By 

Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Updated on December 01, 2019

Both the independent variable and dependent variable are examined in an experiment using the scientific
method, so it's important to know what they are and how to use them. Here are the definitions for
independent and dependent variables, examples of each variable, and the explanation for how to graph
them.

The independent variable is the condition that you change in an experiment. It is the variable you
control. It is called independent because its value does not depend on and is not affected by the state of
any other variable in the experiment. Sometimes you may hear this variable called the "controlled
variable" because it is the one that is changed. Do not confuse it with a "control variable," which is a
variable that is purposely held constant so that it can't affect the outcome of the experiment.

The dependent variable is the condition that you measure in an experiment. You are assessing how it
responds to a change in the independent variable, so you can think of it as depending on the independent
variable. Sometimes the dependent variable is called the "responding variable."

Independent and Dependent Variable Examples

 In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores, the independent
variable is the length of time spent sleeping while the dependent variable is the test score.
 You want to compare brands of paper towels, to see which holds the most liquid. The
independent variable in your experiment would be the brand of paper towel. The dependent
variable would be the amount of liquid absorbed by the paper towel.
 In an experiment to determine how far people can see into the infrared part of the spectrum, the
wavelength of light is the independent variable and whether the light is observed (the response) is
the dependent variable.
 If you want to know whether caffeine affects your appetite, the presence/absence of a given
amount of caffeine would be the independent variable. How hungry you are would be the
dependent variable.
 You want to determine whether a chemical is essential for rat nutrition, so you design an
experiment. The presence/absence of the chemical is the independent variable. The health of the
rat (whether it lives and can reproduce) is the dependent variable. If you determine the substance
is necessary for proper nutrition, a follow-up experiment might determine how much of the
chemical is needed. Here, the amount of chemical would be the independent variable and the rat
health would be the dependent variable.

How to Tell the Independent and Dependent Variable Apart

If you are having a hard time identifying which variable is the independent variable and which is the
dependent variable, remember the dependent variable is the one affected by a change in the independent
variable. If you write out the variables in a sentence that shows cause and effect, the independent
variable causes the effect on the dependent variable. If you have the variables in the wrong order, the
sentence won't make sense.

Independent variable causes an effect on the dependent variable.

Example: How long you sleep (independent variable) affects your test score (dependent variable).
This makes sense, but:

Example: Your test score affects how long you sleep.

This doesn't really make sense (unless you can't sleep because you are worried you failed a test, but that
would be a different experiment).

How to Plot Variables on a Graph

There is a standard method for graphing the independent and dependent variable. The x-axis is the
independent variable, while the y-axis is the dependent variable. You can use the DRY MIX acronym to
help remember how to graph variables:

DRY MIX

D = dependent variable

R = responding variable
Y = graph on the vertical or y-axis
M = manipulated variable
I = independent variable
X = graph on the horizontal or x-axis

the·o·ry
[ˈTHirē]
NOUN
1. a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on
general principles independent of the thing to be explained:
"Darwin's theory of evolution"
synonyms:
hypothesis · thesis · conjecture · supposition · speculation · postulation · postulate · proposition 
· premise · surmise · assumption · presumption · 
[more]
 a set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based:
"a theory of education" · 
[more]
synonyms:
doctrine · dogma · teaching · principle · ethic · creed · credo · thesis · ideology · idea 
· ideal · position · belief · tenet · canon · conviction · persuasion · opinion
 an idea used to account for a situation or justify a course of action:
"my theory would be that the place has been seriously mismanaged"
synonyms:
opinion · point of view · viewpoint · belief · judgment · reckoning · way of
thinking · thinking · thought · notion · idea · conviction · persuasion · 
[more]
 mathematics
a collection of propositions to illustrate the principles of a subject.
Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to
challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding assumptions. The
theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The
theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem
under study exists.

Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Swanson,
Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers
2013.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and
reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular
study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts
that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of
knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature .
You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models
that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should
depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :

1. An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them
critically.
2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a
relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research
methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address
questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply
describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of
that phenomenon.
4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical
framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and
highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what
circumstances.
By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because
it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a
phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use
that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé,
ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen
Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social
Sciences. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument.
Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and
Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research. Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE,
2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006;
Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass, 1999.
I.  Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem anchors your
entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research .
Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
3. Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem.
Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
4. List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these
variables into independent and dependent categories.
5. Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings
and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables
in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance
to your research.
A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data  by focusing on specific
variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing
and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and
variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging
theoretical assumptions.

II.  Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways
to investigate relationships within social systems.  To that end, the following roles served by a
theory can help guide the development of your framework.

 Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
 Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
 Means for identifying and defining research problems,
 Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
 Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important
and which facts are not,
 Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
 Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical
research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
 Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a
frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and
 Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and
improve professional practice.

Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F.

Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice. (San
Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory
Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford,
2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks
Guide Research. Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M.
Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.
The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is
expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or
phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral
Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give
orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding
conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does
Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between
southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your
paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem
is derived. Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and
function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

1. What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the
state relate during periods of conflict?"]
2. Why is your approach a feasible solution? [i.e., justify the application of your choice
of a particular theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected. I could
choose instead to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among
ethnic conflict theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain
individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between
nations].
The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course
readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research
that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will
likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a
theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When
writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

 Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that

underpin your study. This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who
have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary,
the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is
particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another
discipline.
 Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related
frameworks, concepts, models, or theories. As noted in the example above, there will
likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a
framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory
you've chosen is the appropriate one.
 The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can
be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction
of your theoretical framework is happening now.
 You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your
discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
 Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately
represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally
distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note
the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the
research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains
a certain phenomena].
The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual
Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan;
Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General
Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human
Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General
Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social
Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How
Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research. Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes,
Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K.
Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of
Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor.
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Other Disciplines

An increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt
to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not
rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how
an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a
political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state
legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political
science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular
case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses
developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be more
engaged in the research topic.

CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research
Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman,
Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Don't Undertheorize!

Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again.
Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your
study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature
and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose
supports analysis of the research problem or, if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was
found to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be
afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Fleetwood, Steve and Anthony Hesketh. "HRM-Performance Research: Under-theorized and

Lacking Explanatory Power." The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17
(2006): 1977-1993.

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular
magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis
in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a
well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world.
Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and
tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical
race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For
example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety
might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer
less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always
explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

 A theory predicts events in a broad, general context; a hypothesis makes a specific

prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
 A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among a set of
scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis. About.com

Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis. Slideshare presentation.

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory

Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or
intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting
outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any
discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem,
the analysis may include the expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to
the theory based on your research findings. Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to
be modified can include the following:

 Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for current conditions
or circumstances or the passage of time,
 The study reveals a finding that is significantly incongruent with what the theory
attempts to explain or predict, or
 Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or actions without
taking into consideration specific factors [e.g., factors related to culture, nationality,
history, gender, ethnicity, age, geographic location, legal norms or customs, religion,
social class, socioeconomic status, etc.].

Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative

Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise
Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy
Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.

What Are The Social Science Theories?

SOCIAL SCIENCE
Then several key types of social theory – action theory, systems theory/ functionalism,
psychoanalytic theory, symbolic interactionism, rational choice theory, and phenomenology – are
placed within the typology.
What are examples of social science theories?
These included: Health Belief Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Theory of Planned Behavior, Stages
of Change or Transtheoretical Model, Precaution Adoption Process Model, Protection Motivation Theory,
Social Learning Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, Community Organization Theory, Organizational
Change Theory,

What are the 3 social science theories?

Three paradigms have come to dominate sociological thinking, because they provide useful explanations:
structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Sociological Theories or
Perspectives.

What are the 4 social science theories?

This lesson will briefly cover the four major theories in sociology, which are structural-functional theory,
social conflict theory, feminism, and symbolic interactionism theory.

What are the 5 social theories?

Definitions of key terms for the five basic sociological perspectives – Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism,
Social Action Theory and Postmodernism.

What is the major social science

theories?
Three great classical theories of social and historical change emerged: the social evolutionism theory (of
which Social Darwinism forms a part), the social cycle theory, and the Marxist historical materialism
theory.

What is the importance of social science theories?

To understand how education systems work — or don’t work — social scientists develop theories
providing logical explanations to better understand educational systems. These theories inform research
on education and provide valuable insights into classroom interactions and methods of teaching students.

What are the 3 types of sociology?

Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the conflict
perspective, and the symbolic interactionist perspective (sometimes called the interactionist perspective,
or simply the micro view).

What are some examples of social science?

Some examples of social sciences include the following:

 Anthropology.
 Economics.
 Geography.
 Political science.
 Psychology.
 Sociology.
What are common to the social thinkers?
Answer: The common feature of these phenomena is that they are shaped by interdependencies among
individual decisions. Wherever individuals lack reliable information of their own, they look to others for
clues about the reality they are seeking to grasp.

What are the 7 major sociological theories?

These include Conflict, Functionalism, Symbolic Interactionism, and Social Exchange Theories; second,
Middle-Range Theory, which is a theory derived from specific scientific findings and focuses on the
interrelation of two or more concepts applied to a very specific social process or problem.

What is the functionalist social theory?

Functionalism, in social sciences, theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions,
roles, norms, etc. —serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the
society.

What are the social theories in sociology?

The three major sociological theories that new students learn about are the interactionist perspective, the
conflict perspective, and the functionalist perspective. And each has its own distinct way of explaining
various aspects of society and the human behavior within it.

15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

So what are educational learning theories and how can we use them in our teaching practice? There are
so many out there, how do we know which are still relevant and which will work for our classes?

There are 3 main schema’s of learning theories; Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. In
this article you will find a breakdown of each one and an explanation of the 15 most influential
learning theories; from Vygotsky to Piaget and Bloom to Maslow and Bruner.

Swimming through treacle!

That’s what it feels like when you are trying to sort through and make sense of the vast amount of
learning theories we have at our disposal.

Way back in ancient Greece, the philosopher, Plato, first pondered the question “How does an individual
learn something new if the subject itself is new to them” (ok, so I’m paraphrasing, my ancient Greek isn’t
very good!).

Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students learn. Learning
theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire, retain and recall new
information.

In this complete summary, we will look at the work of the following learning theorists.

Despite the fact there are so many educational theorists, there are three labels that they all fall
under. Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a
behaviorist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt.

Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus learning occurs. Learning is achieved when
the provided stimulus changes behavior. A non-educational example of this is the work done by Pavlov.
Through his famous “salivating dog” experiment, Pavlov showed that a stimulus (in this case ringing a bell
every time he fed the dog) caused the dog to eventually start salivating when he heard a bell ring.

The dog associated the bell ring with being provided with food so any time a bell was rung the dog started
salivating, it had learnt that the noise was a precursor to being fed.

I use a similar approach to classroom management.

I adapt my body language.

I have taught my students that if I stand in a specific place in the classroom with my arms folded, they
know that I’m getting frustrated with the level of noise and they start to quieten down or if I sit cross-
legged on my desk, I’m about to say something important, supportive and they should listen because it
affects them directly.

Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for
establishing rules, especially for behavior management.

Cognitivism

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive
rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism.

There is still a behavior change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information.

Cognitive theories were developed in the early 1900s in Germany from Gestalt psychology by Wolfgang
Kohler. In English, Gestalt roughly translates to the organisation of something as a whole, that is viewed
as more than the sum of its individual parts.

Cognitivism has given rise to many evidence based education theories, including cognitive load
theory, schema theory and dual coding theory as well as being the basis for retrieval practice.

In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganises information, either by finding new
explanations or adapting old ones.

This is viewed as a change in knowledge and is stored in the memory rather than just being viewed as a
change in behavior. Cognitive learning theories are mainly attributed to Jean Piaget.

Examples of how teachers can include cognitivism in their classroom include linking concepts together,
linking concepts to real-world examples, discussions and problem-solving.

Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our own prior
knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to the individual learner. Students adapt their
models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or resolving misconceptions.

Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s
spiral curriculum (see below) is a great example of constructivism in action.

As students are constructing their own knowledge base, outcomes cannot always be anticipated,
therefore, the teacher should check and challenge misconceptions that may have arisen. When
consistent outcomes are required, a constructivist approach may not be the ideal theory to use.

Examples of constructivism in the classroom include problem-based learning, research and creative

projects and group collaborations.

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget

Piaget is an interesting character in Psychology. His theory of learning differs from many others in some
important ways:
First, he focuses exclusively on children; Second, he talks about development (not learning per se) and
Third, it’s a stage theory, not a linear progression theory. OK, so what’s he on about?

Well, there are some basic ideas to get your head around and some stages to understand too. The basic
ideas are:

 Schemas: The building blocks of knowledge.

 Adaptation processes: These allow the transition from one stage to another. He called
these: Equilibrium, Assimilation and Accommodation.
 Stages of Cognitive development: Sensorimotor; Preoperational; Concrete
Operational; Formal Operational.
So here’s how it goes. Children develop Schemas of knowledge about the world. These are clusters of
connected ideas about things in the real world that allow the child to respond accordingly.

When the child has developed a working Schema that can explain what they perceive in the world, that
Schema is in a state of Equilibrium.

When the child uses the schema to deal with a new thing or situation, that Schema is
in Assimilation and Accommodation happens when the existing Schema isn’t up to the job of
explaining what’s going on and needs to be changed.

Once it’s changed, it returns to Equilibrium and life goes on. Learning is, therefore, a constant cycle of
Assimilation; Accommodation; Equilibrium; Assimilation and so on…

All that goes through the 4 Stages of Cognitive Development, which are defined by age:

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage runs from birth to 2 years and the child spends their time learning
basic Schemas and Object Permanence (the idea that something still exists when you can’t see it).

The Preoperational Stage runs from 2 years to 7 years and the child develops more Schemas and the
ability to think Symbolically (the idea that one thing can stand for another; words for example, or objects).
At this point, children still struggle with Theory of Mind (Empathy) and can’t really get their head around
the viewpoints of others.

The Concrete Operational Stage runs from 7 years to 11 years and this is the Stage when children start
to work things out in their head rather than physically in the real world. They also develop the ability
to Conserve (understand that something stays the same quantity even if it looks different).

The Formal Operational Stage runs from 11 years into adulthood and this is where abstract thought
develops, as does logic and cool stuff like hypothesis testing.
According to Piaget, the whole process is active and requires the rediscovery and reconstructing of
knowledge across the entire process of Stages.

Understanding the Stage a child is in informs what they should be presented with based on what they can
and cannot do at the Stage they’re in.

Piaget’s work on cognitivism has given rise to some brilliant work from people like John Sweller who
developed the fantastic Cognitive Load Theory and John Flavell’s work on metacognition

CLICK HERE to find out more about Piaget

2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning

Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky takes a different approach to Piaget’s idea that development precedes learning.

Instead, he reckons that social learning is an integral part of cognitive development and it is culture, not
developmental Stage that underlies cognitive development. Because of that, he argues that learning
varies across cultures rather than being a universal process driven by the kind of structures and
processes put forward by Piaget.

Zone of Proximal Development

He makes a big deal of the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development in which children and those they
are learning from co-construct knowledge. Therefore, the social environment in which children learn has a
massive impact on how they think and what they think about.
They also differ in how they view language. For Piaget, thought drives language but for Vygotsky,
language and thought become intertwined at about 3 years and become a sort of internal dialogue for
understanding the world.

And where do they get that from? Their social environment of course, which contains all the
cognitive/linguistic skills and tools to understand the world.

Vygotsky talks about Elementary Mental Functions, by which he means the basic cognitive processes
of Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory.

By using those basic tools in interactions with their sociocultural environment, children sort of improve
them using whatever their culture provides to do so. In the case of Memory, for example, Western
cultures tend towards note-taking, mind-maps or mnemonics whereas other cultures may use different
Memory tools like storytelling.

In this way, a cultural variation of learning can be described quite nicely.

What are crucial in this learning theory are the ideas of Scaffolding, the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) and the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Here’s how all that works:

More Knowledgeable Other

The MKO can be (but doesn’t have to be) a person who literally knows more than the child. Working
collaboratively, the child and the MKO operate in the ZPD, which is the bit of learning that the child can’t
do on their own.

As the child develops, the ZPD gets bigger because they can do more on their own and the process of
enlarging the ZPD is called Scaffolding.

Vygotsky Scaffolding

Knowing where that scaffold should be set is massively important and it’s the MKO’s job to do that so that
the child can work independently AND learn collaboratively.

For Vygotsky, language is at the heart of all this because a) it’s the primary means by which the MKO and
the child communicate ideas and b) internalising it is enormously powerful in cementing understanding
about the world.

That internalisation of speech becomes Private Speech (the child’s “inner voice”) and is distinct
from Social Speech, which occurs between people.
Over time, Social Speech becomes Private Speech and Hey Presto! That’s Learning because the child is
now collaborating with themselves!

The bottom line here is that the richer the sociocultural environment, the more tools will be available to the
child in the ZPD and the more Social Speech they will internalise as Private Speech. It doesn’t take a
genius to work out, therefore, that the learning environment and interactions are everything.

Scaffolding is also an integral part of Rosenshine’s Principles of Instruction.

CLICK HERE to find our more about Vygotsky

3. Bloom’s Domains of Learning

Benjamin Bloom

In 1956, American educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom, first proposed three domains of
learning; cognitive, affective and psycho-motor. Bloom worked in collaboration with David Krathwohl
and Anne Harrow throughout the 1950s-70s on the three domains.

The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

This was the first domain to be proposed in 1956 and it focuses on the idea that objectives that are
related to cognition could be divided into subdivisions and ranked in order of cognitive difficulty.

These ranked subdivisions are what we commonly refer to as Bloom’s taxonomy. The original
subdivisions are as follows (knowledge is the lowest with evaluation being the most cognitively difficult):

1. Knowledge
2. Understanding
3. Application
4. Analysis
 5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
However, there was a major revision of the subdivisions in 2000-01 by Bloom’s original partner, David
Krathwohl and his colleague, Lorin Anderson (Anderson was a former student of Bloom’s).

The highlights of this revision were switching names of the subdivisions from nouns to verbs, thus making
them easier to use when curriculum and lesson planning.

The other main change was the order of the top two subdivisions was reversed. The updated taxonomy is
as follows:
The Affective Domain

The affective domain (sometimes referred to as the feeling domain) is concerned with feelings and
emotions and also divides objectives into hierarchical subcategories. It was proposed by Krathwohl and
Bloom in 1964.

The affective domain is not usually used when planning for maths and sciences as feelings and emotion
are not relevant for those subjects. However, for educators of arts and language, the inclusion of the
affective domain is imperative wherever possible.

The ranked domain subcategories range from “receiving” at the lower end up to “characterisation” at the
top. The full ranked list is as follows:

1. Receiving. Being aware of an external stimulus (feel, sense, experience).

2. Responding. Responding to the external stimulus (satisfaction, enjoyment, contribute)
3. Valuing. Referring to the student’s belief or appropriation of worth (showing preference
or respect).
4. Organisation. The conceptualising and organising of values (examine, clarify, integrate.)
5. Characterisation. The ability to practice and act on their values. (Review, conclude,
judge).
The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain refers to those objectives that are specific to reflex actions interpretive
movements and discreet physical functions.

A common misconception is that physical objectives that support cognitive learning fit the psycho-motor
label, for example; dissecting a heart and then drawing it.

While these are physical (kinesthetic) actions, they are a vector for cognitive learning, not psycho-motor
learning.

Psychomotor learning refers to how we use our bodies and senses to interact with the world around us,
such as learning how to move our bodies in dance or gymnastics.

Anita Harrow classified different types of learning in the psycho-motor domain from those that are reflex to
those that are more complex and require precise control.

1. Reflex movements. These movements are those that we possess from birth or appear
as we go through puberty. They are automatic, that is they do not require us to actively
think about them e.g. breathing, opening and closing our pupils or shivering when cold.
2. Fundamental movements. These are those actions that are the basic movements,
running, jumping, walking etc and commonly form part of more complex actions such as
playing a sport.
3. Perceptual abilities. This set of abilities features those that allow us to sense the world
around us and coordinate our movements in order to interact with our environment. They
include visual, audio and tactile actions.
4. Physical abilities. These abilities refer to those involved with strength, endurance,
dexterity and flexibility etc.
5. Skilled movements. Objectives set in this area are those that include movements
learned for sport (twisting the body in high diving or trampolining), dance or playing a
 musical instrument (placing fingers on guitar strings to produce the correct note). It is
these movements that we sometimes use the layman’s term “muscle memory”.
6. Non-discursive communication. Meaning communication without writing, non-
discursive communication refers to physical actions such as facial expressions, posture
and gestures.

CLICK HERE to learn much more about Bloom’s Taxonomy

4. Gagné’s Conditions of Learning

Robert Mills Gagné

Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist who, in 1965 published his book “The
Conditions of Learning”. In it, he discusses the analysis of learning objectives and how the different
classes of objective require specific teaching methods.

He called these his 5 conditions of learning, all of which fall under the cognitive, affective and psycho-
motor domains discussed earlier.
Gagné’s 5 Conditions of Learning

 Verbal information (Cognitive domain)

 Intellectual skills (Cognitive domain)
 Cognitive strategies (Cognitive domain)
 Motor skills (Psycho-Motor domain)
 Attitudes (Affective domain)
Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning

To achieve his five conditions of learning, Gagné believed that learning would take place when students
progress through nine levels of learning and that any teaching session should include a sequence of
events through all nine levels. The idea was that the nine levels of learning activate the five conditions of
learning and thus, learning will be achieved.

1. Gain attention.
2. Inform students of the objective.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning.
4. Present the content.
5. Provide learning guidance.
6. Elicit performance (practice).
7. Provide feedback.
8. Assess performance.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job.
Benefits of Gagné’s Theory

Used in conjunction with Bloom’s taxonomy, Gagné’s nine levels of learning provide a framework that
teachers can use to plan lessons and topics. Bloom provides the ability to set objectives that are
differentiated and Gagné gives a scaffold to build your lesson on.

5. Jerome Bruner

Jerome Bruner
Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)

Cognitive learning theorist, Jerome Bruner based the spiral curriculum on his idea that “We begin with
the hypothesis that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at
any stage of development”.

In other words, he meant that even very complex topics can be taught to young children if structured and
presented in the right way. The spiral curriculum is based on three key ideas.

1. Students revisit the same topic multiple times throughout their school career. This
reinforces the learning each time they return to the subject.
2. The complexity of the topic increases each time a student revisits it. This allows
progression through the subject matter as the child’s cognitive ability develops with age.
3. When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are linked with ones they have previously
learned. The student’s familiarity with the keywords and ideas enables them to grasp the
more difficult elements of the topic in a stronger way.
Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966)

Following the idea of the spiral curriculum, Bruner presented the idea of three modes of representation.
These modes of representation refer to the way knowledge is stored in memory. Unlike Piaget’s age-
related stages, Bruner’s modes are loosely sequential.

1. Enactive (age 0-1 years). Representation of knowledge through physical actions.

2. Iconic (age 1-6 years). Visual representation of knowledge stored via visual images.
3. Symbolic (age 7+ years). The use of words and symbols to describe experiences.
6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Abraham Maslow

The basic premise for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that students progress through a set of sequential
needs from physiological to self-actualisation. As they move up through the levels, they feel more
comfortable in their learning environment and have the confidence to push further.

It’s important to note that any group of students will have learners at different levels, some may not have
the lower levels met at home so making sure these students feel safe and secure is of the utmost
importance as they will find it very hard to move to the upper levels.

Maslow’s theory lends itself more to building student/teacher relationships rather than lesson or
curriculum structure. You can have the best resources and most tightly planned lessons in the world but if
you don’t show enthusiasm, passion and empathy it will be very difficult for your students to feel their
needs have been met.

Further reading: simplypsychology.org
7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner is an American developmental psychologist and professor of cognition and education at
the Harvard graduate school at Harvard University. He studied under Erik Ericson (Below) and Jerome
Bruner (above).

He published “Frames of Mind” in 1983, in it, he laid out his theory of “multiple intelligences”.

Gardner perceived intelligence as the ability to solve problems or make products that are useful in one or
more cultural settings.

He developed a list of criteria he would use to judge possible contenders for the title “intelligence”.
Candidates had to satisfy a range of the conditions on his list and also be able to solve genuine problems
of difficulties. Initially, Gardner named seven intelligences.

Gardner’s 7 Intelligences

1. Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use language in written and spoken
forms to express oneself.
2. Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve problems logically, to solve mathematical
problems and to perform scientific investigations.
3. Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation, composition and performance of
musical patterns, including the ability to recognise tone, pitch and rhythm.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body movements to
solve problems.
5. Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognise and use patterns in a wide or confined
space.
6. Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and
intentions of other people.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and
motivations.
The Importance of Multiple Intelligence in the Classroom

Gardner suggested that the intelligences rarely operate independently and compliment each other as
students learn new skills and solve problems. He also commented that the intelligences are amoral,
meaning they can be used for constructive or destructive purposes.
Whilst Gardner’s theory hasn’t been hugely accepted in the field of Psychology, it has had a strong
positive response in education, especially in the US.

In the face of criticism that it is hard to teach things in the frame of a certain intelligence, Gardner replied
by stating that the seven intelligences give 7 ways to teach a subject, allowing multiple strategies to be
used, thus allowing all students to make progress.

Gardner believes that all seven intelligences are required to live life well and education systems should
include all seven not just the more academic first two.

Naturalist Intelligence

Since its original publication, Gardner has since added an eighth intelligence; Naturalist intelligence. This
deals with an individual’s ability to perceive, recognise and order features from the environment.

8. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological Development

Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who developed Freud’s “Psychosexual Theory” and adapted it into a
psychosocial (having both psychological and social aspects) theory encompassing eight stages.

According to Erikson, we experience eight stages of development during our life span. Within each stage,
there is a dilemma that we must resolve in order to feel a sense of competence and will allow us to
develop as a well-adjusted adult.

Erikson’s 8 Stages

1. Trust Vs. Mistrust (Age 0 – 1.5). In this first stage, infants must learn that adults can be
trusted. If treated poorly children may grow up feeling mistrust towards people.
2. Autonomy Vs. Shame (Age 1.5 – 3). The “me do it’ stage, children start to make
decisions and show preferences of elements in their environment such as what clothes to
wear or what toy they prefer. If children are not allowed to explore these preferences they
may develop low self-esteem and shame.
 3. Initiative Vs. Guilt (Age 3 – 5). This stage involves children learning to plan and achieve
goals involving others. If parents or teachers allow children to explore this and support
their choices they will develop a sense of purpose and strong self-confidence.
4. Industry Vs. Inferiority (Age 5 – 12). In this stage, children start comparing themselves
with their peers. Success at this will result in a sense of accomplishment in their school
work, social and family activities and sports.
5. Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Age 12 – 18). Students in this stage are asking
themselves “Who am I” and “What do I want to do in my life”. They will try out multiple
roles during this time to find what one “fits” best. A strong sense of identity and an ability
to defend their core beliefs in the face of other opinions would be considered success at
this stage.
6. Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Age 18 – 40). As students progress into early adulthood their
focus shifts to making and maintaining strong, intimate relationships with others.
7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Age 40 – 65). In middle adulthood, people are concerned
with contributing to society either through their work or parenthood. Continued self-
improvement for the benefit of other people figures strongly here.
8. Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (Age 65+). Those in late adulthood reflect on their lives,
feeling a sense of satisfaction or failure. Those who feel failure will often obsess with
ideas of what they “should have” or “could have” done.
Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Within an educational frame, Erikson’s work gives us as teachers a framework to base our teaching on.
Knowing what questions our students are asking of themselves and the world around them allows us to
plan effectively.

Problems arise when our class has children at different stages in it, in this case, we must carefully
differentiate our pedagogy to allow supportive learning for all students.

9. Kolb’s Experiential Theory

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle

 David Kolb

David Kolb, an American education theorist proposed his four-stage experiential learning theory in 1984.
It is built on the premise that learning is the acquisition of abstract concepts which can then be applied to
a range of scenarios.

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”

– Kolb, D. A. (1984).  Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol.
1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the next stage. Learning is achieved only if all four
stages have been completed, however, a learner may travel around the cycle multiple times, further
refining their understanding of the topic.

No one stage is an effective learning strategy on its own, for example, if the reflective observation stage is
skipped, the learner could continue to make the same mistakes.

CLICK HERE to learn more about Dual Coding Theory

10. The Peter Principle

Laurence Peter

The Peter Principle was developed by American educational theorist Laurence Peter and was explained
in the book “The Peter Principle” that Peter wrote with his colleague, Raymond Hull.
Originally the book was supposed to be a satirical view on how people are promoted in organisations but
it became popular as it actually made a valid point.

Whilst not strictly a learning theory, it does have some crossover to the classroom. The Peter Principal
deals with four levels of competence. They could give a teacher planning a long term teaching strategy a
framework to use when thinking about how students progress.

1. Unconscious Incompetence. Not knowing how to do a task without knowing you don’t

know.
2. Conscious Incompetence. You still don’t know how to do the task but now you know
you don’t know. You are aware of a gap in your knowledge.
3. Conscious Competence. You can now do the task but it requires a lot of concentration.
4. Unconscious Competence. You can perform the task with ease. This is achieved by
repeated practice.
I’m sure you can see how this would translate to a student’s learning journey.

Further Reading: Peter, L. J., & Hull, R. (1969). The peter principle.

11. Laird’s Sensory Theory

In 1985 Dugan Laird stated in his book Approaches to Training and Development that learning occurs
when the senses are stimulated.

He quoted research that found that 75% of an adult’s knowledge was obtained by seeing. 13% was
through hearing, the remaining 12% was learned through touch, smell and taste combined.

Based on this research, providing visual prompts for students will enhance their learning. However,
making your lessons a multi-sensual experience will enhance learning even further. It’s worth considering
this when planning your lessons.

12. Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory

 B. F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” (1898), in which it is proposed that
behaviors that are followed by positive responses are likely to be repeated and those that are followed by
negative responses, not repeated.

Skinner refined the Law of Effect by introducing “reinforcement” into the descriptions. Using Skinner’s new
description we end up with; those behaviors that are reinforced are repeated (strengthened) and those
not reinforced tend to dissipate (are weakened).

Positive Reinforcement

From a classroom management perspective, positive reinforcement is an essential strategy for teaching
students how to act and conduct themselves.

Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise) should be given for behaviors that are desirable, for example,
verbally answering questions in class. Initially, this should be done for all answers given, regardless of
whether they are correct. This will build a culture of answering questions.

As the behavior in question becomes commonplace, the teacher should then both reduce the frequency
of the reinforcement and, as in our above example, only give it for correct answers.

Ultimately the teacher will reduce the frequency of the positive reinforcement to only those responses of
the highest calibre. This will create a culture of desired excellence in the students.

13. Rogers’ Humanist Theory

 Carl Rogers

Developed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers in the 1980s, facilitative learning is a humanistic
approach to learning.

Humanism

Humanism was developed to contrast cognitivism and behaviorism. Both Rogers and Maslow (see above)
based their work in humanism. The key perspectives of humanism are as follows:

 People have a natural desire to learn in order to achieve self-actualisation (see Maslow’s
theory above).
 It is not the outcome that is the most important part of education, it is the process of
learning itself.
 The students themselves should be in control of their learning and it should be achieved
through observing and exploring.
 The teacher should be an encouraging role model, motivating, guiding and supporting
students on their own personal journey.
Facilitative Learning

Rogers’ views the teacher as a facilitator to learning rather than just a conveyor of knowledge. The
success of the teacher is in their ability to build positive relationships with students.

Roger’s proposed three attitudinal core characteristics that a teacher should possess for facilitative
learning to be successful:

 Realness. The teacher should be themselves and use their own personality when
teaching. Being “real” with students breeds an ethos of trust between students and a
teacher. The teacher should be able to convey their feelings rather than just being a
monotonal, monochromatic robot.
 Prizing, Accepting and Trusting. A teacher should care about their students and accept
their feelings, regardless of whether they assist or detract from learning. Through these
characteristics, deeper trust and respect is built.
 Empathy. Understanding the student’s perception of learning and their feelings.
The effectiveness of facilitative learning also requires certain traits to be present in the student. They
should be motivated, aware of the facilitative conditions they have been provided with and aware that the
task they have been given is useful, realistic and relevant.

If all these characteristics are present then, in the words of Rogers himself:

“learning becomes life, and a very vital life at that. The student is on his way, sometimes excitedly,
sometimes reluctantly, to becoming a learning, changing being”.

– Rogers, Carl R. The Interpersonal Relationship in the Facilitation of Learning. In Humanizing Education:
The Person in the Process. Ed. T. Leeper. National Education Association, Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, p1-18. 1967.

14. Canter’s Theory of Assertive Discipline

Lee Canter

Assertive discipline is a structured system to enable teachers to manage their classrooms. It focuses on
the teacher developing a positive behavior management strategy rather than being dictatorial.

Canter’s proposition is that the teacher has the right to decide what is best for their students and that no
student should prevent any other from learning.

The teacher should very clear boundaries as to how they expect their students to behave and work, the
students should know what these boundaries are and any deviation should be met with an assertive
action from the teacher.

This all sounds quite draconian, right?

However, if the teacher gives a firm, clear instruction and those instructions are met, they should be
followed by positive reinforcement (see Skinner above). Any deviation from the instruction should be met
with negative consequences that the students have prior knowledge of.

The behavior management guru, Bill Rogers, bases his strategies on the assertive teacher model, which I
know from personal use, works incredibly well.
15. Dreikur’s Classroom Management Theory

Rudolph Dreikur

Rudolf Dreikur proposed the theory that mutual respect should be the basis for discipline and that this
mutual respect motivates learners to display positive behaviors.

He believed students have an innate desire to feel like an accepted member of a group and to feel like
they have value and confidence to contribute to that group. Dreikur called this desire to belong, the
“genuine goal of social behavior”.

If students are unable to achieve this goal, they start a series of “goals of misbehavior”. The resulting
misbehavior is a misguided attempt at gaining the sense of belonging they are missing.

Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehavior

1. Gain attention.
2. Gain power and control.
3. Gain revenge.
4. Display feelings of inadequacy.
If a student fails to gain social status by gaining attention, they move on to trying to gain power and
control, failure at each successive level ultimately ends with feelings of inadequacy.

How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehavior.

Gain Attention. Ignore the attention-seeking and use positive reinforcement when positive behavior is
shown. Distract the student by offering alternate actions or choices e.g. “Please could you hand out the
books”.

Gain Power and Control. Focus on all the good behavior in the class, while ignoring the attempt to gain
power, on no account should you engage in a battle for power. Bill Rogers, the behavior expert, calls this
the black dot, white square approach.

Gain Revenge. Remember that the student is trying to gain a sense of belonging and this revenge-
seeking is a masked attempt to gain it. Away from other students, let the student know that you care
about them and their education, that despite their actions you want the best for them.

Display Feelings of Inadequacy. At this stage, the student has given up on themselves. This stage will
manifest in the form of “not doing” (not doing homework, not participating etc.). Students at this stage
should be shown how to recognise small successes and achievements. Showing an interest in them and
their work will always help slowly bring a student out of this stage.

Learning Theories Summary

I know what you’re thinking. “How the hell am I supposed to do all of these” or “which ones should I use”
or “I’m more confused than ever!”.

That’s how I felt when I was doing my teacher training. The truth is, great teaching involves a cocktail of
most of these at some point (and a few actual cocktails at the weekend to recover!).

If you are just starting out on your journey as a teacher and you are worried that you’ll do it wrong, just
remember these basic principles:

1. Building positive relationships with students is the bedrock of EVERYTHING.

2. Setting clear boundaries that students are aware of.
3. Consequences of breaking those boundaries are also known in advance.
4. Focus on and reward the positive things that happen in your classroom (positive
reinforcement).
5. Treat your students as people with thoughts and feelings of their own that, while may
seem irrelevant to you, they are not to them.
6. It is easier and more effective to change your perspective to theirs than make them
change to yours.
7. Remember, their world is not the one you grew up in.
I hope you found this article useful, I know it reminded me of a good few things that I may have been
slacking with. Feel free to share it with your teacher friends, I’m sure they will appreciate it.

Learning Theories FAQ

What Are Learning Theories?

Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students learn. Learning
theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire, retain and recall new
information.

What Is Behaviorism?

Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for
establishing rules, especially for behavior management. Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge
is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviorist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that
should be provided with the information to be learnt. Through this interaction, new associations are made
and thus leaning occurs. Learning is achieved when the provided stimulus changes behavior.

What Is Cognitivism?

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive
rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism. There is still a behavior change evident,
but this is in response to thinking and processing information. In cognitive load theory, learning occurs
when the student reorganises information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.

What Is Constructivism?

Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our own prior
knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to the individual learner. Students adapt their
models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or resolving misconceptions. Students need
to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral
curriculum is a great example of constructivism in action.

Management Theories

What are Management Theories?

Management theories are concepts surrounding recommended management strategies, which may
include tools such as frameworks and guidelines that can be implemented in modern organizations.
Generally, professionals will not rely solely on one management theory alone, but instead, introduce
several concepts from different management theories that best suit their workforce and company culture.

At a Glance

Until the day that machines are able to think, talk, and experience emotions, humans will remain the most
complicated beings to manage. Humans can never achieve the kind of error-free performance
that machines provide. On the upside, there are tons of things that machines aren’t capable of doing,
making humans indispensable assets. For such reason, proper management is one of the most crucial
things for an organization.

For a long time, theorists have been researching the most suitable forms of management for different
work settings. This is where management theories come into play. Although some of these theories were
developed centuries ago, they still provide stable frameworks for running businesses.
Popular Management Theories
1. Scientific Management Theory

American mechanical engineer Frederick Taylor, who was one of the earliest management theorists,
pioneered the scientific management theory. He and his associates were among the first individuals to
study work performance scientifically. Taylor’s philosophy emphasized the fact that forcing people to work
hard wasn’t the best way to optimize results. Instead, Taylor recommended simplifying tasks so as to
increase productivity.

The strategy was a bit different from how businesses were conducted beforehand. Initially, a factory
executive enjoyed minimal, if any, contact with his employees. There was absolutely no way of
standardizing workplace rules and the only motivation of the employees was job security.

According to Taylor, money was the key incentive for working, which is why he developed the “fair day’s
wages for a fair day’s work” concept. Since then, the scientific management theory has been practiced
worldwide. The resulting collaboration between employees and employers evolved into the teamwork that
people now enjoy.

2. Systems Management Theory

Systems management offers an alternative approach to the planning and management of organizations.
The systems management theory proposes that businesses, like the human body, consists of multiple
components that work harmoniously so that the larger system can function optimally. According to the
theory, the success of an organization depends on several key elements: synergy, interdependence, and
interrelations between various subsystems.

Employees are one of the most important components of a company. Other elements crucial to the
success of a business are departments, workgroups, and business units. In practice, managers are
required to evaluate patterns and events in their companies so as to determine the best management
approach. This way, they are able to collaborate on different programs so that they can work as a
collective whole rather than as isolated units.

3. Contingency Management Theory

The main concept behind the contingency management theory is that no one management approach
suits every organization. There are several external and internal factors that will ultimately affect the
chosen management approach. The contingency theory identifies three variables that are likely to
influence an organization’s structure: the size of an organization, technology being employed, and style of
leadership.

Fred Fiedler is the theorist behind the contingency management theory. Fiedler proposed that the traits of
a leader were directly related to how effectively he led. According to Fiedler’s theory, there’s a set of
leadership traits handy for every kind of situation. It means that a leader must be flexible enough to adapt
to the changing environment. The contingency management theory can be summed up as follows:

 There is no one specific technique for managing an organization.

 A leader should be quick to identify the particular management style suitable for a particular
situation.
 The primary component of Fiedler’s contingency theory is LPC – the least preferred co-worker
scale. LPC is used to assess how well oriented a manager is.
4. Theory X and Theory Y

Do you believe that every individual gets maximum satisfaction from the work they do? Or are you of the
opinion that some view work as a burden and only do it for the money? Such assumptions influence how
an organization is run. The assumptions also form the basis of Theory X and Theory Y.

Douglas McGregor is the theorist credited with developing these two contrasting concepts. More
specifically, these theories refer to two management styles: the authoritarian (Theory X) and participative
(Theory Y).

In an organization where team members show little passion for their work, leaders are likely to employ the
authoritarian style of management. But if employees demonstrate a willingness to learn and are
enthusiastic about what they do, their leader is likely to use participative management. The management
style that a manager adopts will influence just how well he can keep his team members motivated.

Theory X holds a pessimistic view of employees in the sense that they cannot work in the absence of
incentives. Theory Y, on the other hand, holds an optimistic opinion of employees. The latter theory
proposes that employees and managers can achieve a collaborative and trust-based relationship.

Still, there are a couple of instances where Theory X can be applied. For instance, large corporations that
hire thousands of employees for routine work may find adopting this form of management ideal.

Why Study Management Theories?

1. Increasing Productivity

One of the reasons why managers should be interested in learning management theories is because it
helps in maximizing their productivity. Ideally, the theories teach leaders how to make the most of the
human assets at their disposal. So, rather than purchase new equipment or invest in a new marketing
strategy, business owners need to invest in their employees through training.

It can be seen in Taylor’s scientific management theory. As mentioned earlier, Taylor proposed that the
best way to boost workers’ productivity was by first observing their work processes and then creating the
best policies.

2. Simplifying Decision Making

Another area where management theories have proven to be useful is in the decision-making process.
Max Weber proposed that hierarchical systems encourage informed decision-making. A report written by
the Institute for Employment Studies suggests that flattening the hierarchy paves the way for local
innovation while speeding up the decision-making process. Flattening out entails getting rid of job titles
and senior positions so as to inspire a cohesive work environment.

3. Encouraging Staff Participation

Management theories developed in the 1900s, aimed at encouraging interpersonal relationships in the
workplace. One such theory that encouraged a collaborative environment is the human relations
approach. According to this theory, business owners needed to give their employees more power in
making decisions.

Key Takeaway

Throughout history, companies have been putting different management theories into practice. Not only
have they helped to increase productivity but they have also improved the quality of services. Although
these management theories were developed ages ago, they help in creating interconnected work
environments where employees and employers work hand-in-hand. Some of the most popular
management theories that are applied nowadays are systems theory, contingency theory, Theory X and
Theory Y, and the scientific management theory.