LECTURE NOTES

ON
CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF HVDC AND FACTS DEVICES

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 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Historical Background
A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also
called a power super highway or an electrical super highway) uses direct current for
the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common
alternating current (AC) systems.[5] For long-distance transmission, HVDC systems
may be less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For underwater power cables,
HVDC avoids the heavy currents required to charge and discharge the cable
capacitance each cycle. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion
equipment compared to an AC system may still be justified, due to other benefits of
direct current links.
HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission
systems. Since the power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled independently
of the phase angle between source and load, it can stabilize a network against
disturbances due to rapid changes in power. HVDC also allows transfer of power
between grid systems running at different frequencies, such as 50 Hz and 60 Hz. This
improves the stability and economy of each grid, by allowing exchange of power
between incompatible networks.
Power Transmission was initially carried out in the early 1880s using Direct
Current (DC). With the availability of transformers (for stepping up the voltage for
transmission over long distances and for stepping down the voltage for safe use), the
development of robust induction motor (to serve the users of rotary power), the
availability of the superior synchronous generator, and the facilities of converting AC
to DC when required, AC gradually replaced DC. However in 1928, arising out of the
introduction of grid control to the mercury vapour rectifier around 1903, electronic
devices began to show real prospects for high voltage direct current (HVDC)

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transmission, because of the ability of these devices for rectification and inversion. The
most significant contribution to HVDC came when the Gotland Scheme in Sweden
was commissioned in 1954 to be the World's first commercial HVDC transmission
system. This was capable of transmitting 20 MW of power at a voltage of -100 kV and
consisted of a single 96 km cable with sea return.

Comparison of AC and DC transmission:

Advantages of HVDC over AC:

1) Technical Merits of HVDC:
The advantages of a DC link over an AC link are:
 A DC link allows power transmission between AC networks with different
frequencies or networks, which cannot be synchronized, for other reasons.
 Inductive and capacitive parameters do not limit the transmission capacity or
the maximum length of a DC overhead line or cable. The conductor cross
section is fully utilized because there is no skin effect.

For a long cable connection, e.g. beyond 40 km, HVDC will in most cases offer the
only technical solution because of the high charging current of an AC cable. This is
of particular interest for transmission across open sea or into large cities where a
DC cable may provide the only possible solution.
1 A digital control system provides accurate and fast control of the active power flow.
2 Fast modulation of DC transmission power can be used to damp power oscillations
in an AC grid and thus improve the system stability.

2) Economic considerations:
For a given transmission task, feasibility studies are carried out before the final
decision on implementation of an HVAC or HVDC system can be taken. Fig.1 shows

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a typical cost comparison curve between AC and DC transmission considering:AC vs.
DC station terminal costs

 AC vs. DC line costs

 AC vs. DC capitalized value of losses
The DC curve is not as steep as the AC curve because of considerably lower line
costs per kilometer. For long AC lines the cost of intermediate reactive power
compensation has to be taken into account. The break-even distance is in the
range of 500 to 800 km depending on a number of other factors, like country-
specific cost elements, interest rates for project financing, loss evaluation, cost
of right of way etc.

Fig 1: total cost/distance

3) During bad weather conditions, the corona loss and radio interference are lower
for a HVDC line compared to that in an AC line of same voltage and same

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 conductor size.
4) Due to the absence of inductance in DC, an HVDC line offers better voltage
regulation. Also, HVDC offers greater controllability compared to HVAC.
5) AC power grids are standardized for 50 Hz in some countries and 60 Hz in
other. It is impossible to interconnect two power grids working at different
frequencies with the help of an AC interconnection. An HVDC link makes this
possible.
6) Interference with nearby communication lines is lesser in the case of HVDC
overhead line than that for an HVAC line.
7) In longer distance HVAC transmission, short circuit current level in the
receiving system is high. An HVDC system does not contribute to the short
circuit current of the interconnected AC system.
8) Power flow control is easy in HVDC link.
9) High reliability.

Disadvantages of HVDC transmission:

 Converter stations needed to connect to AC power grids are very expensive.
Converter substations are more complex than HVAC substations, not only in
additional converting equipment, but also in more complicated control and
regulating systems.
 In contrast to AC systems, designing and operating multi-terminal HVDC
systems is complex.
 Converter substations generate current and voltage harmonics, while the
conversion process is accompanied by reactive power consumption. As a
result, it is necessary to install expensive filter-compensation units and
reactive power compensation units.

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  During short-circuits in the AC power systems close to connected HVDC
substations, power faults also occur in the HVDC transmission system for the
duration of the short-circuit.
 The number of substations within a modern multi-terminal
HVDC transmission system can be no larger than six to eight, and large
differences in their capacities are not allowed. The larger the number of
substations, the smaller may be the differences in their capacities.
 The high-frequency constituents found in direct current transmission systems
can cause radio noise in communications lines that are situated near the
HVDC transmission line.
 Grounding HVDC transmission involves a complex and difficult installation,
as it is necessary to construct a reliable and permanent contact to the Earth
for proper operation and to eliminate the possible creation of a dangerous
“step voltage.”

Applications of HVDC transmission:

Connecting remote generation
Some energy sources, such as hydro and solar power, are often located hundreds
or thousands kilometers away from the load centers. HVDC will reliably deliver
electricity generated from mountain tops, deserts and seas across vast distances
with low losses.
Interconnecting grids
Connecting ac grids is done for stabilization purposes and to allow energy
trading. During some specific circumstances, the connection has to be done
using HVDC, for example when the grids have different frequencies or when the
connection has to go long distances over water and ac cables cannot be used
because of the high losses.

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Connecting offshore wind
Wind parks are often placed far out at sea, because the wind conditions are more
advantageous there. If the distance to the grid on land exceeds a certain stretch,
the only possible solution is HVDC - due to the technology’s low losses.
Power from shore
Traditionally, oil and gas platforms use local generation to supply the electricity
needed to run the drilling equipment and for the daily need of often hundreds of
persons working on the platform. If the power is instead supplied from shore, via
an hvdc link, costs go down, emissions are lower and the working conditions on
the platform are improved.
Dc links in ac grids
HVDC links within an ac grid can be successfully utilized to strengthen the
entire transmission grid, especially under demanding load conditions and during
system disturbances. Transmission capacity will improve and bottlenecks be
dissolved.
City-center in feed
HVDC systems are ideal for feeding electricity into densely populated urban
centers. Because it is possible to use land cables, the transmission is invisible,
thus avoiding the opposition and uncertain approval of overhead lines.
Connecting remote loads
Islands and remotely located mines often have the disadvantage of a weak
surrounding ac grid. Feeding power into the grid with an HVDC link, improves
the stability and even prevents black-outs.

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 Types of DC link:

For connecting two networks or system, various types of HVDC links are used.
HVDC links are classified into three types. These links are explained below:
1) Monopolar link:
 It has a single conductor of negative polarity and uses earth or sea for the
return path of current.

 Sometimes the metallic return is also used. In the Monopolar link, two
converters are placed at the end of each pole.

 Earthling of poles is done by earth electrodes placed about 15 to 55 km away

from the respective terminal stations.

 But this link has several disadvantages because it uses earth as a return path.
The monopolar link is not much in use nowadays.

Fig 2: monopolar DC link

2) Bipolar link:

 The Bipolar link has two conductors one is positive, and the other one is negative to
the earth.

 The link has converter station at each end. The midpoints of the converter stations
are earthed through electrodes.
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 The voltage of the earthed electrodes is just half the voltage of the conductor used
for transmission the HVDC.

 The most significant advantage of the bipolar link is that if any of their links stop
operating,

 the link is converted into Monopolar mode because of the ground return system. The
half of the system continues supplies the power.

 Such types of links are commonly used in the HVDC systems.

Fig 3: bipolar DC link

3) Homopolar link:

 It has two conductors of the same polarity usually negative polarity,

and always operates with earth or metallic return.
 In the homopolar link, poles are operated in parallel, which reduces
the insulation cost.
 The homopolar systemis not used presently.

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 Fig 3: homopolar DC link

Typical layout of HVDC system:

The HVDC system has the following main components.

 Converter Station
 Converter Unit
 Converter Valves
 Converter Transformers
 Filters
o AC filter
o DC filter
o High-frequency filter
 Reactive Power Source
 Smoothing Reactor
 HVDC System Pole

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 Converter Station:

The terminal substations which convert an AC to DC are called rectifier

terminal while the terminal substations which convert DC to AC are called
inverter terminal. Every terminal is designed to work in both the rectifier and
inverter mode. Therefore, each terminal is called converter terminal, or rectifier
terminal. A two-terminal HVDC system has only two terminals and one HVDC
line.

Fig 4: schematic diagram of typical HVDC converter station

Converter unit:

The conversion from AC to DC and vice versa is done in HVDC converter stations by
using three-phase bridge converters. This bridge circuit is also called Graetz circuit. In

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HVDC transmission a 12-pulse bridge converter is used. The converter obtains by
connecting two or 6-pulse bridge in series.

Fig 5: circuit for 6-pulse bridge

Converter transformer:

The converter transformer converts the AC networks to DC networks or vice versa.

They have two sets of three phase windings. The AC side winding is connected to the
AC bus bar, and the valve side winding is connected to valve Bridge. These windings
are connected in star for one transformer and delta to another.

The AC side windings of the two, three phase transformer are connected in stars with
their neutrals grounded. The valve side transformer winding is designed to withstand
alternating voltage stress and direct voltage stress from Valve Bridge. There are
increases in eddy current losses due to the harmonics current. The magnetization in the
core of the converter transformer is because of the following reasons.

 The alternating voltage from AC network containing fundamentals and several

harmonics.
 The direct voltage from valve side terminal also has some harmonics.

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 Filters:

The AC and DC harmonics are generated in HVDC converters. The AC harmonics are
injected into the AC system, and the DC harmonics are injected into DC lines. The
harmonics have the following advantages.

 It causes the interference in telephone lines.

 Due to the harmonics, the power losses in machines and capacitors are
connected in the system.
 The harmonics produced resonance in an AC circuit resulting in over
voltages.
 Instability of converter controls.

The harmonics are minimized by using the AC, DC and high-frequency filters. The
types of filter are explained below in details.

 AC Filters – The AC filters are RLC circuit connected between phase and earth.
They offered low impedances to the harmonic frequencies. Thus, the AC
harmonic currents are passed to earth. Both tuned and damped filters are used.
The AC harmonic filter also provided a reactive power required for satisfactory
operation of converters.
 DC Filters – The DC filter is connected between the pole bus and neutral bus. It
diverts the DC harmonics to earth and prevents them from entering DC lines.

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 Such a filter does not require reactive power as DC line does not require DC
power.
 High-Frequency Filters – The HVDC converter may produce electrical noise in
the carrier frequency band from 20 kHz to 490 kHz. They also generate radio
interference noise in the megahertz range frequencies. High-frequency filters are
used to minimise noise and interference with power line carrier communication.
Such filters are placed between the converter transformer and the station AC
bus.

Converter Valves:

The modern HVDC converters use 12-pulse converter units. The total number of
a valve in each unit is 12. The valve is made up of series connected thyristor modules.
The number of thyristor valve depends on the required voltage across the valve. The
valves are installed in valve halls, and they are cooled by air, oil, water or Freon.

Fig 6:circuit for 12-pulse converter

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 Reactive power source:

Reactive power is required for the operations of the converters. The AC harmonic
filters provide reactive power partly. The additional supply may also be obtained from
shunt capacitors synchronous phase modifiers and static VAR systems. The choice
depends on the speed of control desired.

Smoothing reactor:

Smoothing reactor is an oil filled oil cooled reactor having a large inductance. It is
connected in series with the converter before the DC filter. It can be located either on
the line side or on the neutral side. Smoothing reactors serve the following purposes.

1. They smooth the ripples in the direct current.

2. They decrease the harmonic voltage and current in the DC lines.
3. They limit the fault current in the DC line.
4. Consequent commutation failures in inverters are prevented by smoothing
reactors by reducing the rate of rising of the DC line in the bridge when the
direct voltage of another series connected voltage collapses.
5. Smoothing reactors reduce the steepness of voltage and current surges from
the DC line. Thus, the stresses on the converter valves and valve surge
diverters are reduced.

HVDC System Pole:

The HVDC system pole is the part of an HVDC system consisting of all the
equipment in the HVDC substation. It also interconnects the transmission lines
which during normal operating condition exhibit a common direct polarity with
respect to earth. Thus the word pole refers to the path of DC which has the same

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 polarity with respect to earth. The total pole includes substation pole and
transmission line pole.

PLANNING FOR HVDC TRANSMISSION :

The system planner must consider DC alternative in transmission expansion. The

factors to be considered are (i) cost (ii)technical performance, and (iii) reliability.
Generally, the last two factors are considered as constraints to be met and the
minimum cost option is selected among various alternatives that meet the specification on
technical performance and reliability.

For submarine, cable transmission and interconnecting two systems of different

nominal frequencies, the choice of DC is obvious. In other cases, the choice is to based on
detailed techno-economic comparison.

The consideration in the planning for DC depends on the application. Two applications
can be considered as representative.
These are
1. Long distance bulk power transmission
2. Interconnection between two adjacent systems
In the first application, the DC and Ac alternatives for the same level of system security
and reliability are likely to have the same power carrying capability. Thus the cost
comparison would form the basis for the selection of the DC (or AC) alternative, if
the requirements regarding technical performance are not critical.
 In the second Application, Ac interconnection poses several problems in certain
cases.For the same level of systems security(and reliability), the required capacity of AC
interconnection will be much more than that for DC (even ignoring the beneficial aspects of
DC power modulation).Thus the choice for DC interconnection will be based on the
following considerations.
1. Small fluctuations in the voltage and frequency do not affect the power flow
which can be set at any desired value.
2. The system security can be enhanced by fast control of DC power.
Having settled on the DC link for interconnection, there are three possible
configurations for interconnection. These are :
 1. A two terminal transmission where each terminal is located at a suitable
place some where within the network and connected by a DC overhead line or cable.
2. A back to back HVDC station (also called HVDC coupling station)located
some where within one of the network and an AC line from the other network to the
common station.
3. A back to back station located close to the border between the two systems.
This is a special case of the above.
In The choice between the first and second configuration, it is to be noted that converter
costs are less for the common coupling station and the AC line costs are greater than the
DC line costs. If the distance involved are less than 200km, the second configuration is to
be preferred. If the short circuit ratio (SCR) is acceptable, then the third alternative will be
the most economic.

The specification and design of DC systems require an understanding of the various

interactions between the DC and AC systems.The interruption (or reduction) of power in a
DC link can occur due to (i) DC line faults (ii)AC system faults.
The speed of recovery from transient DC lines faults is of concern in maintaining the
integrity of the overall system. The power flow and stability studies are used in this
context. The recovery of DC link from AC system faults is more complex. The depression
of AC voltage at the inverter bus can lead to communication failure and loss of DC
power.The DC power output can lead to the reduction of AC voltage and failure of
communication (due to corresponding increase in the var demand). An optimum rate of
increase in DC power can be determined from stability study. This is influenced by control
strategy and system characteristics.

The following aspects also require a detailed study of the system interactions.
 Var requirements of converter stations
 Dynamic overvoltages
 Harmonic generation and design of filters
 Damping of low frequency and subsynchronous torsional osillations
 Carrier frequency interference caused by spiky currents in valve (at the
beginning of conduction) due to the discharge of stray capacitances and snubber
circuits.