GEOS 657 – MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

GRADUATE-LEVEL COURSE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA FAIRBANKS

Lecturer:
Franz J Meyer, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks; [email protected]

Lecture 3: Properties and Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves

UAF CourseFranz
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Think – Pair – Share

Today we will talk about the main quantitative parameters of

EM waves, including frequency 𝑓, amplitude 𝐴, phase 𝜑, and
polarization.
Radar remote sensing is one of very few techniques that can
exploit all of these parameters for earth observation

– The ability of radar system to exploit signal polarization particularly

unique! Why do you think radar’s can exploit polarization why most
optical systems cannot?
– Radars also are good at exploiting interference and phase difference measurements for analyzing the
ground. Other systems that are good at that are, e.g., Lidars and GPS. What system property do you think
allows them to use interference and phase as a source of information?

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF EM WAVES

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Importance of Understanding EM Wave Properties

• Allow qualitative and quantitative description of EM waves

• Qualitative:
– Understand how microwaves are created
– How the are measured
– How the interact with other media or discrete objects

• Quantitative:
– Quantify physical processes (e.g., scattering) in terms of measurable parameters (e.g., frequency, polarization,
directions, …)

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Wave Description of EM Signals

• Simplest way of describing a wave: Harmonic waves (= sine wave)

• Typically we use three parameters to describe harmonic waves:

𝛹 𝑡 = 𝑨 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝒇𝑡 + 𝝓𝟎

𝝓𝟎

𝒗 𝒄
𝝀= = [𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚]
𝒇 𝒇
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Complex Wave Description
Imaginary part of signal: sin 𝑥

Real part of signal: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

• Euler Notation
(using exp 𝑗𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗𝜑𝑧

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SIGNAL POLARIZATION

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Transverse vs. Longitudinal Oscillation

Longitudinal oscillating waves (sound waves, waves on oceans)

Transverse oscillating waves (e.g., EM waves)

Traverse oscillating waves (like EM waves) have one additional degree of freedom:
Direction in which oscillation takes place, called Polarization

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Polarization States of a Coherent Plane Wave

electric field vector vertically polarized

horizontally polarized

• Polarization planes are perpendicular – orientation technically arbitrary

• Usually, horizontal and vertical planes are chosen
• The terms horizontal and vertical then refer to either the earth or the antenna surface

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Linearly Polarized Signals

• Several stages of linear polarization possible

– Horizontal polarization (a)
– Vertical polarization (b)
– Linear -45º polarization (c)
– Linear +45º polarization (d)

a) b) c) d)

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Circular and Elliptical Polarization

• Combination of vertically and horizontally polarized signals

– Right circular polarization (a)
– Left circular polarization (b)
– Right elliptical polarization (c)
– Left elliptical polarization (d)

a) b) c) d)

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INTERFERENCE AND COHERENCE

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Combination of Waves

• Superposition of waves called interference (e.g., two waves: 𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 )

• As 𝜓1 and 𝜓2 can have different amplitude, frequency, and phase, the shape of 𝜓 is not straightforward

• Examples: 𝐴 and 𝑓 of waves kept the same; 𝜙0 can vary

Δ𝜙0 = 0 Δ𝜙0 = 𝜋 Δ𝜙0 = 𝜋Τ2

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Combination of Waves

• The result of interference can be easier calculated in the complex plane

• In the complex plane, the addition of two waves 𝜓1 and 𝜓2 is simply their vector sum

Δ𝜙0 = 0 Δ𝜙0 = 𝜋 Δ𝜙0 = 𝜋Τ2

1
1 1 1
1  2
1 1
1

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Interference and Coherence

• Waves with phase differences that remain constant over time are said to be coherent
• Coherent waves → combined wave vector is stationary
• If coherence is low, interference effects are
less predictable

• Coherence can be seen as measure of 

predictability

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How to Quantify Coherence

Measure similarity of two waves over finite interval of time or space

• correlation coefficient between the two complex SAR images 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 :

𝐸 𝑢1 ∙ 𝑢2∗
𝛾=
𝐸 𝑢1 2 ∙ 𝐸 𝑢2 2

Practical way to calculate coherence

σ𝑊 𝑢1 𝑖, 𝑘 ∙ 𝑢2∗ 𝑖, 𝑘
𝛾ො 𝑖, 𝑘 =
σ𝑊 𝑢1 𝑖, 𝑘 2 ∙ σ𝑊 𝑢2 𝑖, 𝑘 2

𝑊: small window centered around pixel 𝑖, 𝑘

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SOME BASICS ABOUT PROPAGATION OF MICROWAVES

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Propagation through Media other than Vacuum

• To quantify interaction of EM waves with materials or a medium, electromagnetic

properties of these materials need to be known
• EM properties of materials are frequency dependent

• Three terms used:

– Electric permittivity 𝜀
– Magnetic permeability 𝜇
– Electric conductivity 𝑔

• For non-conductive, so called dielectric materials (most solid materials), only electric
permittivity 𝜀 is usually considered

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Electric Permittivity – Most Important Material Parameter for Remote
Sensing
• Describes how electric field affects and is affected by a dielectric medium
• Relates to a material’s ability to transmit an electric field

• The permittivity properties of a material 𝜀 are usually described relative to the permittivity of vacuum 𝜀0 using
a relative permittivity parameter 𝜀𝑟
𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 is variable of interest

• As interaction with material causes a phase change in addition to an amplitude change, permittivity is given as
a complex number
𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟′ − 𝑗𝜀𝑟′′

• Electric permittivity is often referred to as complex dielectric constant

• 𝜺𝒓 can vary dramatically for different materials

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Meaning of the Dielectric Constant
• Parameterize microwave interactions (surface scattering, volume scattering, absorption, penetration) with
a material

 r   r  j r
Real Part Imaginary Part

• Real part 𝜀𝑟′ defines if signal penetrates or gets reflected at surface

• Imaginary part 𝜀𝑟′′ defines energy losses (absorption) on both surface and volume → defines how deep signals
penetrate and now much of the incoming energy will be re-emitted

• The dielectric properties define the propagation speed of EM waves:

1 1 𝑐
𝑣= = 𝜀𝑟 is often referred to as the “refractivity index”
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝜇0 𝜀𝑟

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Dielectric Properties Describe Signal Attenuation in Lossy Media

• In homogeneous lossy media (e.g. atmosphere, dry snow, sand, …) 𝜀𝑟" describes energy losses

• Attenuation acts exponentially → exponential decay of wave amplitude with propagation depth

• Propagation depth 𝛿𝑝 is distance at which power is reduced by factor 𝑒 (drop to about 37% of original power)
𝜆 𝜀𝑟′
𝛿𝑝 ≈
2𝜋𝜀𝑟′′

• For most microwave applications, some penetration occurs except for liquid water or very wet snow.

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Dielectric Properties and Surface Moisture Content

• Dielectric properties of soil is a function of the soil composition of solid particles, soil moisture (free and
bound water), and air pockets

Courtesy: L. Ferro-Famil

Soil composition

• Water content of soil is important parameter in defining 𝜺𝒓

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Penetration Depth as a Function of 𝜀𝑟

• Example: 𝜀𝑟 parameters similar to dry snow with varying

moisture level

• C-band radar (𝜆 = 0.056 [𝑚])

• Penetration depth up to 10 m for low moisture content

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Dielectric Properties and Surface Moisture Content

• Dielectric constant proportional to soil moisture

Source: Ulaby et al,1982
– High moisture
→ high dielectric constant
→ low penetration
(surface scattering)

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Types of Interactions with Media

• Depending on dielectric properties of medium, signals can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through
medium:

• Reflectivity 𝝆:
– Ratio of reflected power to incident power in a given direction
– Complete reflection: 𝜌 = 1

• Transmissivity 𝜰:
– Ratio of power transmitted through a medium to the power incident on the surface of the medium
– Transparent medium: Υ = 1; opaque medium: Υ = 0

• Absorptivity 𝜿:
– Ratio of power absorbed by a medium to the incident power
– 𝜅 = 0 for lossless media

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More Rules about Interactions with Media and What they Mean for
Remote Sensing
• Conservation of energy implies:
𝜌+Υ+𝜅 =1

• Kirchoff’s radiation law: “good absorbers are good emitters” →

𝜅=𝜖
(spectral absorptance equals spectral emissivity)

• For remote sensing of the earth’s surface:

– Objects of interested can often be assumed as opaque (Υ = 0) resulting in:
𝜌+𝜖 =1

Important Consequence:
This brings passive and active microwave remote sensing together as we can
derive surface emissivity (passive sensing) from measurements of reflectivity (active
sensing) (and vice versa)

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MICROWAVE RADIATION

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Microwaves Produced in Nature

• Every body with physical temperature 𝑇 is emitting thermal radiation across a wide range of frequencies
• Max Planck (1857 – 1947) derived law for radiation intensity emitted at different frequencies by a sufficiently
opaque body

• This so called Planck function is often called Blackbody Curve

2ℎ𝑓 3 1
𝐵𝑓 𝑇 = 2 [𝑊𝑚−2 𝑠𝑟 −1 𝐻𝑧 −1 ]
𝑐 ℎ𝑓
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
𝑘𝑇
where ℎ is Planck constant, 𝑐 speed of light, 𝑘 is Boltzmann’s constant, 𝑇 is the objects temperature in Kelvin,
and 𝑓 is the frequency

• 𝐵𝑓 𝑇 is given in units of Kelvin 𝐾

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The Blackbody Curve and Deviations from it

• Examples of Blackbody curves for various 𝑻

• Note: Real bodies are not perfect black bodies

• Emissivity 𝝐 describes how effectively a body

radiates energy as specific frequency
𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝜖=
𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
• 𝜖 varies with frequency

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How to Generate Microwaves Artificially?

• From Maxwell we know that we need to create either an changing electric or magnetic field to generate EM
waves!

• Practical approach: Use electron tubes that use motion of high speed electrons to generate a variable EM
field

• After EM wave was created it is guided through hollow tubes (waveguides) to a radiating structure (e.g.,
antenna)

• Examples microwave generating devices:

– The Magnetron
– The Klystron
– Traveling Wave Tubes (TWTs)

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Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) Amplifier

• Sketch of a TWT amplifier:

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Key Notes about TWTA

• Heater and Cathode act as electron gun (located at side of RF Input)

• Collectors sits on RF output

• Electrons are fired by cathode and received by collectors

• Microwave signal is amplified through bunching effect after traveling along the path of Helix coil

• Higher cathode voltage causes higher microwave signal power

• Ranges of Frequency for TWTA: 1GHz – 40 GHz

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Application of TWTA

• Point-to-point communication
• Satellite communication and Radar systems
• Missile tracking applications
• Television live broadcasting
– LIVE news vans with satellite dishes on the roof carry TWTA inside

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Reading Assignment

• To prepare for next lecture, please read:

Woodhouse (2006), “Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing”

pp. 112 – 149

“Interaction of Microwaves with Real Life Objects”

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