EARTH SCIENCE a stream or seashore causing sharp edges and Hydrolysis

corners to wear off and become rounded. Rock-forming minerals like amphibole, pyroxene,
Exogenic Processes (Lesson 1) and feldspar react with water and form different
Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is Organic Activity kinds of clay minerals.
the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any The roots grow causing penetration into the crack,
change in its composition. expand, and in the long run, break the rock. Oxidation
It is the response of oxygen with minerals. If the
Pressure iron oxidizes, the mineral in rocks decomposes.
Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form Human Activities
Rusting is an example of this chemical reaction.
mountain range. After the granite ascends and Activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding
cools, the overlying rocks and sediments may forests and cultivating land contribute to physical
Weathering (Lesson 2)
erode. At the point when the pressure diminishes, weathering.
the rock expands, cools, and became brittle and This process includes degradation or breaking
fractured. Burrowing Animals down of rocks into smaller segments known as
Animals like rats, rabbits and squirrels excavate sediments. It occurs when mechanical force is
Temperature into the ground to create a space for habitation. applied on rocks or through chemical reactions
Rocks expand and are fractured when expose to happening on the surface or within the rocks.
high temperature. However, if the temperature In chemical weathering, there are changes in the
drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it also composition of rocks due to the chemical reactions Weathering is the process of breakdown of rocks
expands and causes fracture. presented below. at the Earth’s surface, by the action of water, ice,
acids, salts, plants, animals, gravity and changing
Dissolution
Frost Wedging temperatures. There are three types of weathering:
It occurs in specific minerals which are dissolved
Generally, rocks have fracture in its surface and physical weathering, chemical weathering, and
in water. Examples of these minerals are Halite
when water accumulates in the crack and at that biological weathering.
(NaCl) and Calcite (CaCO3). The formation of
point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock stalactites and stalagmites in caves are brought
apart. Agents of Weathering
about by this chemical reaction.
1. Water
Abrasion Either in liquid or solid form is one of the agents of
The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact and mechanical weathering. In liquid form, it seeped
friction. This primarily occurs during collision of into cracks and crevices of rocks and when the
rocks, sand, and silt due to current or waves along temperature dropped, it freezes and definitely will
expand in the form of ice. The ice then works as a Rainwater or snow- melt collects in
wedge which slowly widens the cracks and splits 5. Animals cracks in the rocks→ at night the
the rock. When the ice melts, the liquid water Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles temperature drops and the water freezes
performs the act of erosion by carrying away the and prairie dogs, also work to break apart rock and and expands→ the increases in volume of
tiny rock fragments lost in the split. soil. Other animals dig and trample rock the ice exerts pressure on the cracks in the
aboveground, causing rock to slowly crumble. rock, causing them to split further open→
2. Salt during the day the ice melts and the water
In the process of haloclasty, salts served as an A. Physical Weathering seeps deeper into the cracks → at night, the
agent of weathering. Saltwater sometimes gets into Physical weathering is caused by the effects of water freezes again
the cracks and pores of rock. When it evaporates, changing temperatures on rocks, causing the rock
salt crystals are left behind and grow in the cracks to break apart. The process is sometimes assisted 3. Exfoliation. It can happen as cracks
and pores which caused pressure on the rock and by water. It happens especially in places where develop parallel to the land surface as a
slowly break it apart. there is little soil and few plants grow, such as in consequence of the reduction in pressure
mountain regions and hot deserts. It occurs either during uplift and erosion. It occurs
3. Temperature through repeated melting and freezing of water typically in upland areas where there are
Temperature changes can also contribute to (mountains and tundra) or through expansion and exposures of uniform coarsely crystalline
weathering through the process called thermal contraction of the surface layer of rocks that are igneous rocks. The following are the
stress. During thermal stress, rock tend to expand baked by the sun (hot deserts). There are two main process of exfoliation.
with heat and contract with low temperature. As types of physical weathering:
this happens repeatedly, the structure of the rock B. Chemical Weathering
weakens and over time crumbles. 1. Abrasion. It occurs when rocks surface is Chemical weathering is caused by rainwater
frequently exposed to water, wind and reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form
4. Plants gravity. new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These
Plants also served as agents of weathering. Its 2. Freeze-thaw. It occurs when water reactions occur particularly when the water is
contribution take place when the seed of a tree continually seeps into cracks, freezes and slightly acidic. These chemical processes need
being spread in the environment sprout in soil that expands, eventually breaking the rock water, and occur more rapidly at higher
has collected in a cracked rock. As the roots grow, apart. It occurs in mountainous regions like temperature, so warm, damp climates are best.
they widen the cracks, eventually breaking the the Alps or Snowdonia. It occurs through Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and
rock into pieces. Over time, trees can break apart the following process: oxidation) is the first stage in the production of
even large rocks. Even small plants, such as soils.
mosses, can enlarge tiny cracks as they grow.
 1. Carbonation – carbon dioxide in the air result eventually to rock breakage. It can be Rocks undergo partial melting because the
dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly classified into: minerals that compose them melt at different
acidic. This weak “carbonic acid” can temperature. Partial melting takes place because
dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks 1. Biological Weathering by Physical Means. rocks are not pure materials. As temperature rises,
and cavities. Over many years, solution of Burrowing animals like shrews, moles and some minerals melt and others remain solid. If the
the rock can form spectacular cave earthworms create holes on the ground by same conditions are maintained at any given
systems. excavation and move the rock fragments to the temperature, the same mixture of solid and melted
surface. These fragments become more exposed to rock is maintained. To visualize the partial melt,
2. Hydrolysis – the breakdown of rock by other environmental factors that can further think of how chocolate chip cookies would look if
acidic water to produce clay and soluble enhance their weathering. Furthermore, humans you heated it to the point at which chocolate chips
salts. Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain also indirectly contribute to biological weathering melted while the main part of the cookie stayed
reacts with rock-forming minerals such as by different activities that cause rocks to break. solid. The chips represent the partial melt or
feldspar to produce clay and salts that are magma.
removed in solution. The only common 2. Biological Weathering by Chemical
Pressure increases with depth as a result of the
rock-forming mineral that is not affected is Compounds. Some plants and animals also
increased weight of overlying rock. Geologists
quartz, which is a chemically resistant produced acidic substances that react with the
found out that as they melted rocks under various
mineral. Therefore, quartz and clay are the rock and cause its slow disintegration.
pressures, higher pressure led to higher melting
two of the most common minerals in
points.
sedimentary rocks. Plutonism and Volcanism (Lesson 3)
two main mechanisms through which rocks melt
An endogenic process is a geological process that
3. Oxidation – the breakdown of rock by are decompression melting and flux melting.
was formed, originated, and located below the
oxygen and water, often giving iron- rich
surface of the earth. It involves geologic activities Decompression melting takes place within Earth
rocks a rusty-colored weathered surface.
such as tectonic movements, metamorphism, when a body of rock is held at approximately the
seismic activities and magmatism. same temperature but the pressure is reduced.
C. Biological Weathering
Biological weathering of rocks occurs when rocks This happens because the rock is being moved
Magma is formed under certain circumstances in
are weakened by different biological agents like toward the surface, either at a mantle plume (a.k.a.,
special location deep in the crust or in the upper
plants and animals. When plant roots grow hot spot), or in the upwelling part of a mantle
mantle. Magma forms from partial melting of
through rocks, it creates fracture and cracks that convection cell. If a rock that is hot enough which
mantle rocks.
is close to its melting point is moved toward the
surface, the pressure is reduced, and the rock can
pass to the liquid side of its melting curve. At this An extrusion is an eruption of magmatic materials
point, partial melting starts to take place. Flux that causes land formation on the surface of the
melting happens if a rock is close to its melting Earth. Magma extrusion causes the formation of
point and some water or carbon dioxide is added volcanoes when the gas pressure is strong enough Factors Involved in Metamorphism
to the rock, the melting temperature is reduced and there are cracks in the earth's crust. Magma
and partial melting starts. that came out to the surface of the earth is called 1. Temperature. It plays a crucial role in
the eruption. metamorphism. The heat affects the rock’s
What happens after magma is formed? chemical composition, mineralogy, and texture.
An intrusion is magma that moves up into a For instance, during burial metamorphism, at a
Volcanism
volcano without erupting. Like a balloon, this depth of about 8 to 15 kilometers from the surface
❖ Volcanism is used to describe all geological
causes the volcano to grow on the inside. What is of the crust, metamorphic reactions begin. The
phenomena that occurs on the natural terrestrial
meant by the intrusion of magma is the inclusion of rocks adjust to the new temperature causing their
surface, such as the creation of volcanoes and hot
the rock layers forming the earth's crust (magma atoms and ions to recrystallize and form new
springs. (Grotzinger et.al ,2008)
does not get out). arrangements thereby creating new mineral
❖ It refers to all sorts of geological activities
assemblages. During recrystallization, new crystals
Plutonism correlated with the flow and transportation of
grow larger than the crystals in the original rock.
igneous material from the planet's interior
❖ Plutonism refers to all sorts of igneous
towards the natural terrestrial surface. 2. Pressure. Like temperature, it changes the
geological activities taking place below the Earth's
❖ This motion takes place inside the cracks that composition, mineralogy, and texture of rocks.
surface.
are known among geologists as natural pipes that Pressure is different in various tectonic settings,
❖ In cases where magma infiltrates the Earth's
infiltrate the upper mantle. In many cases, the like temperature. For instance, metamorphism in
crust but fails to make it to the surface, the process
mantle allows massive quantities of liquids and the subduction zone is characterized by high-
of magma differentiation gives birth to ideal
gases to reach the upper layers of the planet and in pressure metamorphism. In contrast, the collision
conditions for metallogenesis and that is a kind of
various cases, even the natural terrestrial surface. zone between two continental crusts is marked by
Plutonism.
moderate-pressure metamorphism.
❖ This is the exact process that gives birth to
Metamorphism (Lesson 4)
magma, when the presence of various oxides, a. The vertical stress or confining pressure is
fluorine, sulfur, and chlorine compounds that are Metamorphism is one of the geologic processes in the stress or pressure exerted on the rock by the
necessary for the creation of magma is guaranteed. which rocks change in form, composition, and weight of overlying material such as in burial
❖ The solidification and crystallization of magma structure due to intense heat and pressure and metamorphism. This type of pressure is the same
takes place mainly inside the Earth's interior. sometimes with the introduction of chemically
active fluids.
in all directions and makes the rocks to fracture or Burial Metamorphism folds: monoclines, anticlines and synclines. A
deform. occurs at lower temperature and pressure which monocline is a simple bend in the rock layers
transforms sedimentary rocks that had undergone where the oldest rocks are at the bottom and the
b. The directed or differential pressure is imposed diagenesis into low-grade metamorphic rocks youngest are at the top. An anticline is a fold that
by a force in a particular direction. Pressure causes through relatively low temperature and pressure. arches upward where the oldest rocks are found at
rocks to form folds in a particular direction as the center of an anticline. The youngest rocks are
directed by the pressure, thus directed pressure High Pressure Metamorphism covered over them at the top of the structure. A
guides the shape and orientation of the new Occurs in subduction zones between two syncline is a fold that bends downward which
crystals formed as minerals recrystallize under the converging plates rocks are curved down to a center.
influence of both heat and pressure. This results in
a textural change such that the minerals are Rock Behaviors Under Stress (Lesson 5)
elongated in the direction perpendicular to the
directed stress and this contributes to the 1. Tensional stress causes rocks to be pulled
formation of foliation. apart that result to lengthening and break apart.
This type of stress can be found at divergent plate
Foliation is a set of flat or wavy parallel cleavage boundaries.
planes produced by deformation under directed
pressures. 2. Compressional stress causes rocks to fold or
fracture. It squeezes rocks together. Compression 2. Faults – A rock under ample stress can crack, or
Metasomatism in which the alteration process is is the most common type of stress in convergent fracture. The fracture is called a joint because
caused by fluids passing through the rock and plate boundaries. there is a block of rock left standing on either side
catalyzing chemical reactions. of a fracture line. The footwall is the rock that
3. Shear stress happens when forces slide pass place on top the fault, while the hanging wall is
Contact Metamorphism each other in opposite direction which results to below the fault. Faults can be classified into:
Rocks are exposed to heat coming from magma slippage and translation. This is the most common
intrusion within the layers of rocks stress found in transform plate boundaries. a. Normal faults–are the most common faults at
Shock Metamorphism divergent boundaries. In relation to the footwall, it
Takes place when the heat and shock waves from Geologic Structures develops as the hanging wall drops down. East
meteor or asteroid impact transform rocks 1. Folds – are formed when rocks experienced African Rift is one of the examples of this type of
immediately around the impact site. compressive stress and deformed plastically. It
causes bending of rocks. There are three types of
fault. magma moves up from the mantle and erupts as
pillow lava. This forms new oceanic crust at the
ridge.

(a.) Evidence from molten materials- rocks

shaped like pillows (rock pillows) show that
molten materials have erupted again and again
from cracks along the midocean ridge and cooled
quickly.
Seafloor Spreading (Lesson 6)
b. Reverse faults – This type of fault is most (b.) Evidence from magnetic strip- rocks that
sonar – a device that bounces sound waves off
common at the convergent boundaries. It forms make up the ocean floor lie in a pattern of
underwater objects and then record the echoes of
when the hanging wall moves up. It creates the magnetized stripes which hold a record of the
these sound waves.
world’s highest mountain ranges such as reversals in magnetic field; and
Himalayas Mountains and Rocky Mountains.
Magnetometers that were attached to ships
(c.) Evidence from drilling sample – core
scientists discovered a lot about the magnetic
samples from the ocean floor show that older
properties of the seafloor.
rocks are found farther from the ridge; youngest
rocks are in the mid-ocean ridge.
They found that magnetic polarity in the seafloor
was normal at mid-ocean ridges but reversed in
symmetrical patterns away from the ridge center. Ocean Basins (Lesson 7)
1. Continental shelf- Partly shallow extension of
Harry Hess explained how the convection the continent underwater.
currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor 2. Continental slope- Transition zone of
spread. Convection current carry heat from the continental shelf and deep ocean floor. It starts
molten materials in the mantle and core towards from oceanic crust to continental crust.
c. Strike-slip faults – This type of faults formed 3. Continental rise- It is where the ocean begins.
the lithosphere. This current ensures that the
when the walls move sideways. It can be either All basaltic and oceanic rocks are found here. It is
“recycled” materials formed in the lithosphere
right lateral or left lateral. It is mostly common on the place where the sediments from land are
were back to the mantle. In this recycling process
transform plate boundaries. The most popular washed. The continental margin starts from
which was later named as seafloor spreading, the
example of this type is San Andreas Fault. continental shelf up to continental rise.
4. Abyssal plain- The flattest part of the ocean. 50 process is named after the Canadian Geophysicist J. that cover many square kilometers to thick lens
% of the earth’s surface is being covered by this Tuzo Wilson (1908-1993). It is divided into 6 like bodies that extend only a few meters lateral.
plain. stages namely:
5. Island- It’s not just a piece of land floating up in 1. Embryonic Ocean Basin – east African Rift Law of Superposition is a basic law of
the middle of the sea, it is part of the ocean basin Valleys geochronology, stating that in any undisturbed
that extends up from the ocean floor. 2.Juvenile Ocean Basin – Red Sea sequence of rocks deposited in layers, the youngest
6. Seamount- It is an undersea mountain. The 3. Mature Ocean Basin – Atlantic and Arctic layer is on top and the oldest on bottom, each layer
erosion caused by waves destroyed the top of a 4. Declining Ocean Basin - Pacific being younger than the one beneath it and older
seamount which caused it to be flattened. 5. Terminal Ocean Basin – Mediterranean than the one above it. Because at any one location,
7. Trench- It is the deepest part of the ocean. 6. Suturing (Continental collision) – Himalayas it indicates the relative ages of rock layers and the
8. Mid-oceanic ridge- The seafloor mountain fossils in them.
system which is situated in the middle of the ocean How Layers of Rocks are formed (Lesson 8)
basin. It is where upwelling of magma happens Law of Original Horizontality was first proposed by
which causes the sea floor to spread. Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno in the
17th century. The law states that layers of
sediment were originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity. It suggests that all rock
layers are originally laid down (deposited)
horizontally and can later be deformed. This allows
us to infer that something must have happened to
the rocks to make them tilted. This includes
mountain building events, earthquakes, and
faulting.

Relative and Absolute Dating (Lesson 9)

Stratification is the process leading to the Relative dating is the technique used to
formation or deposition of layers, especially of the determine the age by comparing the historical
sedimentary rocks. The layers range from several remains to the nearby layers. It is a less advanced
The Wilson Cycle explains the process of the technique when compared to absolute dating.
millimeters to many meters in thickness and vary
opening (beginning) and the closing (end) of an Some methods used in relative dating are
greatly in shape. Strata may range from thin sheets
ocean which is driven by Plate Tectonics. This stratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and cross-dating.
 1. Stratigraphy: This technique assumes that decay of that isotope. The type of radioactive A fossil is any remains of ancient life. It can be
the lowest layer is the oldest while the isotope used depends on the type of sample. One of body fossils which are remains of the organism
topmost layer is the youngest layer. It is the most popular and widely used types of a itself, or trace fossils, such as burrows, tracks, or
one of the oldest methods of relative radioactive isotope in this type of technique is other evidence of activity.
dating. carbon14.
2. Biostratigraphy: In this technique, the 2. Amino acid dating: The change in the protein Preservation as a fossil is a relatively rare
faunal deposits such as fossils of dead content of a biological sample can be used to process. The chances of becoming a fossil are
animals are used to establish a strategy for determine the age. A particular form of living being enhanced by quick burial and the presence of
dating. It is an extended version of the may have a defined protein content in their bodies preservable hard parts, such as bones or shells.
stratigraphy. that deteriorates with time.
3. Cross dating: In this method, the fossils of 3. Dendrochronology: The number of annual Fossils form in five ways: preservation of original
one layer are compared with another layer growth rings of a dicot is used in this technique to remains, permineralization, molds and casts,
with known dating. determine the age of the tree replacement, and compression.
4. Fluorine dating: Bones from fossils 4. Thermoluminescence: This technique
absorb fluorine from the groundwater. The determines the final period during which the Rock formations with exceptional fossils are
amount of fluorine absorbed indicates how object absorbs light, emitting electrons. The age is called very important for scientists to study. They
long the fossil has been buried in the determined for the emissions. allow us to see information about organisms that
sediments. we may not otherwise ever know.
Absolute Dating
In geology, absolute dating is a technique that Index fossils are fossils that are widespread but
determines the exact numerical age of a historical only existed for a short period. Index fossils help
remaining. Since it evaluates the exact age of the scientists to find the relative age of a rock layer
sample, absolute aging is also called numerical and match it up with other rock layers.
dating. The four techniques used in absolute dating
are radiometric dating, amino acid dating, Living fossils are organisms that haven’t changed
dendrochronology, and thermoluminescence. much in millions of years and are still alive today.
1. Radiometric dating: It determines the age of Fossils give clues about the history of life on Earth,
the sample by measuring the amount of a environments, climate, movement of plates, and
Describe How Index Fossils (also known as
particular radioactive isotope present in the other events.
Guide Fossils) (Lesson 10)
sample. The age can be determined by the rate of