030090501

Computer Network

Unit-2
Data Link Layer

Prof. Ekta Patel

9662513192
[email protected]

Unit-2 Weightage : 15%

 Topic Covered
1. Introduction to Data Link Layer

2. Design Issues:
2.1 Services provided to network layer
2.2 Framing
2.3 Flow control
2.4 Error control

3. Error detection and correction:

3.1 Error detecting codes
3.2 Error correcting codes

4. Elementary data link protocols

4.1 Noiseless Channel Protocol
4.2 Noisy Channel Protocol (Sliding window Protocol)

5. High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 2 CGPIT, UTU

1. INTRODUCTION OF DATA LINK LAYER

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Working
1.3 Responsibility

Back to Outline
 1.1 Data Link Layer (DLL)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 4 CGPIT, UTU

 1.2 Working DLL

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 5 CGPIT, UTU

 1.3 Responsibility of DLL
▪ Data link layer is concerned with:
✔ Physical addressing (MAC Address)
✔ Framing – divide bits stream into data unit (frame)
✔ Error control – bit loses, retransmission
✔ Flow control – avoid over overwhelming
✔ Access control (Unit-3)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 6 CGPIT, UTU

2. DESIGN ISSUES

2.1 Services provided to network layer

2.2 Framing
2.3 Error Control
2.4 Flow Control

Back to Outline
 2.1 Service Provided to Network Layer

Relationship between packets and frames.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 8 CGPIT, UTU

 2.1 Service Provided to Network Layer

1. Unacknowledged connectionless service.

✔ E.g. Ethernet

2. Acknowledged connectionless service.

✔ E.g. Wifi 802.11

3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service.

✔ E.g. Telephone Connection

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 9 CGPIT, UTU

 2.2 Framing
• The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that
each frame is distinguishable from another.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 10 CGPIT, UTU

 2.2 Framing
1. Fixed size – The frame is of fixed size and there is no need to provide
boundaries to the frame, length of the frame itself acts as delimiter.

✔ Drawback: It suffers from internal fragmentation if data size is less than frame size
✔ Solution: Padding

2. Variable size – In this there is need to define end of frame as well as beginning
of next frame to distinguish. This can be done in two ways:

✔ Length field – We can introduce a length field in the frame to indicate the length of the
frame. Used in Ethernet(802.3). The problem with this is that sometimes the length field
might get corrupted. (E.g Byte Counting)

✔ End Delimeter (ED) – We can introduce an ED(pattern) to indicate the end of the frame.
Used in Token Ring. The problem with this is that ED can occur in the data. This can be
solved by:
▪ Character/Byte Stuffing
▪ Bit Stuffing

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 11 CGPIT, UTU

 Length Field (Byte Counting)

A byte stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 12 CGPIT, UTU

 End Delimiter (Character/Byte Stuffing)

▪ FLAG : A frame delimited by FLAG bytes.

▪ ESC : The ESC byte delimiter used when frame having flag as data.
▪ Four examples of byte sequences before and after byte stuffing.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 13 CGPIT, UTU

 End Delimiter (Character/Byte Stuffing)

▪ Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte whenever there is a flag or
escape character in the text.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 14 CGPIT, UTU

 End Delimiter (Flag bits with bit stuffing)

Bit stuffing. (a) The original data. (b) The data as they appear on
the line. (c) The data as they are stored in the receiver’s memory after destuffing.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 15 CGPIT, UTU

 End Delimiter (Flag bits with bit stuffing)

▪ Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow a 0
in the data
▪ so that the receiver does not mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 16 CGPIT, UTU

 2.3 Flow Control

▪ Flow Control: Flow control coordinates that amount of data that

can be sent before receiving an acknowledgement.

➢ It is one of the most important duties of the data link layer.

➢ Flow control tells the sender how much data to send.
➢ It makes the sender wait for some sort of an acknowledgement
(ACK) before continuing to send more data.
➢ Flow Control Techniques:
1. Stop-and-wait
2. Sliding Window

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 17 CGPIT, UTU

 2.4 Error Control

• Data-link layer uses error control techniques to ensure that frames

(i.e. bit streams of data) are transmitted from the source to the
destination with a certain extent of accuracy.

• Errors: When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they
are subject to get corrupted due to interference and network
problems.

• The corrupted bits leads to spurious data being received by the

destination and are called errors.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 18 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of the Error
• Errors can be of three types, namely single bit errors, multiple bit
errors, and burst errors.

• Single bit error − In the received frame, only one bit has been
corrupted, i.e. either changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 19 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of the Error
Multiple bits error − In the received frame, more than one bits are
corrupted.

Burst error − In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits
are corrupted.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 20 CGPIT, UTU

 2.4 Error Control

➢ Error Control Techniques:

1. Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether

any error has occurred or not.
➢ The number of error bits and the type of error does not matter.

2. Error correction − Error correction involves ascertaining the

exact number of bits that has been corrupted and the
location of the corrupted bits.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 21 CGPIT, UTU

3. ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION
3.1 Error Detection Code
1. Parity Check
2. Checksum
3. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)

3.2 Error Correction Code

1. Backward Error Correction (Retransmission)
2. Forward Error Correction

Back to Outline
 3.1 Error Detection Code
▪ Error detection : A condition when the receiver’s information does not match
with the sender’s information.

▪ During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors
in the binary bits travelling from sender to receiver.

▪ Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy bits, where
additional bits are added to facilitate detection of errors.

▪ Some popular techniques for error detection are:

1. Parity Check
2. Checksum
3. Cyclic redundancy check

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 23 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Error Detection Code (Parity Check)
• The parity check is done by adding an extra bit, called parity bit to the
data to make a number of “1” either even in case of even parity or odd in
case of odd parity.

• While creating a frame, the sender counts the number of 1s in it and

adds the parity bit in the following ways :
Data bit Parity bit
1. Even parity:
✔ If a number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 0. Ex-1. 101101 0
✔ If the number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 1. Ex-2. 100011 1

2. Odd parity: :
✔ If a number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 0. Ex-3. 100011 0
✔ If a number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 1.
Ex-4. 101101 1

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 24 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Error Detection Code (Parity Check)

Even Parity

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 25 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Error Detection Code (Parity Check)
▪ On receiving a frame, the receiver counts the number of 1s
in it. In case of even parity check, if the count of 1s is even,
the frame is accepted, otherwise, it is rejected.

• A similar rule is adopted for odd parity check.

• The parity check is suitable for single bit error detection only.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 26 CGPIT, UTU

 2. Error Detection Code (Checksum)
▪ In this Checksum error detection scheme, the following procedure is
applied:

• Checksum Generate and Validation Process :

1. Data is divided into fixed sized frames or segments.

2. The sender Side :
1. addition the all frame (segment) to get the sum.
2. complements the sum to get the checksum.
3. sends all data frames along with checksum to receiver.
3. The receiver Side :
1. addition the all frame (segment) received..
2. Addition the checksum with sum value.
3. Find 1’s complement of final sum and if it is all 0’s then data receive correctly.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 27 CGPIT, UTU

 Checksum Example-1

Checksum

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 28 CGPIT, UTU

 Checksum Example-2

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 29 CGPIT, UTU

 Checksum Example-2

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 30 CGPIT, UTU

 Checksum Example-3

▪ Suppose our data is a list of five 4-bit numbers that we want to

send to a destination. In addition to sending these numbers,
▪ we send the sum of the numbers. For example, if the set of
numbers is (7, 11, 12, 0, 6),
▪ we send (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 36), where 36 is the sum of the original
numbers.
▪ The receiver adds the five numbers and compares the result with
the sum.
▪ If the two are the same, the receiver assumes no error, accepts
the five numbers, and discards the sum.
▪ Otherwise, there is an error somewhere and the data are not
accepted.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 31 CGPIT, UTU

 3. Error Detection Code (Cyclic Redundancy Code)

▪ CRC or Cyclic Redundancy Check is a method of detecting accidental

changes/errors in the communication channel.

▪ CRC involves binary division of the data bits being sent by a

predetermined divisor agreed upon by the communicating system.
▪ The divisor is generated using polynomials.
▪ So, CRC is also called polynomial code checksum.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 32 CGPIT, UTU

 3. Error Detection Code (Cyclic Redundancy Code)

▪ Error detection using CRC technique involves the following steps :

▪ Step-1 : Calculation Of CRC At Sender Side

✔ A string of n 0’s is appended to the data unit to be transmitted.
✔ Here, n is one less than the number of bits in CRC generator.
✔ Binary division is performed of the resultant string with the CRC generator.
✔ After division, the remainder so obtained is called as CRC.
✔ It may be noted that CRC also consists of n bits.

▪ Step-2 : Appending CRC To Data Unit at Sender Side

✔ The CRC is obtained after the binary division.
✔ The string of n 0’s appended to the data unit earlier is replaced by the CRC
remainder.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 33 CGPIT, UTU

 3. Error Detection Code (Cyclic Redundancy Code)

▪ Step-3 : Transmission To Receiver

✔ The newly formed code word (Original data + CRC) is transmitted to the
receiver.

▪ Step-4 : Checking at Receiver Side

✔ The transmitted code word is received.
✔ The received code word is divided with the same CRC generator.
✔ On division, the remainder so obtained is checked.
✔ If the remainder is zero, Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the
data during the transmission.
✔ If the remainder is non-zero, Receiver assumes that some error occurred in
the data during the transmission.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 34 CGPIT, UTU

 3. Error Detection Code (Cyclic Redundancy Code)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 35 CGPIT, UTU

CRC Example-1

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 36 CGPIT, UTU

CRC Example-1 without error

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 37 CGPIT, UTU

CRC Example-1 with error

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 38 CGPIT, UTU

CRC Example-3

Example calculation of the CRC

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 39 CGPIT, UTU
 CRC Example-4
Calculate CRC for the given data word in polynomial x3+1 and
divisor x3+x+1 where codeword will be of 7 bits. Also show
the generation of codeword at sender side and checking of
code word at receiver side.

CRC Example-5

▪ A bit stream 10011101 is transmitted using the standard CRC

method. The generator polynomial is x3+1.
✔ What is the actual bit string transmitted?
✔ Suppose the third bit from the left is inverted during transmission. How will
receiver detect this error?

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 40 CGPIT, UTU

 3.2 Error Correcting Code
▪ Error Correction : Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the
errors when data is transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

▪ In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:

1. Backward Error Correction : When the receiver detects an error in the data
received, it requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit.

2. Forward Error Correction : When the receiver detects some error in the data
received, it executes error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and
to correct some kinds of errors. Some popular error correcting methods :
▪ Hamming codes.
▪ Binary convolution codes.
▪ Reed-Solomon codes.
▪ Low-Density Parity Check codes

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 41 CGPIT, UTU

 Error Correcting Code (Hamming Code)

• The Hamming distance between two codewords is simply the

number of bits that are disparate between two bit strings as
demonstrated in below figure.

• Hamming distance will be calculated on same length binary

string.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 42 CGPIT, UTU

 Error Correcting Code (Hamming Code 7-Bit)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 43 CGPIT, UTU

4. ELEMENTARY DATA LINK PROTOCOLS
4.1 Noiseless Channel Protocol
- Simple Protocol
- Stop & Wait Protocol

4.2 Noisy Channel Protocol

- Stop & Wait ARQ
- Go-Back-N ARQ
- Selective Repeat ARQ

Back to Outline
 Elementary Data Link Layer Protocols
• Now let us see how the data link layer can combine framing, flow
control, and error control to achieve the delivery of data from one
node to another.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 45 CGPIT, UTU

 Noiseless channel (Simple Protocol)
• An ideal channel in which no frames are lost, duplicated or
corrupted is regarded as Noiseless Channel.
• The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error control.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 46 CGPIT, UTU

 Noiseless channel (Simple Protocol)

▪ In simplest protocol, there is no flow control and error control mechanism.

▪ It is a unidirectional protocol in which data frames travel in only one direction
(from sender to receiver).
▪ Also, the receiver can immediately handle any received frame with a processing
time that is small enough to be negligible.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 47 CGPIT, UTU

 Noiseless channel (Stop and Wait Protocol)
▪ The simplest retransmission protocol is stop-and-wait.
• Transmitter (Station A) sends a frame over the communication line and then
waits for a positive or negative acknowledgement from the receiver (station B).
• If no error occurs in the transmission, station B sends a positive
acknowledgement (ACK) to station A.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 48 CGPIT, UTU

 Noiseless channel (Stop and Wait Protocol)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 49 CGPIT, UTU

 Noisy channel (Error Control)
• Consider the normal situation of a communication channel that
makes errors and flow control require.

• Errors Control Mechanism:

• Receiver not able to process incoming frame
• Communication channel may corrupt the frame
• Frame may lost in channel and receive late at receiver
• Damage frame received at receiver

• ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) : ARQ is a technique to deal with

frame error or lost frames by retransmitting them.
• Feedback channel acknowledgement (ACK)
• Time-out Timer will be set.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 50 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of acknowledgement
1. Lost ACK:
client server

Time out
Solution : Time-Out Timer Set

Lost

Time out

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 51 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of acknowledgement
2. Negative ACK:
client server

Time out

Time out

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 52 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of acknowledgement
3. Delayed ACK:
client server

Solution : ACK + Sequence No.

Time out

Time out

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 53 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of acknowledgement
4. Independent ACK:
client server

Time out

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 54 CGPIT, UTU

 Types of acknowledgement
5. Commutative ACK:
client server

Time out

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 55 CGPIT, UTU

 Noisy channel (Flow Control)
• Flow Control Mechanism:
• In Noisy channel flow control is also important task.
• For improve efficiency user can send multiple frame

• Sliding Window Protocol :

• It is a flow control protocol.
• Multiple frames can be sent by a sender at a time before receiving an
acknowledgment from the receiver.
• The term sliding window refers to the imaginary boxes to hold frames.
Sliding window method is also known as windowing.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 56 CGPIT, UTU

 Sliding Window Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 57 CGPIT, UTU

 Sliding Window Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 58 CGPIT, UTU

 Noisy channel Protocol
Data Link Layer Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 59 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Stop and Wait ARQ Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 60 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Stop and Wait ARQ Protocol
ARQ : Automatic Repeat Request
Sender Window Size = 1
Receiver Window Size = 1

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 61 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Stop and Wait ARQ Protocol

ACK Lost
Frame Lost

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 62 CGPIT, UTU

 2. Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 63 CGPIT, UTU

 2. Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol
ARQ : Automatic Repeat Request
Sender Window Size = N
Receiver Window Size = 1

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 64 CGPIT, UTU

 2. Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 65 CGPIT, UTU

 2. Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 66 CGPIT, UTU

 2. Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

• Important Point of Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol :

1. Go back N, sender window size is N and receiver window size is always 1.

2. Go back N uses cumulative acknowledgements.
3. Go back N may use independent acknowledgements too.
4. Go back N does not accept the corrupted frames and silently discards them.
5. Go back N does not accept out of order frames and silently discards them.
6. Go back N leads to retransmission of entire window if for any frame, no ACK is
received by the sender.
7. Go back N leads to retransmission of lost frames after expiry of time out timer.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 67 CGPIT, UTU

3. Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol
3. Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol

Delivery of data in Selective Repeat ARQ

3. Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol
3. Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol
 3. Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol

• Important Point of Selective Repeat (SR) ARQ Protocol :

1. In SR protocol, sender window size is always same as receiver window size.

2. SR protocol uses independent acknowledgements only.
3. SR protocol does not accept the corrupted frames but does not silently discard
them.
4. SR protocol accepts the out of order frames.
5. SR protocol requires sorting at the receiver’s side.
6. SR protocol requires searching at the sender’s side.
7. SR protocol leads to retransmission of lost frames after expiry of time out
timer.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 72 CGPIT, UTU

 Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat Animation

• Animation Link :

• https://www2.tkn.tu-berlin.de/teaching/rn/animations/gbn_sr/

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 73 CGPIT, UTU

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 74 CGPIT, UTU
Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 75 CGPIT, UTU
Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 76 CGPIT, UTU
 Piggybacking

• Piggybacking means to ride over something.

• In piggybacking, the sender sends a data packet along with the

acknowledgment, if any acknowledgment needs to send at the time of
transmission of the data packet.

• In reliable full - duplex data transmission, the technique of hooking up

acknowledgments onto outgoing data frames is called piggybacking.

• For example, in single message may have two chunks one is for DATA
and the other is ACK. After piggybacking, there is a single message over
the wire in place of two.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 77 CGPIT, UTU

 Piggybacking

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 78 CGPIT, UTU

 Piggybacking

• Advantages :
• better use of bandwidth
• The underlying cable and intermediate switches, router, etc, will be less
loaded.
• If someone is paying the cost to utilize a network based on messages, then
the cost will also be reduced.

• Disadvantages :
• blocking of ack for some time.
• This may cause a connection to go down or may cause a service problem if
the delay is more than expected.
• To avoid problems, piggybacking uses a very small duration timer.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 79 CGPIT, UTU

5. HIGH-LEVEL DATA LINK CONTROL (HDLC)

5.1 Transfer Modes

5.2 HDLC Frame
5.3 Types of HDLC Frames

Back to Outline
 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)
▪ High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication
protocols of the data link layer for transmitting data between network
points or nodes.
▪ Since it is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames.
▪ A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination that verifies its
successful arrival.
▪ It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point
and multipoint communications.

1. Transfer Mode
2. HDLC Frame
3. Types of HDLC Frame

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 81 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Transfer Mode
▪ HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.
• Normal Response Mode (NRM) − It is used for both point - to - point and
multipoint communications.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 82 CGPIT, UTU

 1. Transfer Mode
▪ HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.
▪ Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is balanced, i.e.
each station can both send commands and respond to commands. It is used for
only point - to - point communications.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 83 CGPIT, UTU

 2. HDLC Frame
▪ HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields. The
structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame are:

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 84 CGPIT, UTU

 2. HDLC Frame
▪ HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields. The
structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame are:

▪ Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit
pattern of the flag is 01111110.
▪ Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the primary
station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it is sent by the
secondary station, it contains the address of the primary station. The address field may
be from 1 byte to several bytes.
▪ Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.
▪ Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary from one
network to another.
▪ FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The standard
code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 85 CGPIT, UTU

 3. Types of HDLC Frame
▪ There are three types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is determined by the
control field of the frame −

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 86 CGPIT, UTU

 3. Types of HDLC Frame
▪ There are three types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is determined
by the control field of the frame −

▪ I-frame − I-frames or Information frames carry user data from the

network layer. They also include flow and error control information that
is piggybacked on user data. The first bit of control field of I-frame is 0.

▪ S-frame − S-frames or Supervisory frames do not contain information

field. They are used for flow and error control when piggybacking is not
required. The first two bits of control field of S-frame is 10.

▪ U-frame − U-frames or Un-numbered frames are used for myriad

miscellaneous functions, like link management. It may contain an
information field, if required. The first two bits of control field of U-
frame is 11.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 87 CGPIT, UTU

 References
▪ Books :
1. Behrouz Forouzan - "Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking", TMH.
2. Andrew S. Tanenbaum - "Computer network", Pearson education.
▪ Website/Link :
1. https://www.darshan.ac.in/DIET/CE/GTU-Computer-Engineering-Study-
Material
2. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/network-devices-hub-repeater-bridge-
switch-router-gateways/
3. https://www.gatevidyalay.com/cyclic-redundancy-check-crc-error-
detection/
4. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/high-level-data-link-control-
hdlc#:~:text=High%2Dlevel%20Data%20Link%20Control%20(HDLC)%20i
s%20a%20group,that%20verifies%20its%20successful%20arrival.

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 88 CGPIT, UTU

 Thank You

Unit: 2 – Data Link Layer 89 CGPIT, UTU