ext/ho-44.pdf
 www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/primefacts
 http://agrihortico.com/tutorialsview.php?id=136
 http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/WEEDS/IMAGES/sowthistles.jpg

51