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ชั้นมัธยมศึกษาปีที่ 5

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ชั้นมัธยมศึกษาปีที่ 5
เรื่อง Weather Forecast
 http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/secondary/students/forecasting/Weather_Forecasting.gif

weather noun
[singular, uncountable] the temperature and other conditions such as sun, rain, and wind
climate noun
[uncountable and countable] the typical weather conditions in a particular area:
forecast verb past tense and past participle forecast or forecasted [transitive]
[transitive] to make a statement saying what is likely to happen in the future, based on the
information that you have now [= predict]:

What is the difference between weather and climate?

WEATHER describes conditions in the atmosphere at any time or short period of time. Weather
conditions can change suddenly. Today may be warm and sunny, tomorrow may be cool and
cloudy. Weather conditions include rain, snow, sleet, hail, fog, mist, sunshine, wind, temperature
and thunderstorms.
CLIMATE describes surface and atmospheric conditions over a longer time period or over a
large geographical area. The climate of an area is concerned with the AVERAGE weather
conditions which are taken over a year or more. Climate changes slowly, usually over
decades, centuries and thousands of years. The Earth has many climate regions; Britain is in the
Temperate Climate Belt, with winters that are not too cold and summers that are not too hot.

The effect of weather on our lives.

The weather affects us in many different ways. For example, it affects our moods, what we
wear, our leisure activities and our mode of travel. To highlight the importance of the effect that
weather has on our lives, simple observation and recording work can be done. Weather conditions
can be recorded over a period of time and at the same time the effects the weather has on factors
such as our mood can also be noted.

Weather forecasting.
http://search.live.com
 http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/secondary/students/forecasting/Weather_Forecasting.gif

Before a forecast can be made of what the weather is likely to be in the future, a knowledge
of the present situation is essential. Therefore, regular, reliable and accurate measurements are
required. These have to be rapidly sent around the world using a telecommunications system
dedicated to weather information.

The observations are fed into the computer and used to analyse the weather patterns at a
particular time. Once the analysis has been carried out, the computer produces a forecast of the
weather for specified times in the future. The forecaster uses the output from the computer to
produce weather forecasts that are tailored to a wide range of customers.
Fig 1a: Analysis of mean sea-level pressure (isobars) and weather fronts for 0000 GMT

on 3 February 2006

Fig 1b: 48-hour forecast of isobars and rain

(round symbols indicate continuous rain and the triangular symbols indicate showers)
from the computer model for 0000 GMT on 5 February 2006

Fig 1c: 48-hour forecast of isobars and weather fronts prepared by a forecaster
(based on the output from the computer model)
for 0000 GMT on 5 February 2006.
 Observations

The many data sources used include ships, aircraft, oil rigs, buoys and balloons, as well as
manned land stations around the world. Automation often assists or replaces the human observer
and can provide information from inhospitable and remote areas. Information from remote-
sensing equipment, both on the ground and in space, increasingly supplements and complements
the conventional systems.

Fig 2: Sources of observational data

 Surface observations

Traditionally, meteorologists have relied upon observations taken near the Earth's surface
using instruments (e.g. barometers, thermometers, anemometers and rain gauges) and visual
observations (e.g. cloud and weather type). These surface observations are made at approved sites
on land, and from ships at sea.

Standard types of instruments are used, with observations usually made at least every three
hours, and in many cases hourly. Over land in the UK there are 33 key observing stations which
are needed to define the broad-scale weather patterns. They are manned by professional
meteorologists, with 12 making observations every hour, both day and night. The other 21 are
manned during the daytime, thereafter switching to an automatic system. An additional 29 sites
are manned by auxiliary observers such as coastguards, and there are more than 100 fully
automated sites.

Fig 3: A typical automatic observing site © Crown

 Fig 4: Ocean Weather Ship Starella Fig 5: Met Office Buoy
© Crown
© Crown

For weather observations at sea, the Met Office is indebted to the crews of 400 vessels of the
UK Voluntary Observing Fleet and to observers on about 30 offshore drilling platforms. This is
part of a much larger scheme officially involving around 6,500 ships from 53 nations, although
the real number is closer to 3,500 ships. To fill in some of the gaps, there is a network of ocean
buoys, most drifting, but some moored.

Upper-air observations

Important sources of upper-air information

are the balloon-borne instruments (known as
radiosondes) which provide information about the
pressure, temperature and humidity through the
atmosphere. Also, from the track of the
radiosonde, the wind can be deduced. The Fig 6: A radiosonde launch © Crown
radiosondes can reach a height of over 20 km
(66,000 feet); they are released twice a day at the same time (midday and midnight UTC) all over
the world.

Within the global network, the Met Office maintains six sites in the UK. Two of these are
fully manned while the remaining four sites are equipped with autosondes, which are released
remotely. There are also Met Office radiosonde sites in Gibraltar, St Helena and the Falkland
Islands. Near the UK, there is one fully manned site in the Irish Republic and a variety of
different sites in continental Europe. At sea, there are automatic systems that release radiosondes
from the decks of merchant ships.

Aircraft reports (known as AMDARs) of wind and temperature along their flight routes,
including take-off and landing, help boost the upper-air information.

A type of radar known as a Doppler radar is used to measure the winds vertically through the
atmosphere. When displayed over a period of type, these Windprofiler data show the vertical
profile of wind above the site and how it changes with time. At the time of writing, there are
Windprofiler observations made at six sites in the UK, two in the Irish Republic and one on the
Isle of Man, as well as in continental Europe.

A system for measuring the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is being developed,
which is known as the Ground-based GPS Network. This uses information from Global
Positioning Satellites (GPS) and about 150 stations are envisaged. The data have been shown to
be of value in numerical models.
 Radar

As well as the Windprofiler radars, there is a network of weather radars that provides a
picture of the distribution of rainfall. From the radar it is possible to work out where it is raining
and how heavy the rain is. The network includes sites provided by the Republic of Ireland and the
States of Jersey and covers the whole of the British Isles. Extensive radar information from the
continent is also available.

Fig 7: Chenies rainfall Fig 8: An example radar image

radar © Crown © Crown

Radar pictures are often shown on television forecasts, and are used by the Environment Agency
for river management and flood warnings.
 Satellites

Since the first meteorological satellite was placed in orbit in 1960, satellites have become
essential tools for weather forecasters. The satellites used by meteorologists fall into two
categories.

Polar-orbiting satellites pass around the earth from pole to pole at a height of about 870 km.
It takes approximately 1 hour 42 minutes for the satellite to complete its orbit, by which time the
earth has rotated by about 25 degrees. Consequently, each pass provides information about a
different strip of the atmosphere.

Fig 9: Artist's impression of a Fig 10: A typical visible satellite image ©

satellite EUMETSAT/Met Office

The polar-orbiting satellites provide pictures of clouds, and information about the
temperature through the atmosphere.

Geostationary satellites remain over the equator, stationary with respect to the earth. This is
achieved by having the satellite in orbit at a height of about 36,000 km. At this height it takes
exactly 24 hours to complete one orbit, so it always views the same part of the globe.
 Meteosat, the name given to the European geostationary satellites, like their US, Japanese
and Indian counterparts, give sequences of cloud images. From these, the development and
movement of weather systems can be followed and, of particular importance, tropical storms can
be tracked. The motion of specified areas of cloud can also be followed to calculate the wind at
various levels in the atmosphere.
 Analysis

The Global Telecommunication System (GTS) has been set up to transfer weather
observations (and forecasts) around the world. The international circuit comprises a sequence of
high-speed computer-to-computer links, using communication satellites as well as land lines. The
Telecommunications Centre at Met Office Headquarters in Exeter has the role of passing data
between Washington and continental Europe via Paris and Offenbach. It also collects
observations from the UK and transmits them around the world via the GTS. A complete set of
observations from the UK is available about ten minutes past the hour of observation.

Fig 11: A typical analysis chart © Crown

The observations taken from the GTS are stored on computer and are analysed in two
different ways.

• The observations at a specific time are plotted on a chart and an analysis is produced by
the computer. This involves isobars (lines of constant pressure) being drawn, which
allows depressions and anticyclones to be identified. The analysis may be modified by
the forecasters and fronts are added (with the aid of satellite and radar information) in
order to understand what is going on in the atmosphere.
 • The observations are used to define the starting conditions of the atmosphere for a
computer forecast which can go as far as six days ahead.

Forecast

The use of computers has played a key role in improving the accuracy and detail of weather
forecasts, and in lengthening the period for which useful guidance can be given. The calculations
involved are both numerous and complex and must
be performed quickly so that forecasts are
available in good time. Consequently, some of the
most powerful computers in the world are needed.

The computer model

Weather forecasts are based on the solution of

a set of mathematical equations describing certain Fig 12: NEC SX-8 supercomputer © Crown
physical processes in the atmosphere. To solve these complex equations it is first necessary to
divide the atmosphere up into boxes, with a grid point in the centre of each box. The properties of
the atmosphere are then represented by what is happening at each of the grid points.

The array of grid points, the system of equations and the method of solving the equations is
referred to as the model. In the present global model used by the Met Office, there is a spacing of
roughly 40 km between each grid point in the horizontal. The grid points are also arranged in 50
vertical levels through the atmosphere.
 Fig 13: Some of the physical processes represented in computer models used to
forecast the weather.

The observations taken at a particular time can be used to compute values for each grid point
of pressure, temperature, humidity and wind. This set of values (the computer analysis) then
represents the atmosphere at the start of the forecast. Using the mathematical equations, a 15-
minute forecast can be made of how these basic elements change. Once all the new values have
been calculated, the process starts again with another 15-minute forecast being made. By
repeating this procedure many times over, a forecast out to six days can be built up. The
supercomputer at the Met Office only takes about an hour to produce a six-day global forecast.

The computer model produces a global forecast twice a day using the midnight and midday
observations as starting conditions. In order to provide more-detailed forecast charts out to 48
hours for the UK and parts of the Atlantic and Europe, the model is run again at 0600 and 1800
daily.

For local forecasts, the Met Office has developed a model which has an 11 km horizontal
grid and covers the British Isles and the near continent. This 'mesoscale model' is especially good
at taking into account the local effect of ranges of hills and the contrast between land and sea in
its forecasts.
Role of the forecaster

Despite greater computer power, improvements

to the computer models, and other technological
advances, there is still an important role for the
forecaster. For the general development of weather
systems, the model provides insight into how the
atmosphere is behaving and developing, but it is
only a guide. Good as it is, forecasters have to make
Fig 14: Forecaster at work © Crown
allowances for the model's known problem areas -
the handling of small-scale features, for example. The chief forecaster on duty modifies the
computer output to correct for likely errors in the model output, such as removing spurious areas
of rainfall. Forecasters also have to take into account any late observations and consult the latest
satellite and radar pictures.

In providing specific services to individual customers, the local forecaster based at an

airfield or regional office will take the process even further. Experience and local knowledge add
the fine detail to the computer forecast, so that the best advice for a specific location (e.g. an oil
rig) can be given. There is no doubt that the combination of man and computer together produces
the best forecasting results.
 http://www.adaycare.com/weatherchart.jpg

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 :http://pixy.cn/soft/weather.jpg

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:http://www.miele-family.com/weather/symbols_mml.jpg
New Words
 Headword Part of Speech Definition
weather noun [singular, uncountable]the temperature and other conditions such
as sun, rain, and wind
forecast verb to make a statement saying what is likely to happen in the future,
based on the information that you have now [= predict]
knowledge noun the information, skills, and understanding that you have gained
through learning or experience
accurate adjective correct and true in every detail [≠ inaccurate]
measurement noun the length, height etc of something
telecommunication noun the sending and receiving of messages by telephone, radio,
television etc:
dedicate verb to give all your attention and effort to one particular thing
information noun facts or details that tell you something about a situation, person,
event etc:
observation noun the process of watching something or someone carefully for a
period of time
analyse verb to examine or think about something carefully, in order to
understand it:
computer noun an electronic machine that stores information and uses programs
to help you find, organize, or change the information:
produce verb to cause a particular result or effect
pressure noun an attempt to persuade someone by using influence, arguments,
or threats:
isobar noun a line on a weather map joining places where the air pressure is
the same
Headword Part of Speech Definition
buoy noun an object that floats on the sea, a lake etc to mark a safe or
dangerous area
assist verb to help someone to do something
data noun information or facts:
system noun a group of related parts that work together as a whole for a
particular purpose:
conventional adjective a conventional method, product, practice etc has been used for a
long time and is considered the usual type:
supplements noun something that you add to something else to improve it or make
it complete:
 EXERCISES
Access to the Internet (world wide web), try doing a search to find other definitions of Weather
and Climate. You could try using key search words such as weather, climate, definition. If you do
not have access to the Internet, look up weather and climate in a dictionary.

Internet Address: http://www

Weather...............................................................................................................................................
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..........................................................................................................................................................
Climate................................................................................................................................................
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Longman Dictionary
Weather...............................................................................................................................................
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Climate................................................................................................................................................
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Cambridge Dictionary
Weather...............................................................................................................................................
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Climate................................................................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................................................................
Match the word in column A with the correct meaning in column B .

No. A B
1. network a a ship or large boat
2. automatic b a piece of equipment that measures the
temperature of the air, of your body etc:
3. meteorologists c are designed to operate by themselves,
without much human control or attention
4. vessels d the sending and receiving of messages
by telephone, radio, television etc:
5. telecommunication e a system of lines, tubes, wires, roads etc
that cross each other and are connected
to each other:
6. thermometers f the scientific study of weather conditions
7. indebted g an official plan that is intended to help
people in some way, for example by
providing education or training
8. scheme h to be very grateful to someone for the
help they have given you:
9. coastguards i to describe something correctly and
thoroughly, and to say what standards,
limits, qualities etc it has that make it
different from other things:
10. define j the organization that helps swimmers
and ships that are in danger and helps to
prevent illegal activities around the coast
 Your answers here
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

Write down the correct definitions in lines given.

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ชั้นมัธยมศึกษาปีที่ 5
เรื่อง Seasons
 1
Seasons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season

What Is Season ?

A season is one of the major divisions of the year, generally based on yearly periodic
changes in weather.

Seasons happen due to the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the
Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution. In Temperate and Polar regions, the seasons are
marked by changes in the amount of sunlight which may cause animals to go into hibernation or
to migrate, and plants to be dormant.

The Northern hemisphere is closer to the sun at times of the year than the southern, it is
exposed to more light causing summer to come into action at different times as the earth revolves.

In temperate and polar regions generally four seasons are recognized: spring, summer, autumn,
winter.

In some tropical and subtropical regions it is more common to speak of the rainy (or wet, or
monsoon) season versus the dry season, because the amount of precipitation may vary more
dramatically than the average temperature. In other tropical areas a three-way division into hot,
rainy and cool season is used. In some parts of the world, special "seasons" are loosely defined
based upon important events such as a hurricane season, tornado season or a wildfire season.

Causes and effects

Illumination of the earth during various seasons

Fig. 1

This is a diagram of the seasons, regardless of the time of day (i.e. the Earth's rotation on its
axis), the North Pole will be dark, and the South Pole will be illuminated; see also arctic winter.
In addition to the density of incident light, the dissipation of light in the atmosphere is greater
when it falls at a shallow angle.

The seasons result from the Earth's axis being tilted to its orbital plane; it deviates by an
angle of approximately 23.5 degrees. Thus, at any given time during summer or winter, one part
of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun (see Fig. 1). This exposure alternates
as the Earth revolves in its orbit. At any given time, regardless of season, the northern and
southern hemispheres experience opposite seasons.

It is easy to observe the effect of the axis tilt from the change in day length, and altitude of
the Sun at noon (the culmination of the Sun), during a year.

Seasonal weather differences between hemispheres are further caused by the elliptical orbit of
Earth. Earth reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the Sun) in January, and it reaches
aphelion (farthest point from the Sun) in July. Even though the effect this has on Earth's seasons
is minor, it does noticeably soften the northern hemisphere's winters and summers. In the
southern hemisphere, the opposite effect is observed.

Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on factors such as proximity to oceans
or other large bodies of water, currents in those oceans, El Niño and other oceanic cycles, and
prevailing winds.

In the temperate and polar regions, seasons are marked by changes in the amount of sunlight,
which in turn often causes cycles of dormancy in plants and hibernation in animals. These effects
vary with latitude and with proximity to bodies of water. For example, the South Pole is in the
middle of the continent of Antarctica and therefore a considerable distance from the moderating
influence of the southern oceans. The North Pole is in the Arctic Ocean, and thus its temperature
extremes are buffered by the water. The result is that the South Pole is consistently colder during
the southern winter than the North Pole during the northern winter.
 The cycle of seasons in the polar and temperate zones of one hemisphere is opposite to that
in the other. When it is summer in the Northern hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern
hemisphere, and vice versa.

In the tropics, there is no noticeable change in the amount of sunlight. However, many
regions (such as the northern Indian ocean) are subject to monsoon rain and wind cycles. A study
of temperature records over the past 300 years shows that the climatic seasons, and thus the
seasonal year, are governed by the anomalistic year rather than the tropical year.

In meteorological terms, the summer solstice and winter solstice (or the maximum and
minimum insolation respectively) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of
these seasons occur up to a month later because of seasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always
defined in meteorological terms.

Compared to axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes. The
seasons are not the result of the variation in Earth’s distance to the sun because of its elliptical
orbit. Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is
more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually
slightly warmer when farther from the sun. Mars however experiences wide temperature
variations and violent dust storms every year at perihelion.

Polar day and night

Any point north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle will have one period in
the summer when the sun does not set, and one period in the winter when the sun does not rise. At
progressively higher latitudes, the periods of "midnight sun" (or "midday dark" for the other side
of the globe) are progressively longer. For example, at the military and weather station Alert on
the northern tip of Ellesmere Island, Canada (about 450 nautical miles or 830 km from the North
Pole), the sun begins to peek above the horizon in mid-February and each day it climbs higher
and stays up longer; by 21 March, the sun is up for 12 hours. However, mid-February is not first
light. The sky (as seen from Alert) has twilight, or at least a pre-dawn glow on the horizon, for
increasing hours each day, for more than a month before the sun first appears.
 In the weeks surrounding 21 June, the sun is at its highest, and it appears to circle the sky
without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively
longer periods each day until, around the middle of October, it disappears for the last time. For a
few more weeks, "day" is marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, for the weeks
surrounding 21 December, it is continuously dark. In later winter, the first faint wash of light
briefly touches the horizon (for just minutes per day), and then increases in duration and pre-
dawn brightness each day until sunrise in February.

Reckoning Meteorological

Meteorological seasons are reckoned by temperature, with summer being the hottest quarter
of the year and winter the coldest quarter of the year.

Using this reckoning, the Roman calendar began the year and the spring season on the first
of March, with each season occupying three months. This reckoning is also used in Denmark, the
former USSR, and Australia. In the modern United Kingdom there are no hard and fast rules
about seasons, and informally many people use this reckoning.

So, in meteorology for the Northern hemisphere: spring begins on March 1, summer on June
1, autumn on September 1, and winter on December 1. Conversely, for the Southern hemisphere:
summer begins on December1, autumn on March 1, winter on June 1, and spring on September 1.

Astronomical
 In astronomical reckoning, the seasons begin at the solstices and equinoxes. The cross-
quarter days are considered seasonal midpoints. The length of these seasons is not uniform
because of the elliptical orbit of the earth and its different speeds along that orbit.

In the conventional United States calendar: Winter (89 days) begins on 21 December, the
winter solstice; spring (92 days) on 20 March, the vernal equinox; summer (93 days) on 20 June,
the summer solstice; and autumn (90 days) on 22 September, the autumnal equinox.

Because of the differences in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, it is no longer

considered appropriate to use the northern-seasonal designations for the astronomical quarter
days. The modern convention for them is: March Equinox; June Solstice; September Equinox;
and December Solstice

Traditional

Traditional seasons are reckoned by insolation, with summer being the quarter of the year
with the greatest insolation and winter the quarter with the least. These seasons begin about 4
weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 7 weeks earlier than the astronomical seasons.
 In traditional reckoning, the seasons begin at the cross-quarter days. The solstices and
equinoxes are the midpoints of these seasons. For example, the days of greatest and least
insolation are considered the "midsummer" and "midwinter" respectively.

This reckoning is used by various traditional cultures in the Northern Hemisphere, including
East Asian and Irish cultures. In Iran, Afghanistan and some other parts of middle east the
beginning of the astronomical spring is the beginning of the new year which is called Nowruz.

So, according to traditional reckoning, winter begins between 5 November and 10 November;
spring between 2 February and 7 February, ; summer between 4 May and 10 May ; and autumn
between 3 August and 10 August, The middle of each season is considered Mid-winter, between
20 December and 23 December,; Mid-spring, between 19 March and 22 March,); Mid-summer,
between 19 June and 23 June,; and Mid-autumn, between 21 September and 24 September, .

Why the Earth has Seasons.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A526673

As time goes by, spring turns to summer, summer turns to autumn, autumn turns to winter
and eventually winter becomes spring again. The years roll by and the Earth keeps spinning
around the Sun.
 Why, though, do these different seasons of the year occur? The simple answer is that it's due
to the Earth being tilted at an angle of about 23.5° and to its rotation around the Sun.

Proving this at Home

The following experiments should give you a better understanding. You will need:

• A spherical piece of fruit. An apple with the stalk still on is particularly good, although
an orange or lemon will also do the job1.
• A large spacious darkened room.
• A lamp or torch in the middle of it.

Imagine your piece of fruit to be the Earth, while the light is your Sun. The stem or core of the
fruit represents the Earth's core and the North and South Poles.

Experiment One: Understanding Night and Day

Holding your fruit level with the lamp, notice how the side nearest the lamp is illuminated,
while the side further away is in darkness. Try spinning the 'Earth' around its core. Picking a
particular point on the surface will allow you to track a town through night and day.

Experiment Two: Earth with No Tilt

Holding the 'Earth' upright with the stem on the top, spin the 'Earth' again. Notice that the
whole side of the 'Earth' facing the 'Sun' has sunlight from the 'North Pole' to the 'South Pole'.
Again, if you pick a point anywhere on the surface, you will notice that it always receives light at
some time during the rotation.

Experiment Three: Tilted Earth

 Repeat the experiment as before, but this time tilt the pole of your sphere by about 45° away
from or towards the light source. Notice now how despite spinning, the area around one of the
poles has sunlight all the time, while the other stays in darkness.

Experiment Four: Creating the Seasons

Now, keeping the 'Earth' tilted at the same angle and in the same direction move to the
opposite side of your 'Sun'. Spinning it again you will find that the pole that was previously in
darkness now has sunlight all the time. Walking around the 'Sun' you will find how this process of
change has occurred and if you can imagine yourself as being in a 'town', you will find that the
Sun moves higher or lower in the sky.

Geography of the Earth

There are a number of imaginary lines that circle the Earth perpendicular to its axis.
 http://visual.merriam-webster.com/images/earth/geography/cartography/earth-coordinate-system.jpg

• The Equator runs around the centre of the Earth splitting it equally north and south.
• The Tropic of Cancer encircles the Earth 23.5° north of the Equator. During the
seasons, this is the furthest point north that the sun can appear to travel.
• The Tropic of Capricorn encircles the Earth 23.5° south of the Equator. It is the furthest
point that the sun appears to travel south.
• The Arctic Circle is 23.5° from the North Pole. When the North Pole is pointing away
from the sun, all areas inside this circle stay in perpetual darkness.
• The Antarctic circle is 23.5° from the South Pole. Again it represents an area that the
sun never reaches during certain times of the year.

The Seasons

There are four key dates in the year. These occur on 21 March, June, September and December.
 • 21 March is the Vernal Equinox and represents the beginning of spring in the northern
hemisphere. It is the point at which the Sun crosses the Equator as it travels northwards.
At this time day and night are of equal length, hence equinox - 'equal night'.
• 21 June is the Summer Solstice or Midsummer's Day in the northern hemisphere, when
the Sun has reached its further point north of the Equator (Tropic of Cancer). As more
sunlight reaches the northern hemisphere the days last longer than the nights. The day
after, the sun begins to travel south and the days start to shorten.
• 21 September is the Autumnal Equinox when the sun crosses the Equator going south.
• 21 December is the Winter Solstice and is shortest day in the northern hemisphere; it is
the middle of summer in the southern hemisphere. The Sun has reached its furthest point
of travel south - the Tropic of Capricorn.

The seasons are, of course, reversed in the southern hemisphere - autumn in March, winter in
June, spring in September and summer in December.

Precession of the Equinox

In the experiment, you kept the Earth's pole pointing in the same direction. To all intents and
purposes this is correct. However, it does wobble ever so slightly. This wobble takes 25,765 years
for the Earth's pole to trace a full circle. This phenomenon is known as the Precession of the
Equinox.

In terms of the seasons it has no real effect. In fact, about the only effect is that Christmas
Day (25 December) no longer falls on the Winter Solstice as it used to when it was first initiated.

Secondly, it serves as a good argument against astrology, as the sign of Aries which begins
on around 24 March is supposed to be as the Sun enters the constellation of Aries. However
precession has led to 24 March now being the date when the Sun enters the constellation of
Pisces.
 THE EARTH
The Seasons and Axis Tilt
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Seasons.shtml
 The Earth's seasons are not caused by the differences in the distance from the Sun
throughout the year (these differences are extremely small). The seasons are the result of the tilt
of the Earth's axis.

The Earth's axis is tilted from perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic by 23.45°. This tilting
is what gives us the four seasons of the year - spring, summer, autumn (fall) and winter. Since the
axis is tilted, different parts of the globe are oriented towards the Sun at different times of the
year.

Summer is warmer than winter (in each hemisphere) because the Sun's rays hit the Earth at a
more direct angle during summer than during winter and also because the days are much longer
than the nights during the summer. During the winter, the Sun's rays hit the Earth at an extreme
angle, and the days are very short. These effects are due to the tilt of the Earth's axis.

Solstices
The solstices are days when the Sun reaches its farthest northern and southern declinations.
The winter solstice occurs on December 21 or 22 and marks the beginning of winter (this is the
shortest day of the year). The summer solstice occurs on June 21 and marks the beginning of
summer (this is the longest day of the year).

Equinoxes
Equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration. The two yearly equinoxes
occur when the Sun crosses the celestial equator.

The vernal equinox occurs in late March (this is the beginning of spring in the Northern
Hemisphere and the beginning of fall in the Southern Hemisphere); the autumnal equinox occurs
in late September (this is the beginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of
spring in the Southern Hemisphere).

Earth's Seasons Quiz

Read the text about Earth’s seasons, then answer the following questions.
1. Name the four seasons.
_________________________________________________________________

2. Are the Earth's seasons caused by the differences in the distance from the Sun throughout the
year or the tilt of the Earth's axis?
_________________________________________________________________

3. What is the tilt of the Earth's axis (in degrees)?

__________________________________________________________________

4. During which season do the Sun's rays hit the Earth at the most direct angle?
__________________________________________________________________

5. During which season are the days the shortest?

________________________________________________________________

6. What is the name of the shortest day of the year (and the beginning of winter)?
_________________________________________________________________

7. What is the name of the longest day of the year (and the beginning of summer)?
__________________________________________________________________

8. What is the name of a day in which the day and night are of equal duration?
__________________________________________________________________

9. How many times each year do we have days in which the day and night are of equal duration?
___________________________________________________________________

10. What are the names of each of these days?

___________________________________________________________________
Leap Year

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Seasons.shtml
The Earth orbits the sun every 365.2422 days (0.2422 days is equal to 5 hours,
48 minutes and 46 seconds, roughly 1/4 of a day). Every 365 1/4 days
(not exactly 365 days), the Earth returns to the same exact spot in its orbit.
That is why we have a leap year roughly every 4 years, to synchronize the
seasons with our calendar; if we had a 365-day calendar every year, the
seasons would drift around the calendar.
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/time/leapyear/
Learn what a leap year is, why we have leap years, and how often we have a leap year.
What is a Leap Year?
A leap year is a year that has one extra day in it. A leap year occurs roughly every four years.
Most years have 365 days, but a leap year has 366 days. The extra day is added onto the end of
the shortest month, February; in a leap year, February has 29 days (instead of its usual 28 days).
February 29 is called leap day.

Why Do We Have Leap Years?

A year is defined as the time it takes for the Earth to orbit around the sun once. It takes the Earth
about 365 1/4 days to make one entire orbit around the sun (a day is one rotation around the
Earth's axis). By adding one extra day about every four years, the Earth is in the same point of its
orbit at the same time of the calendar year each year.

Before a leap-year calendar was used, the seasons drifted around the calendar (the drift is about
1/4 day or 6 hours each year). For example, over three hundred years, July would go from
summer to spring. Our current calendar is called the Gregorian calendar; this calendar was
devised by Aloysius Lilius (an Italian physician) and named for Pope Gregory who decreed in
1582 that it be used in Catholic areas. This calendar wasn't adopted in Britain and the American
Colonies until 1752.

What Years are Leap Years?

Usually, there is a leap year every four years -- but once in a long while, a leap year has to be
skipped (this is because the Earth's orbit is 365.242 days, a bit less than 365 1/4).
To determine if the year is a leap year:

• Non-century years (a century year is a year ending in 00) are leap years if they are
divisible by four. For example, 2004, 2008 and 2012 are leap years; 2009, 2010 and 2011
are not.
• Century years are leap years if they are divisible by 400. For example, 1600, 2000, and
2400 are leap years; 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are not.

A List of Some Leap Years

A list of some leap years: ...1984, 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, 2020, 2024,
2028, 2032, 2036, 2040, 2044, 2048, 2052, 2056, 2060, 2064, 2068, 2072, 2076, 2080, 2084,
2088, 2092, 2096, 2104, 2108, 2112, 2116, 2120, ...

Leap Day Birthdays

People born on leap day (February 29) can celebrate their birthday on March 1 (or February 28)
on non-leap years. A person born on a leap day is sometimes called a leapling.

What percentage of the population is born on leap day? Assuming an equal distribution of
birthdays throughout the year, the fraction of people born on leap day is the fraction of people
born on one day out of four years, or 1/[(365 x 4 ) + 1] = 1/1,461 = 0.068% (less than one-tenth of
a percent of the population).

Calendar Rhyme (Two versions)

 Thirty days hath September, Thirty days hath September,
April, June, and November, April, June, and November,
All the rest have thirty-one, All the rest have thirty-one,
Excepting February alone, Excepting February alone,
And it has twenty-eight days time, And that has twenty-eight days clear,
But in leap years, February has twenty-nine. And twenty-nine in each leap-year.

6
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เรื่อง Where will you be ?

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 http://img395.imageshack.us/img395/3751/guangzhoutwintowers0024pi.jpg

1
The simple future tense

Some uses of 'will' and 'shall'

1 Will and shall are 'modal verbs', so they are like can, must, etc.
2 We often use will and shall to make predictions (the simple future tense):
It will rain tomorrow. I don't know if I shall see you next week.
3 We use will and shall in many other ways, apart from predicting the future: e.g.
- intentions/promises I'll (= I will) buy you a bicycle for your birthday.
 - requests/invitations Will you hold the door open for me, please?
-offers Shall I get your coat for you?
- suggestions Shall we go for a swim tomorrow?
-threats Just wait! You'll regret this!
-decisions I’ll stop and ask the way

Write: Match the sentences on the left with the functions on the right.

A B
1 We'll have a thunderstorm tonight, I'm sure. d a) making a formal announcement
2 Will there be a general strike? ___ b) making a request
3 1'11 send you a card from Florida. ___ c) stating a planned arrangement
4 Will you write to me? ___ d) making a prediction
5 Shall I go to the post office for you? ___ e) making an invitation
6 Shall we take a drive into the country later? ___ f) asking for a prediction
7 1'11 report you to the police next time. ___ g) promising/stating intention
8 The wedding will take place next Friday. ___ h) expressing future hope
9 1 hope you'll come and see us again. ___ i) expressing future uncertainty
10 Tell them again. Perhaps they'll understand. ___ j) threatening
11 Will you have lunch with us on Sunday? ___ k) offering
12 1'11 be seeing John at the meeting tomorrow. ___ I) making a suggestion

'Will' and 'shall' to refer to the future

Forms of 'will' and 'shall'

1 When we are referring to the future, we use will with all persons (I, you, he, she, etc.), but in
British English, we often use shall with //we. (Not *he/she/it/you/they shall')
://We will (I'II/We'll) see you tomorrow. Or: I shall/We shall see you tomorrow.
2 In speech, we weaken shall to /Salt. We often use 'l1 in place of will in speech and
sometimes
in writing, especially after vowels: I'II/He'll see you tomorrow.
We also use after consonants: Tom 'll be here soon.
When'll I see you?
3 Negative short forms are: '11 not, won't (= will not) or shan't (= shall not):
I'11 not be there/I won't be there// I shan't be there tomorrow.
In American English shall and shan't with a future reference are rare.
Uses of the 'willl/shall' future
1 Prediction: We invite prediction or we say what we think will happen:
Who will win on Saturday? Liverpool will win on Saturday.
2 In formal style we say what will happen for events that have been arranged:
The wedding will take place at St Andrew's on June 27th.
3 We use shall and will to express hopes and expectations:
I hope she'll get the job she's applied for. She'll get a surprise. - I expect she will.

Write: Supply suitable forms of will and shall. Give alternatives where possible.
Situation: Jim is asking his friend Don for advice about a job interview.
JIM: What sorts of questions do you think they 1 ’ll /will..... ask?
DON: The same as they asked me. They 2.......................ask you why you want to work for
them.
JIM: That's easy. I want to earn more money.
DON: Yes, but you can't say that. You 3........................ have to think of some better reasons.
JIM: I can't think of any just now, but I expect I 4 ........................ think of something at the time.
I hope I 5 ........................ anyway!
DON: I'm sure you 6......................... What time is your interview?
JIM: It's at three in the afternoon.
DON: I know it 7........................ help very much, but I 8 ........................ be thinking of you.
Don't worry, everything 9....................... be OK!
JIM: When 10 ........................ I know if I've got the job?
DON: They l 1 ........................ let you know in a couple of days.
That's what happened in my case. You l2 ........................ get a letter which begins,
'We regret to inform you - !'

Context
 Write: Put in suitable forms of will and shall
RETIREMENT
I'm going to retire next week and I'm looking forward to it. For the first time in my life I 1 shall
be able to do all the things I've always wanted to do. I 2................... (not) have to travel to work
any more. I 3................... (not) have to earn a living. My firm 4. ................... pay my
pension into my bank account and I 5................... (not) have to worry about earning money ever
again. My wife and I 6 ...................be able to spend more time together. We 7................... take
care of the house together. We 8 ................... do the shopping together. I explained all
these plans to my wife. 'Of course,' she said. 'I'm looking forward to your
retirement, too, but you must remember that while you can retire, I can't.
I've written out some simple rules for us both which 9 ................... apply from the day
you retire. Here they are:'
from the day you retire. Here they are:'
RULES OF THE HOUSE
1 We 10 .................. take turns to do the cooking and the housework.
2 We l1 .................. (not) watch TV all day long.
3 We l2 .................. keep regular hours.
4 We l3 .................. find interesting hobbies to keep us occupied.
5 We l4 .................. spend time out of the house as well as in it.
6 We l5 ..................keep fit in mind and body.
'They look like sensible suggestions,' I said. 'They are,' my wife answered. 'If we follow these
rules I'm sure we will enjoy a long and happy life together.'
 FUTURE TENSE EXERCISES
A Answer the following four questions
1 My friends are not sure what they're going to do this weekend.
Maybe they _____ to the theatre.
a) are going b) will go c) go d) are going to go
2 John has decided to quit his job in Paris, he ________ in Aix en Provence.
a) will work b) is going to work c) is working d) works
3 Why have you taken off your suit? I _______ to work in the garden.
a) go b) am going c) will go d) is going
4 Let's meet for a football match tomorrow. I'm afraid I ______ a doctor's appointment.
a) am having b) has c) have d) will have

B Which answer is correct?

1 Did you ask Sam?
No, I forgot. I (will ask / am going to ask) her now.
2 I've left the light on.
I (will go / am going) and switch it off.
3 (I'm having / I'll have) some friends round on Saturday. Can you come?
4 I called Jackie last night.
We (are going to meet / are meeting / will meet) tonight for a drink.

C Choose the best tense.

1 When (does / will) school start?
2 The plane (arrives / will arrive) at 10 am.
3 I (write / will write) soon.
4 You (go / will go) next door for the tickets.
5 I (come / will come) round after 7pm.
6 What time (does/will) the concert end?
7 I (have / will have) a lecture tomorrow at 7am.
8 How (do / will I) switch this on?
 6
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เรื่อง The countryside

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 1
A Countryside for Health and Wellbeing:
The Physical and Mental Health Benefits of Green Exercise

www.countrysiderecreation.org.uk.
How does nature make us feel? Much, of course, depends on what else is important in our lives.
Is it a good or a bad day? Irrespective of where we come from, it seems that the presence of
living things makes us feel good. They help us when we feel stressed, and if there is green
vegetation, blue sky and water in the scene, then we like it even more. This idea that the quality
of nature affects our mental health is not a new one, but it has not greatly affected the planning of
our urban and rural environments, nor the setting of public health priorities.
In the UK, more than 80% of people live in urban areas (Defra, 2004), though the greater growth
is now in rural areas. Urban settings by definition have less nature than rural ones. And less
green nature means reduced mental well-being, or at least less opportunity to recover from mental
stress. As natural green environments have increasingly come under pressure from economic
development, so it seems our own wellbeing has suffered as a consequence. Today, stress and
mental ill-health are becoming more common, and the associated public health costs are growing.
The World Health Organisation estimates that depression and depression-related illness will
become the greatest source of ill-health by 2020. This is partly because some other behaviours,
such as smoking, over-eating and high alcohol consumption, are likely to be coping mechanisms
for mental ill-health and stress, and have their own serious consequences. In addition, many
urgent physical health challenges, including obesity and coronary heart disease, are also
connected to sedentary lifestyles. Yet it is known that physically active people have a lower risk
of dying from coronary heart disease, type II diabetes, hypertension and colon cancer. In the UK,
there is evidence for a dramatic fall in physical activity over the past 50 years.
Bill Bryson Interview
www.ukyp.org.uk/

Bill Bryson Fact-file

Where’s he from?
Bill Bryson was born in Iowa, USA, in 1951.
Why is he over here then?
A backpacking expedition in 1973 brought him to England where he met his wife and decided to
stay and be a journalist and writer. Having gone back to the United States in 1995 he returned to
live in Norfolk in 2003.
 So what’s he done?
He is arguably most famous for writing autobiographical travel books (Notes from a Small Island,
Notes from a Big Country) as well as books on language and science (The Mother Tongue, A
Short History of Nearly Everything) but has spent much of his life as a journalist for The Times
and The Independent.
I see. So is he any good?
In 2006 he was awarded an OBE for his contribution to literature adding to the numerous awards
he has had for his work. His writing is often funny and insightful as well as being quite
accessible.
Wow, that’s pretty good. So how come he likes litter then?
He doesn’t! Having always been fascinated by British heritage and the beauty of its countryside
he became President of the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) in May 2007,
establishing an antilittering campaign across the country. The campaign is going from strength to
strength and he knows young people play a huge role in reducing litter, so that’s why he
interviewed with UK Youth Parliament
Bill Bryson is a world famous author and President of the Campaign to Protect Rural
England. Albert Simango (Deputy MYP Kingston upon Thames) and Jack Mayorcas
(UKYP London PG Rep) met up with him to talk about his current anti-litter campaign ...

“Walking in the countryside is so beautiful,

why would you want to make it ugly?”

How did you come to be President of the I approached the Campaign to Protect Rural
Campaign to Protect Rural England and England and they invited me to be their
what made you want to get involved in President. I am quite actively involved
this campaign? with the organisation but being President is
I just got really annoyed about litter. a ceremonial role like being a symbol or a
Walking in the countryside is so beautiful, frontman.
why would you want to make it ugly? I There have been other antilitter
didn’t know how to run a campaign so campaigns before, what is different about
this one that you feel will be able to make drivers who drop litter out of their car
a clear difference? windows should get given 3 points on their
I think the moment is right for this sort of driver’s licence.
campaign. There are lots of people who feel If somebody drops litter what does it say
the same way about litter and want about them?
to do something about it. We are going to It says that they aren’t thinking. I can’t see
push hard and get people to join the crusade why you wouldn’t want to keep the
and I believe there is a real chance the countryside looking lovely. It doesn’t make
message will get through. We want a clean, sense. People appreciate a clean
tidy Britain. environment. You wouldn’t expect to check
Did you ever drop litter when you were into a hotel room and be faced with an
young? unmade bed!
I can honestly say I have never littered We as a nation are behind with schemes
through choice. There are times when we such as bottle returns and charging for
are in a position where we are forced to plastic bags, why do you think this is?
though - I recently got stopped at St Pancras I think British society can be conservative.
when I tried to take my coffee through Whilst that is often a great thing and means
security to get on the Eurostar. They made that historical buildings and traditions
me put my coffee cup on the floor! Where are really well preserved, it can sometimes
appropriate, authorities have more of a duty mean that as a nation things take time to
to provide waste bins. change. It is the duty of the younger
Research showed that one of the major generation to take it forward and make
reasons for young people dropping litter changes.
was laziness, how can we tackle such a What do you think is the main problem
problem? facing young people of our generation,
We need to explain through intelligent besides littering and flytipping?
advertising campaigns that there is a I think life used to be easier when I was
consequence to dropping litter. Just as if you your age. I think education is a really big
are caught speeding and you get points issue facing young people. You have to be a
lot more serious about it. It is also much
harder to be an immigrant these days. When
I first got here it was easy!

Know your Countryside

www.agriaware.ie.
Know your countryside
The Irish Countryside is a national treasure
that we, the Irish people, should be proud of.
It has a wealth of opportunities to offer. It is
also a place of work for 130,000 farmers.

Why live in the countryside?

• Clean, fresh air • The agriculture and food industry accounts
• More playing room for children for 9% of GDP and approximately 15% of
• Less traffic total employment.
• Outdoor activities on your doorstep • It guarantees the nation’s food supply.
• Housing and living costs may be reduced • It protects and cares for the natural
• Open spaces environment.
• Less noise • It is the rock on which the tourist industry
• More chances for family activities is based
• The chance of more interaction with - without agriculture, the countryside would
neighbours become wild and inaccessible.
Opinions of new rural dwellers • It provides hundreds of opportunities for
The following are some of the findings of leisure pursuits, sports and hobbies.
recent research by Agri Aware:
• 80% respondents considered their quality
of life in the countryside to be good, citing
peace and relaxation as the main advantages
to living there
• 91% stated that their area was welcoming
for new dwellers.
So, what do 130,000 Irish farmers do
• 69% described the community spirit in
everyday?
their area as being good
Farmers work all year around to provide
• 70% of non-farmers considered farming to
Irish consumers with food. Some of the
be important to the local economy.
work involved is detailed below:
Why is agriculture important?
• 6 million cattle must be calved, milked,
• The Irish food and drink industry is valued
fed, housed and cared for.
at over €16 billion of which more than €7
• 4 million sheep must be lambed, fed, shorn
billion is exported to175 countries
and cared for.
worldwide.
• 1.7 million pigs must be housed, fed and
cared for.
• 13 million poultry birds must be housed,
fed and cared for.
• 306,000 hectares of land must be
ploughed, sown and sprayed to grow cereals
(wheat, oats and barley) to be harvested
each year.
• 13,000 hectares of land must be ploughed,
sown and sprayed to grow potatoes to be
harvested each year.
• 69,000 hectares of land must be ploughed,
sown and sprayed for other crops, fruit and
horticulture each year. Farming and the environment
• 3.8 million hectares of land must Fact
maintained for growing grass. Grass is used • Over €2.5 billion has been spent by
for grazing animals, cutting silage and farmers over the past ten years to construct
making hay. better animal housing and manure storage
• Farmers are also investing in alternative facilities on Irish farms.
activities on their farms including: angling, • Farmers follow strict voluntary and
forestry, organic food production, deer mandatory codes of practice to ensure
production, B&B accommodation, pony proper use of nutrients on farms.
treking, tourist trails, open farms for • Agriculture recycles 100% of all animal
children and visitors, wind farms and much manures that it produces.
more. • Animal manure is not waste, it is an
important source of nutrients for crops.
• Approximately 50,000 farmers are
participating in the REPS (Rural
Environmental Protection Scheme)
voluntary scheme. Farmer’s involved
in REPS follow a comprehensive
environmental plan for their farms. REPS
has been a major success and contributes to
better water quality, an increase in wild
birds and other species, and generally a
more varied and natural landscape.

• Avoid all livestock because of the possible

danger to yourself and/or distress it can
cause to the animals.
• Drive carefully on narrow country roads,
always expect machinery around the corner.
• Make sure that your car does not block
points of access or exit and is parked safely.
• Leave all farm gates as you find them.
Be safe! - Considerations for countryside • If following a recognised walking route,
users keep to the trail.
• Seek permission from the landowner in
advance of visiting land.
• Obey all warning signs.
• Do not interfere with livestock, wildlife,
plants, crops or machinery.
• Keep children under close control and
supervision.
• Do not enter farmland if you have a dog
with you, even on a leash, unless with the
permission of the landowner.
• Don’t leave litter behind.
• Avoid any damage to hedges, fences or dry
stone walls.
• Guard against fire, especially near forests.