Chapter Two

Fundamental Parameters
of Antennas

By: Bekele Alemayehu

1
Lecture Outlines
Radiation Pattern
Radiation Power Density and Radiation Intensity
Beamwidth and Directivity
Gain and Radiation Efficiency
Input Impedance and Equivalent Areas
Antenna Measurements
Summary

2
Antenna Radiation Pattern
It is a mathematical function or a graphical representation of the
radiation properties of the antenna as a function of spec
coordinates . (See figure)
Mostly determine in the far field region and is represented as a
function of the directional coordinates.
Even if the radiation properties include:
✔ Power flux density
✔ Radiation intensity
✔ Field strength
✔ Directivity
✔ Phase or polarization.
3
The most important radiation property is two/ three dimensional
spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the
observer’s position along a path or surface of constant radius.
Amplitude Field Pattern: A graph of the received electric
(magnetic) field at a constant radius.

✔ The field pattern( in linear scale): represents a plot of the

magnitude of the electric(magnetic)field as a function of the
angular space.

4
Figure : Coordinate system for antenna analysis.
5
 Amplitude Power Pattern: A graph of the spatial variation of the
power density along a constant radius.

✔ The power pattern( in linear scale): represents a plot of the square of

the magnitude of the electric (magnetic field) as a function of the
angular space.

✔ The power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic (dB ) scale.

✔ The power pattern( in dB): represents the magnitude of the electric

or magnetic field in decibels as a function of the angular space.
✔ Mostly the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to
their maximum value to give normalized field and power patterns.
6
 Example: Figures in next slide show a two dimensional
normalized field pattern (plotted in linear scale), power pattern(
plotted in linear scale, and on a logarithmic (dB) scale ) of a 10
element linear antenna array of isotropic sources, with a spacing of
d = 0.25λ between the elements.
The pattern achieves its half-power (-3 dB points) relative to its
maximum value when :
✔ The field pattern is at 0.707 value of its maximum.

✔ The power pattern (in linear scale) is at 0.5 value of its

maximum
✔ The power pattern (in dB) is at −3 dB value of its maximum
7
8
All three patterns yield the same angular separation between the
two half-power points(38.64◦)on their respective patterns, this
angle is termed as HPBW.
The three-dimensional pattern is measured and recorded in a series
of two-dimensional patterns.

But for most practical applications, a few plots of the pattern as a

function of θ for some particular values of φ, plus a few plots as a
function of φ for some particular values of θ, give most of the
useful information.

9
Lobes of the Radiation Pattern
Radiation lobe: is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by
regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.

Figure below demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional polar

pattern with a number of radiation lobes.

10
The linear two dimensional (one plane of the above figure) part is
shown below where the same pattern characteristics are indicated.

11
 Major/Main Lobe: is the radiation lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation. In the above figure, the major lobe is pointing in
the θ = 0 direction.
Minor Lobe: is any lobe except a major lobe. In the above figure, all
the lobes except the major lob are classified as minor lobes.
Side Lobe: is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended
lobe. Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the
hemisphere in the direction of the main beam.
Back Lobe: is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of
approximately 180◦ with respect to the beam of an antenna. Usually it
refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction
opposite to that of the major lobe.
12
 Minor lobes: usually represent radiation in undesired directions,
and they should be minimized. Side lobes are normally the largest
of the minor lobes.

The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the

power density of the lobe in question to that of the major lobe.
This ratio is often termed as the side lobe ratio/ side lobe level.

• Side lobe levels of −20 dB or smaller are usually not desirable in

most applications.
• In most radar systems, low side lobe ratios are very important to
minimize false target indications through the side lobes.
13
 Types of Antenna Patterns
• Isotropic, Directional, and Omni directional Patterns
Isotropic Radiator: is a hypothetical lossless antenna having
equal radiation in all directions. It exists only in theory.
✔ It radiates equally in all directions, horizontally and vertically.

✔ It's radiation pattern would be a sphere surrounding the antenna.

✔ It has a gain of 1 dB (unity).

✔ Even if it is not physically realizable, it is used as a reference

for expressing the directive properties of real world antennas.

14
 Directional Antenna: is one having the property of radiating or
receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in specific
directions.
✔ This term is usually applied to an antenna whose maximum
directivity is significantly greater than that of a half-wave dipole.

✔ The most common types are the Yagi-Uda antenna, the

log-Periodic antenna, and the corner reflector antenna.

15
 Omnidirectional Antenna: is a real world antennas that radiate
equally well in all horizontal directions.
✔ This antenna is generally dipole antennas orientated vertically.
✔ These include actual dipole, ground plane and various end-fed half
waves antennas.

✔ Many gain measurements are made in reference to a dipole (dBd)

rather than to an isotropic, although some manufacturers reference
is isotropic(dBi) because of its better gain.

16
Field Regions of the Antenna
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three
regions:
✔ Reactive Near-field region
✔ Radiating Near-field (Fresnel) region

✔ Radiating Far-field (Fraunhofer) region

These regions are designated to identify the field structure in each

region.
Although no abrupt changes in the field configurations as the
boundaries are crossed, there are distinct differences among them.

17
 • Where λ is the
wavelength and D is the
largest dimension of the
antenna.

Figure: Field regions of an antenna.

18
Reactive near-field region: is the field region immediately
surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field predominates.
• The outer boundary of this region is at a distance from
the antenna surface.
• In this region, the relationship between the strengths of the E and
H fields is often too complex to predict.
• Either field components (E or H) may dominate at one point, and
the opposite relationship exist at a short distance away.
• This makes finding the true power density in this region very
difficult.

19
 Radiating near field (Fresnel) region: is the region between the
reactive near field and the far field region.
✔ Here radiated fields are predominate and the angular field
distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna.
The over all boundary of this region is

In this region, the field pattern is a function of the radial distance

and the radial field component may be appreciable.

20
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region: is the region where the angular
field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the
antenna.
The far-field region is commonly taken at distances greater than
2D2/λ from the antenna.

In this region, the field components are essentially transverse and

the angular distribution is independent of the radial distance where
the measurements are made.

21
• Note that
As the observation distance is varied from the reactive near field to the far field,
the amplitude pattern of an antenna changes in shape because of variations of the
fields both in magnitude and phase.
In the reactive near field region, the pattern is more spread out and nearly
uniform with slight variations.
As the observation is moved to the radiating near-field region, the pattern begins
to smooth and form lobes.
In the far-field region, the pattern is well formed usually consisting of few minor
lobes and one or more major lobes.
22
Radian and Steradian Measures
The measure of a plane angle is a radian.

One radian is the plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a
circle of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is r.

Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is C = 2πr, there are

2π rad (2πr/r) in a full circle.

23
The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.

One steradian is the solid angle with its vertex at the centre of a
sphere of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area
equal to that of a square with each side of length r.

Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4πr2, there are 4π sr

(4πr2/r2) in a closed sphere.

24
The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r is
given by

Therefore, the element of solid angle dΩ of a sphere can be written

as

Based on this, we can determine the beam solid angle.

• Example (See text )

25
 Radiation Power Density and Radiation Intensity
• Radiation Power Density (W)
EMWs are used to transport information from one point to
another through a wireless medium or a guiding structure.
• Hence power and energy are associated with EMWs.

The power associated with an electromagnetic wave is described

by the instantaneous Poynting vector ( Power density )

26
 Hence, the total power crossing a closed surface is given by

If the fields are time-harmonic as

• The power density is given by

• Thus the time average poynting vector (real power density) is

27
Question: If the real part of (E × H∗)/2 represents the average
(real) power density, what does the imaginary part of the same
quantity represent?
✔ The imaginary part represents the reactive (stored) power
density associated with the electromagnetic fields.

✔ More predominant in the reactive near field region

With this power density, the average(real) power radiated by the
antenna is

28
 For isotropic radiator, the Poynting vector isn’t a function of the
spherical coordinate angles θ and φ, and it will have only a radial
component.
• Hence, the total radiated power by isotropic radiator is

• Thus the power density by isotropic radiator is

• Which is uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere.

• Example (See text )

29
• Radiation Intensity (U)
It is the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle
(Power density in a particular solid angle).
It used to determine the rate of emitted energy from unit surface
area through unit solid angle.
It is a far-field parameter, and can be given by

With respect to the far field parameter of the antenna

30
Thus, the power pattern is also the measure of the radiation
intensity.
So, the total radiated power of an antenna is given by

For an isotropic radiator, U is independent of θ and φ, hence

• Example( See text )

31
 Beamwidth and Directivity
• Beamwidth (BW)
It is the angular separation between two identical points on
opposite side of the pattern maximum.
• Hence, it is generally associated with the pattern of an antenna .

We have two basic types of beamwidth:

✔ HPBW: the angle between the two directions in which the

radiation intensity is half of the beam at the peak.
✔ FNBW: is the angular separation between the first nulls of
the antenna radiation pattern.

32
 The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important figure of merit:

✔ It is used as a trade-off between it and the side lobe level.

• As the BW decreases, the side lobe increases and vice versa.

✔ It is also used to describe the resolution capabilities of the
antenna to distinguish between two adjacent radiating sources or
radar targets.
• The resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish between
two sources is equal to (FNBW)/2.
✔ Hence two sources separated by an angular distance

of an antennaFNBW/2 ≈ HPBW
with a uniform distribution can be resolved.
• Example(See text ) 33
• Directivity(D):
It is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from
the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
Where the average radiation intensity is

Hence , the directivity of a non isotropic source is equal to the

ratio of its radiation intensity in a given direction over that of an
isotropic source as (Unit less quantity)

34
 If the direction is not specified, it shows the direction of maximum
radiation intensity (directivity) as

For an isotropic source, U= Uo =Umax, hence D=1.

For antennas with orthogonal polarization components, the
partial directivity of an antenna is given by the part of the radiation
intensity corresponding to a given polarization divided by the total
radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
✔ Here the total directivity is the sum of the partial directivities
for any two orthogonal polarizations.

35
✔ Example : for a spherical coordinate system, the total maximum
directivity, D0 for the orthogonal θ and φ components of an
antenna is given by

• Example (See text )

36
 The directivity is a figure of merit describing how well the radiator
directs energy in a certain direction.
• It gives an indication of the directional properties of the antenna
with respect to an isotropic source.
• Generally the directivity is bounded by

• Example (See text )

37
General Expression of Directivity
Here, we include sources with radiation patterns that may be a
function of both spherical coordinate angles(θ and φ).

Let the radiation intensity of an antenna has the form

The maximum value of U is given by

And the total radiated power is thus

38
Now the general expression of the directivity and maximum
directivity is

(1)

39
The beam solid angle is the solid angle through which all the power
of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant and
equal to the maximum value of U for all angles within
But this equation is very difficult to evaluate for real time design
procedures.

Under this condition, we use the approximate analysis to evaluate

the radiation intensity of antennas.
e s
s lid
f ew
e xt
e n
Se
40
• Approximate Analysis of Directivity
• ( Kraus, Tai & Pereira Equations)
A. Kraus Approximation
For design purposes the previous formula is difficult to evaluate.

Hence, for antennas with one narrow major lob and very negligible
minor lobes, the beam solid angle is approximately equal to the
product of the HPBW in to the perpendicular planes.

Beam solid angles for non symmetrical and symmetrical radiation patterns. 41
 For a rotationally symmetric pattern, the HPBW in any two
perpendicular planes are the same.
Under this condition the beam solid angle is approximated

And then the directivity

Kraus Approximation

If the beamwidths are given in degrees

42
• Example( see your text)
Radiation intensity pattern of the form U = cos θ in the upper
hemisphere (for previous example)

43
B. Tai & Pereira’s Approximation
Here the maximum directivity is approximated by

and are the HPBW in radians of the E and H planes

respectively.
Rearranging the above equation , we get

Tai & Pereira

Approximation
44
Example : Comparative Analysis
Consider the radiation intensity equation

where n=1,10, 11.28, 15 & 20 are taken as shown in the table

below.

45
• Analysis :
From the table, it is evident that the error due to Tai & Pereira’s
formula is always negative.

Hence, it predicts lower values of maximum directivity than the

exact ones and monotonically decreases as n increases (the pattern
becomes more narrow).

However, the error due to Kraus’ formula is negative for small

values of n and positive for large values of n.

46
For small values of n, the error due to Kraus’ formula is negative
and positive for large values of n. The error is zero when n = 5.5
(HPBW of 56.35◦).
In addition , for symmetrically rotational patterns the absolute
error due to the two approximate formulas is identical when n =
11.28, which corresponds to a HPBW of 39.77◦.
From these observations, we conclude that Kraus’ formula is
more accurate for small values of n (broader patterns) while Tai &
Pereira’s is more accurate for large values of n (narrower
patterns).

47
Based on absolute error and symmetrically rotational patterns, Kraus’
formula leads to smaller error for n < 11.28 (HPBW greater than 39 .77◦)
while Tai & Pereira’s leads to smaller error for n > 11.28 ( HPBW
smaller than 39 .77◦).

Figure: Comparison of exact and approximate values of

directivity for directional power patterns. 48
• Directivity of Omnidirectional Patterns
Some antennas (such as dipoles, loops, broadside arrays) exhibit
omnidirectional patterns as shown below.

In this case, the Omnidirectional pattern is given by ( n here is

both positive and negative) the equation

Figure: Omnidirectional patterns with and without minor lobes.

49
 The directivity of antennas with patterns represented by previous
equation can be expressed by :
✔Using the exact analysis
✔Approximate analysis as
• McDonald approximation: based on the array factor of
broad side array( we will see in chapter 4)

• Pozar approximation: based on curve fitting

▪ More accurate for omnidirectional patterns with

very small( or no) minor lobes.
50
Figure: Comparison of exact and approximate values of
directivity for omnidirectional power patterns.
51
These curves can be used for design purposes as follows:

✔ Specify the desired directivity and determine the value of n and

half-power beamwidth of the omnidirectional antenna pattern or
✔ Specify the desired value of n or half-power beamwidth and
determine the directivity of the omnidirectional antenna pattern.

• Example(see text )

52
Gain and Antenna Efficiency
• Antenna Efficiency

An antenna has different types of efficiencies.

The total antenna efficiency is used to take into account losses at
the input terminals and within the structure of the antenna.

The losses in antenna may be due:

• Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission
line and the antenna
• I2R losses (conduction and dielectric)

53
Reference terminals and losses of an antenna

54
The overall efficiency of the antenna is given by

In general

• Where antenna radiation efficiency, which is used to

relate the gain and directivity.

55
• Antenna Gain
It is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the
radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power received by
the antenna were radiated isotropically.
It is a measure that takes into account the efficiency and
directional capabilities of the antenna.

• This gain does not include losses due to impedance mismatch

(reflection losses) and polarization mismatch (losses)

56
The relative gain with respect to a reference antenna ( dipole,
horn, or lossless isotropic) is given by the ratio of the power gain
in a given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its
referenced direction.
The power input must be the same for both antennas

The total radiated power (Prad) is related to the total input power
(Pin ) by

57
While does take into account the losses of the antenna
element itself, it does not take into account the losses when the
antenna element is connected to a transmission line
These connection losses are usually referred to as reflections
(mismatch) losses, and they are taken into account by introducing a
reflection(mismatch) efficiency which is related to the reflection
coefficient by:
Thus, we can introduce an absolute gain that takes into account the
reflection/mismatch losses as

58
The partial gain of an antenna for a given polarization in a given
direction is part of the radiation intensity corresponding to a given
polarization divided by the total radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically.
In this case, the total gain is the sum of the partial gains for any two
orthogonal polarizations.
For a spherical coordinate system, the total maximum gain G0 for the
orthogonal θ and φ components of an antenna can be

59
For many practical antennas an approximate formula for the gain
with approximate value of directivity ( Kraus Equation )

60
• Beam Efficiency
It is used to know the quality of transmitting and receiving antennas

• Where θ1 is the half-angle of the cone within which the percentage of the total
power is to be found.
If θ1 is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs, then the beam
efficiency will indicate the amount of power in the major lobe compared to the total
power.
A very high beam efficiency, usually in the high 90s, is necessary for antennas used
in radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received signals
through the minor lobes must be minimized. 61
• Polarization
Polarization is the orientation of electric field
Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as “ the property of an electromagnetic
wave describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the
electric-field vector

Polarization is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow (vector) representing
the instantaneous electric field
Polarization of a wave received by an antenna is defined as the “polarization of a
plane wave, incident from a given direction and having a given power flux density,
which results in maximum available power at the antenna terminals.”

If the direction is not states the polarization is taken to be in the direction of

maximum gain .
There are three type of polarization :-

❖ Linear polarization
❖ Circular polarization
❖ Elliptical polarization

62
❖ Mathematical preliminary for Polarization
From the Characteristics of EMW

❖ Linear polarization
Linear polarization is the orientation of electric field with respect to one axis.
It is always directed along a line (only one component either Ex or Ey )
Time-phase difference between the two components must be integer multiple
of Pi (π )

63
 Cont’s ,…
Linear polarization is may be Vertical or Horizontal , it depend on electric field orientation .
❖ Circular Polarization
Electric field revolves with respect to time
The magnitude of electric field component is constant (the same ) around the circle and
Orthogonal to each other .
Time phase difference between them is odd multiple of

Circular polarization may be :-

• Clockwise (CW) orientation , the electric-field vector designated as right-hand .
• Counterclockwise (CCW) Orientation , the electric-field vector designated as
left-hand polarization

64
Elliptical Polarization
Electric field revolves with respect to time
The magnitude of electric field component is different around the circle but
Orthogonal to each other .
Time phase difference between them is not odd multiple of
The curve traced at a given position as a function of time is tilted ellipse .

Linear and circular polarization are special case for elliptical polarization
The ratio of major axis to minor axis of an ellipse is called Axial ratio (AR).

65
• Co- Polarization and Cross polarization
Co-polarization ,
✔ it is desired polarization
✔ The power level of signal is defined the reception or transmission
of EM wave .

Cross-polarization ,
✔ It is undesired polarization
✔ It is orthogonal to desired polarization
✔ The power level of the signal is defined the interference of
transmission and reception antenna.

If the desired polarization is vertically polarized the cross-polarization will be

horizontal polarized and visceral.

If the desired polarization is Right- handed circular polarized (CW), the

cross-polarization will be left- hand circular polarized (CCW) and visceral.

66
• Polarization loss factor (PLF) and Efficiency
Polarization loss is exist due to polarization mismatch .
Polarization mismatch happened , the polarization of the receiving antenna will
not be the same as the polarization of the incoming (incident) wave.

67
Input Impedance and Equivalent Areas
• Input Impedance
The impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals

The ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or

The ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to
magnetic fields at a point

For the equivalent circuit of antennas in transmitting mode(next

slide), the input impedance at terminal a-b is given by

68
69
Where the real part of the impedance of the antenna is

Now for a generator impedance of Zg = Rg + jXg , the power

radiated and dissipated by the antenna is given by

70
The remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal
resistance Rg of the generator as

Maximum power is transferred to the antenna under conjugate

matching (Rr + RL = Rg and XA = −Xg), in this case

71
From the above equation we get

From the power that is generated by the generator:

• Half is dissipated as heat in the internal resistance (Rg) of the
generator and the other half is delivered to the antenna.
From the power that is delivered to the antenna, if the antenna is
lossless and matched to the transmission line(eo = 1):
• Half of the total power supplied by the generator is radiated by
the antenna during conjugate matching
• And the other half is dissipated as heat in the generator.
72
• Equivalent Areas
An antenna in the receiving mode is used to collect EMWs and to
extract power from the wave.

For each antenna, an equivalent length and a number of

equivalent areas can be defined.

These equivalent quantities are used to describe the receiving

characteristics of an antenna when a wave is incident upon the
antenna.

73
Equivalent circuit of an antenna in receiving mode

74
The equivalent areas describe the power capturing
characteristics of the antenna when a wave impinges on it.
Effective area (aperture): is the ratio of the available power at
the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux density of a
plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction.

• If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum

radiation intensity is implied.
• In equation form it is written as

75
 The effective aperture is the area which when multiplied by the
incident power density gives the power delivered to the load.
Using the previous circuit, we get

• Under conjugate matching (Rr + RL = RT & XA = −XT)

All of the power that is intercepted, collected, or captured by an

antenna is not delivered to the load.
In fact, under conjugate matching only half of the captured power
is delivered to the load; the other half is scattered and dissipated as
heat.
76
 Therefore to account for the scattered and dissipated power, we need
to define the scattering, loss and capture equivalent areas.
• The Scattering Area: is the equivalent area when multiplied by the
incident power density will give the scattered or reradiated power

• The Loss Area: is the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the
incident power density leads to the power dissipated as heat through RL

• The Capture Area: is the equivalent area which when multiplied by the
incident power density leads to the total power captured, collected, or
intercepted by the antenna.

77
In general:
Capture Area = Effective Area + Scattering Area + Loss Area

Finally based on the equivalent areas , the aperture efficiency is

given by

Notice Effective area of antenna is not necessarily the same

physical area , it depend on antenna type and its characteristics
and also Amplitude and phase distribution .

• Example : See text

78
• Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Areas
It is related to the maximum directivity of the antenna
Let us consider figure below

Figure : Two antennas separated by a distance R

79
Let the effective areas and directivities of each be At, Ar & Dt, Dr.

If antenna one is a If antenna two is a

transmitter transmitter

With similar analysis for linear ,

passive and isotropic radiator .

Pr is power collected (received )

by the receiver antenna .

80
Now from the above equation

Am is maximum effective area of the antenna .

Dot and Dor is maximum directivity of transmitter and receiver
antenna respectively.

81
Hence if the transmitter is an isotropic antenna and the receiver is an
infinitesimal dipole(l << λ), Aem of any antenna is related to D0 by

When this is multiplied by the power density of the incident wave it

gives the maximum power that can be delivered to the load.

This is based on the assumption that there are no conduction-dielectric

losses (radiation efficiency ecd is unity), the antenna is matched to the

load (reflection efficiency, er is unity), and the polarization of the

impinging wave matches that of the antenna (polarization loss factor

PLF and polarization efficiency, pe are unity).

82
If there are losses associated with an antenna, its maximum
effective aperture must be consider the conduction-dielectric
losses (radiation efficiency) as

If reflection and polarization losses are also included, then the

maximum effective area is given by

• Example : See text

83
84