Third Edition “Eeser Signals SVEC FOR WOMEN,TPT SectomsSignals and Systems THIRD EDITION A. ANAND KUMAR Principal KL. University College of Engineering K.L. University Green Fields, Vaddeswaram Guntur District Andhra Pradesh e potiese yyognen-TiBUPAT! LIBRARY 15588.. PHI Learning [ciate Limited Delhi-110092 2018650.00 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS, Third Edition A. Anand Kumar rights reserved. No part of this book may be © 2013 by PHI Leaming Private Limited, Delhi. All without permission in writing from reproduced In any form, by mimeograph or any other means, the publisher. 1SBN-978-81-203-4840-0 The export righis of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Ninth Printing (Third Edition) a § + dune, 2018 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Leaming Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patpargan) Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Pir ic F ‘phase IV, HSIDC Indus) Eat, Delhi 10082 and Printed by Rama Electric Press, Pat No.2, Phase IV, HSIDC, ’To the memory of My parents Shri A. Nagabhushanam and Smt. A. Ushamani (Freedom Fighters)Contents A\, Preface .... Symbols, Notations and Abbreviations 1. SIGNALS... 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Representation of Discrete-time Signals .. 1.2.1 Graphical Representation... 1.2.2 Functional Representation 1.2.3 Tabular Representatior 1.2.4 Sequence Representation . 1.3 Elementary Signals .... 13.1 Unit Step Function 1.3.2. Unit Ramp Function . 1.3.3. Unit Parabolic Function 1.3.4 Unit Impulse Function .. 1.3.5 Sinusoidal Signal 1.3.6 Real Exponential Signal . 1.3.7 Complex Exponential Signal. 1.3.8 Rectangular Pulse Function 1.3.9 Triangular Pulse Function .. 1.3.10 Signum Function 1.3.11 Sine Function 1.3.12 Gaussian Function. 1.4 Basic Operations on Signals . 14.1 Time Shifting 1.4.2 Time Reversal ....viii_| 15 MatLab Programs Short Questions with Answers jew Questions . Re Objective Type Questions Problems 2. SYSTEMS 21 2.2 MatLab Programs . Short Questions with Answers Revie Fill in the Blanks Objective Type Questions . Problems .. 3. SIGNAL ANALYSIS 31 3.2 3.3 34 35 Contents 1.4.3 Amplitude Scaling 1.4.4 Time Scaling .. 1.4.5 Signal Addition .. 1.4.6 Signal Multiplication Classification of Signals 1.5.1 Deterministic and Random Signals 1.5.2 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals - 1.5.3 Energy and Power Signals 1.5.4 Causal and Non-causal Signals 1.5.5 Even and Odd Signals. in the Blanks .. Introduction Classification of Systems. 2.2.1. Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems .. 2.2.2 Static and Dynamic Systems 2.2.3 Causal and Non-causal Systems 2.2.4 Linear and Non-linear Systems 2.25 Time-invariant and Time-varying Systems .. 2.2.6 Stable and Unstable Systems .. 22.7 Invertible and Non-invertible Systems .. 2.2.8 FIR and IIR System » Questions Introduction Analogy between Vectors and Signals Graphical Evaluation of a Component of one Function i Orthogonal Vector Space mo ee Panstion in the, ORE Orthogonal Signal Space 3.5.1 Approximation of a Function by a S i 3.5.2 Evaluation of Mean Square nor Senne Ore ee Eee 3.5.3 Representation of a Function by y a Closed Mutually Orthogonal Finctons on ome Set “Contents _|_ix 3,6 Orthogonality in Complex Function: MatLab Programs « ‘short Questions with Answers Review Questions « Fill in the Blanks .. Objective Type Questions Problems | FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATION OF PERIODIC SIGNALS...... 4.1 _ Introduction .. 42, Representation of Fourier Serie 43. Existence of Fourier Series 44 Trigonometric Form of Fourier Series .. 4.4.1 Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients of the Trigonometric Fourier Series 4.5 Cosine Representation (Alternate Form of the Trigonometric Representation) 4.6 Wave Symmetry .. 4.6.1 Even or Mirror Symmetry 4.6.2 Odd or Rotation Symmetry 4.6.3 Half Wave Symmetry 4.6.4 Quarter Wave Symmetry. 4.7 Exponential Fourier Series 4.7.1 Determination of the Coefficients of Exponential Fourier Series 4.7.2. Trigonometric Fourier Series from Exponential Fourier Seri 4.7.3 Exponential Fourier Series from Trigonometric Fourier Series 4.7.4 Cosine Fourier Series from Exponential Fourier Serie 48 Fourier Spectrum 4.9 Power Representation Using the Fourier Series 4.10. Gibbs Phenomenor 4.11 Properties of Continuous- 4.11.1 Linearity Property 4.11.2. Time Shifting Property 4.11.3 Time Reversal Property. 4.11.4 Time Scaling Property 4.11.5. Time Differentiation Property 4.11.6 Time Integration Property .. 4.11.7 Convolution Theorem or Property 4.11.8 Modulation or Multiplication Property . 4.11.9 Conjugation and Conjugate Symmetry Property 4.11.10 Parseval's Relation or Theorem or Property MatLab Program: Short Questions with Answers Review Questions Fill in the Blanks Objective Type Questions Problems ..x_|_ Contents 5. FOURIER TRANSFORMS .... 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Fourier Transform Representation of Non-periodic Function 5.2.1 Derivation of the Fourier Transform of a Non-per the Fourier Series of a Periodic Signal 5.3 Magnitude and Phase Representation of Fourier Transform 5.4 Existence of Fourier Transforms... 5.5 Fourier Transforms of Standard Signals 5.5.1 Impulse Function 5(1) 5.5.2 Single-sided Real Exponential Function ¢ 55.3. Double-sided Real Exponential Function e*!" 5.5.4 Complex Exponential Function e!*" 5.5.5 Constant Amplitude (1) 5.5.6 Signum Function sgn (1) .. 5.5.7 Unit Step Function u(t) Rectangular Pulse (Gate pulse) IT (1/1) or rect (1/7) Triangular Pulse A(t/7) Cosine Wave cos @o) 5.5.11 Sine Wave sin @ot 5.6 Properties of Continuous Time Fourier Transform Linearity Property Time Shifting Property Frequency Shifting Property (Multiplication by Time Reversal Property Time Scaling Property . Differentiation in Time Domain Property... ferentiation in Frequency Domain Property .. Time Integration Property ... Convolution Property or Theorem. Multiplication Property or Theorem .. Duality (Symmetry) Property Modulation Property . Conjugation Property Autocorrelation Property Parseval’s Relation or Theorem or Property ‘Area under the Curve 5.6.17 Fourier Transform of Complex and Real Functions. 5.7 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal 5.8 System Analysis with Fourier Transform 5.9 Introduction to Hilbert Transform MatLab Programs Short Questions with Answers Review Questions Fill in the Blanks Objective Type Questions .. Problems die Signal from ‘an Exponential).6, SIGNAL TEEN THROUGH LINEAR SYSTEMS vacuums 10-458 6.1 Introduction 62 Systems. a 6.3 Properties of Linear + Time fovasiont Systere 63.1 The Commutative Property . The Distributive Property... ‘The Associative Property ...... Systems with and without Memory .. Causality coos Stability Invertibility The Unit Step Response 64. Transfer Function of an LTE System 65. Filter Characteristics of Linear Systems 6.6 Distortionless Transmission through 4 System 6.7 Signal Bandwidth : 6.8 System Bandwidth 6.9 Ideal Filter Characteristics 6.10 Causality and Paley-Wiener Criterion for Physical 6.11 Relationship between Bandwidth and Rise Time Short Questions with Answers . Review Questions . Fill in the Blanks .. Objective Type Questions Problems 7. CONVOLUTION AND CORRELATION OF SIGNALS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Concept of Convolution 7.3. Properties of Convolution 7.4 Convolution Theorems 7.4.1 Time Convolution Theorem... 74.2 Frequency Convolution Theorem ... 7.5 Graphical Procedure to Perform Ceavolution 7.6 Signal Comparison: Correlation of Functions 7.6.1 Cross Correlation * 7.6.2 Autocorrelation... 7.7 Energy Density Spectrum . 78 Power Density Spectrum ... 7.9 Relation bewween Autocorrelation Function and Energy/Power Spectral Density Function ..... 7.9.1 Relation between ESD and Autocorrelation Function Rit) 7.9.2 Relation between Autocorrelation Function R(t) and Power Spectral Density (PSD) ........ 7.10 Relation between Convolution and Correlation .. ‘alizationxii_|_ Contents 7.11 Detection of Periodic Signals in the Presence of Noise by Correl 7.12 Extraction of a Signal from Noise by Filtering MatLab Programs Short Questions with Answers Review Questions Fill in the Blanks . Objective Type Questions Problems 8, SAMPLING 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Samplin; 8.3 Sampling Theorem 8.4 Nyquist Rate of Sampling 8.5 Effects of under Sampling—Aliasin 8.6 Anti-Aliasing Filter: 8.7 Sampling Techniques 8.7.1 Ideal or Impulse Sampling 8.7.2. Natural Sampling 8.7.3 Flat Top Sampling 8.8 Data Reconstruction ... 8.8.1 Ideal Reconstruction Filter 88,2 Zero Order Hold 8.8.3 Transfer Function of a Zero Order Hold 89 of Band Pass Signals MatLab Programs Short Questions with Review Questions Fill in the Blanks Objective Type Questions Problems LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 2 9.1 9.2 9.3 94 9.5 96 jation 7.11.1 Detection by Autocorrelation 7.11.2. Detection by Cross Correlation Answe Introduction Region of Convergence Existence of Laplace Transform Advantages and Limitations of Laplace Transform Relation between Fourier Transform and Laplace Transform One-sided (Unilateral) Laplace Transform of Some Commonly Used Signals 9.6.1 Impulse Function [x(2) = 5(0).. 9.6.2 Step Function [x(2) = u(2)] 9.6.3 Ramp Function [x() = mi). 9.6.4 Parabolic Function [x(7) = F u(2)]..9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 MatLab Program Short Questions with Answers .. Review Questions Fill in the Blanks Objective Type Questions .. Problems ... Real Exponential Function [x( 6.5 : eu) 366 Complex Exponential Function (a() = eu] a 9.6.7 Sine and Cosine Functions [x(t) = cos wt u(t), sin wr u(t) 500 "3 Hyperbolic sine and cosine Functions i 309 Damped sine and cosine Functions Ini) ne coe oF u(p) 600 9.6.10. Damped Hyperbolic sine and cosine Functions [3() = ¢*'siah wt Properties and Theorems of Laplace Transform 9.7.1 Linearity Property .. ‘Time Shift Proper Time Scaling Prope ‘Time Reversal Property Transform of Derivatives Property. Transform of Integrals Property Differentiation in s-domain Proper Frequency Shift Property . ‘Time Convolution Property Multiplication or Modulation or Convolution in s-dowain Proves) Conjugation and Conjugate Symmetry Property Parseval’s Relation or Theorem or Property. Initial Value Theorem Final Value Theorem. 9.7.15 Time Periodicity Property (Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions) Inversion of Unilateral Laplace Transform 9.8.1 Distinct Poles 982 Multiple Poles . 983 Complex Roots Inversion of Bilateral Laplace ‘Transform . ROCS for Various Classes of Signals 9.10.1 Right-sided Signals. 9.102 Left-sided Signals 9.103 Two-sided Signals 9.104 Finite Duration Signals 9.10.5 Properties of ROC Solution of Differential Equations Using Laplace Transform Waveform Synthesis Circuit Analysis Using Laplace Transforms 9.13.1 Step and Impulse Responses of Series R-L Circuit 9.13.2 Step and Impulse Responses of Series R-C Circuit 9.13.3 Step Response of Series R-L-C Circuitxiv_| Contents 10. Z-TRANSFORMS.... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Relation between Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) and Z- 10.3. Z-Transforms of Some Common Sequences 10.3.1. The Unit-sample Sequence (The Unit 10.3.2 The Unit-step Sequence [x(n) = u(n) 10.3.3. The Unit-ramp Sequence [x(n) = r( 10.3.4 The Exponential Sequence [x(1) eF™ u(n)] - 10.3.5 The Sinusoidal Sequence [x(1) = sin wn u(n)] 10.3.6 The Cosinusoidal Sequence [x(n) = cos an u(r) 10.4 Z-Transform and ROC of Finite Duration Sequences « 10.5 Properties of ROC 10.6 Properties of Z-Transform 10.6.1 Linearity Propert 10.6.2. Time Shifting Property .. 10.6.3 Multiplication by an Exponential Sequ 10.6.4 Time Reversal Property. 10.6.5 Time Expansion Property 10.6.6 Multiplication by » or Differentiation in Conjugation Property .. Convolution Property 10.6.9 The Multiplication Property or Complex Convoluti 10.6.10 Correlation Property 10.6.11 Accumulation Property 10.6.12 Parseval's Theorem or Relation or Property 10.6.13 Initial Value Theorem .. 10.6.14 Final Value Theorem 10.7 Inverse Z-Transform. 10.7.1. Long Division Method 10.7.2. Partial Fraction Expansion Method 10.7.3. Residue Method .. 10.7.4 Convolution Metho 10.8 Transform Analysis of LTI Systems 10.8.1. System Function and Impulse Response .. 10.8.2 Relationship between Transfer Function and Difference Equation 10.9. Stability and Causality . 10.10 Solution of Difference Equations Using Z-Transforms.. MatLab Programs Short Questions with Answers Review Questions Fill in the Blanks Objective Type Question. Problems .. ence Property... ion Property41, SYSTE! 112. Reali oa ' fi Objective Type Questions Problems 42. DISCRETE-TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM 12.1 12.2 12.3 124 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 MatLab Programs Short Questions with Answers Review Questions... Fill in the Blanks .. Objective Type Questions Problems 1 Questions with Answers Contents| xv M REALIZATION Introduction __. ‘ation of Continuous-Time Systems 11.2.1 Realization of Systems in Direct Porm-t 11.2.2. Realization of Systems in Direct Form-t . 11.2.3 Realization of Systems in Cascade Form 11.2.4 Realization of Systems in Parallel Form ew Questions in the Blanks Introduction Discrete-time Fourier Transform (TFT). Existence of DTFT. Relation between Z-transform and Fourier Transform... Inverse Discrete-time Fourier Transform ... Properties of Discrete-time Fourier Transform 12.6.1 Linearity Property . 12.6.2. Periodicity Propeny 12.6.3. Time Shifting Property 12.6.4 Frequency Shifting Property 12.6.5 Time Reversal Property 12.6.6. Differentiation in the Frequency Domain Property. 12.6.7 Time Convolution Property 12.6.8 Frequency Convolution Property 12.6.9 The Correlation Theorem 12.6.10 The Modulation Theorem 12.6.11 Parseval’s Theore: 12.6.12 Symmetry Properties Transfer Function Frequency Response of Discrete-time Systemsxvi_|_ Contents Appendix A Appendix B... sow 995-1018 ue 1019-1022Preface eflecting over 37 years of experience in the class room, this comprehensive textbook on Réserats and Systems is developed to provide a solid grounding in the foundations of this subject. Using a student-friendly writing style, the text introduces the reader to the concepts of signals and systems in a simple and lucid manner. The text is suitable for use as one semester course material by undergraduate students of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Telecommunication Engineering, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Electronics and Computers Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science & Engineering and Electrical and Electronics Engineering. It will also be useful to AMIE and grad IETE courses. ‘The third edition of this book is organized in 12 chapters. The outline of the book is as follows: Signals constitute an important part of our daily life. Standard signals, basic operations on signals and classification of signals are discussed in Chapter 1. Also operations on signals and determination of the type of a given signal are illustrated with numerous examples. A system is defined as an entity that acts on an input signal and transforms it into an output signal. Classification of the systems is covered in Chapter 2 along with the numerical examples on determination of the type of a given system. ‘A new problem can be understood very easily when an analogy can be found between this and a familiar phenomenon. Using concepts of vectors, signal analysis is performed in Chapter 3. Periodic signals can be easily analysed using Fourier series. Fourier series tepresentation of periodic signals in trigonometric form, cosine form and exponential form, and the conversion from one form to another are devoted to Chapter 4, The properties of Fourier series and Fourier spectrum are also discussed in this chapter. Signal analysis becomes very easy in frequency domain. Fourier transform is a transformation technique to transform periodic and aperiodic signals from continuous time xviiXviti_|_ Preface roperties of Foutier domain into frequency domain. Fourier transform of various signals, p c are discussed in transform, Fourier spectrum and system analysis using Fourier transform Chapter 5. Hilbert uansformation is also introduced. Transmission of signals through linear systems characteristics of linear time invariant systems, distortiontess transmission through linear time invariant systems, signal bandwidth and system bandwidth, various types of filters and time domain and frequency domain criterion for physical realizability are described in Chapter 6. Convolution and correlation of signals are very important in communication, Convolution is a mathematical way of combining two signals to form a third signal, Correlation, which is similar to convolution, compares two signals to determine the degree of similarity between them, Determination of convolution of two signals by algebraic method and graphical method, cross correlation and autocorrelation of signals, power spectral density and energy spectral density are also covered in Chapter 7. Digital communication is more advantageous as compared to analog one, The process of converting a continuous-time signal into a discrete-time signal is called sampling, Sampling theorem, types of sampling, band pass sampling theorem, ete. are discussed in Chapter 8 Lapli continuou: transform, ROC, its properties, properties and theorem: differential equations, waveform synthesis and circuit analysis using Lap discussed in Chapter 9. Z-transform is avery pov systems. Unilateral and bilateral Z-transform, properties und theorems of Z-transform, solution of difference equa are discussed in Chapter 10. Systems may be contin system means obtaining a net equation or transfer function of the system, Various methods of rei time systems are discussed in Chapter 11. Discrete-time Fourier Transform (DTFT) is a method of representing a discrete-time signal in frequency domain, It is popular for digital signal processing because using this the complicated convolution operation of two sequences in time domain can be converted into a much simpler operation of multiplication in frequency domain, The DTFT, its properties and its use in the analysis of signals are discussed in Chapter 12. MATLAB PROGRAMS have been included at the end of each chapter to enable the students to practice and test and ( get clear concept A large number of typical examples have been worked out, so that the reader ean understand the related concepts clearly, Extensive short questions with answers are given at the end of each chapter 0 enable the students (0 prepare for the examinations very thoronghily. Review questions, fill in the blank type questions, objective type multiple choice questions and numerical problems are included at the end of each chapter to enable the students to build a clear understanding of the subject matter discussed in the text and also !0 is very important. The filter transform is a very powerful mathematical technique for analysis. of time systems. Unilateral and bilateral Laplace transform, Inverse Laplace s of Laplace transform, solution of Jace transform are erful mathematical technique for analysis of discrete-time Inverse Z-transform, ROC, its properties, jons using Z-transform nuous-time systems or discrete-time systems. Realization of a sivork corresponding to the differential equation or difference alization of continuous-assess their learning The ae (0 all these are also given at the end of the book. Almost all the solved and unsolved pr o lems presented in this book have been class room tested. T express my profound gratitude to all those without whose assistance and cooperation, this book would not have been successfully completed. 1 thank Smt. G. Bhavani of Sasi tH eo Texto and Engineering, Tadepalligudem for typing the manuscript and 1 all the figures drowienank Mr. TLV. Subrahmanyeswara Rao, Associate Professor, ECE Department. KL. University College of Engineering for helping with MatLab Programs. Tam grateful to Mr. Burugupalli Venugopala Krishna, Chairman, Sasi Educational society, Velivennu, West Godavari District, for encouraging and providing me with all the facilities for writing this book, I also thank Mr. B. Ravi Kumar, Executive Director. Sasi Institute of Technology and Engineering, Tadepalligudem, for his cooperation [thank Er, Mr. Koneru Satyanarayana, President. Er. Mr. Konera Lakshman Flavish and Er. Mr. Koneru Raja Harin, Vice Presidents and Smt. Koneru Siva Kanchana Latha, Secretary Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF), K.L. University, Vijayawa for their constant encouragement. T express my sincere appreciation to my brother Mr. A. Vijaya Kumar and to my friends, Dr. K. Koteswara Rao, Chairman, Gowtham Educational Society, Gudivada, Krishna Dt, A.P. and Mr. Y. Ramesh Babu and Smt. Y. Krishna Kumari of Detroit, USA for their constant encouragement. I thank Dr. K. Raja Rajeswari, former Professor and Head. ECE Department and Dr. K.S. Linga Murthy former Professor and Head, EEE Department, Andhra University College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, for their constant words of encouragement. Tam thankful to my publishers and staff of PHI Learning for publishing this book. My thanks in particular goes to Ms. Shivani Garg. Senior Editor for meticulously editing the manuscript. 1 also thank Ms. Babita Mishra, Editorial Coordinator and Mr. Ajar Kumar Lal Das (Production Department) for their whole hearted cooperation. Finally | am deeply indebted to my family: My wife A. Jhansi, who is the source of inspiration for this activity and without whose cooperation this book would not have been completed, my sons Dr. A. Anil Kumar and Mr. A. Sunil Kumar and daughters-in-law Dr. A. Anureet Kaur and Smt, A, Apurupa, and grand daughters Khushi Arekapudi, Shreya Arekapudi and Krisha Arekapudi for motivating and encouraging me constantly to undertake and complete this work. I will gratefully acknowledge constructive criticism from both students and teachers for further improvement of this book. A. Anand KumarSymbols, Notations and Abbreviations SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS Q Ohm H Henry F Farad * Linear convolution @ Correlation $ Integration over a closed contour T Transformation Oo Complex conjugate of x(t) L Laplace transform k u Inverse Laplace transform F Fourier transform Ft Inverse Fourier transform eZ Z-transform z Inverse Z-transform — Used for indicating a transform pair Ie letter x(0) or x() for time signal uc letter X(o), X(s) or X(Z) for the transformed signal lal Magnitude of the complex quantity a, Absolute value of a, if a is real valued arg (z) or |g Angle of the complex quantity 5) Unit-impulse function walBMi_| Symbols, Notations and Abbreviations u(r) Unit-step function ro Unit-ramp function 5@) Unit-sample sequence u(n) Unit-step sequence r{n) Unit-ramp sequence Tl) or rect (#7) Unit rectangular pulse Alii) Unit triangular pulse sen(t) Signum function ABBREVIATIONS BIBO Bounded-input Bounded-output BPE Band-pass filter BRF Band-reject filter BW Band width cr Continuous-time CTFS Continuous-time Fourier series CTFT Continuous-time Fourier transform DFT Discrete Fourier transform DTFT Discrete-time Fourier transform FIR Finite impulse response FS Fourier series HPF High-pass filter Hz Herz IDTFT Inverse discrete-time Fourier transform mR Infinite impulse response Im(s) Imaginary part of s KVL Kirchhoff's voltage law LCM Least common multiple LPF Low-pass filter LSI Linear shift invariant LTI Linear time invariant LTV Linear time variant Re (s) Real part of s RMS Root mean square ROC Region of convergence S/H Sample and hold sps Sample per second ZOH Zero-order holdi te aaa tal Signals 4.1. INTRODUCTION Anything that carries information can be called a signal. Signals constitute an important part of our daily life. A signal is defined as a single-valued function of one or more independent variables which contain some information A signal may also be defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent variable, A signal be represented in time domain or frequency domain. Human speech is a familiar example of a signal. Electric current and voltage are also examples of signals. A signal can be a function of one or more independent variables. A signal may be a function of time, temperature. position, pressure, distance, ete. If a signal depends on only one independent variabl one-dimensional signal, and if a signal depends on two independent variables, it is called a nyo-dimensional signal. In this book we discuss only about one-dimensional signals. [n this chapter we discuss about various basic signals available, various operations on signals and classification of signals, 1.2 REPRESENTATION OF DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS In general signals may be continuous-time signals or discrete-time sigaals. Continuous-time signals are defined for all instants of time, whereas discrete-time signals are defined only at discrete instants of time. Continuous-time signals are represented by x2) and discrete-time signals are represented by x(n) where rand m are independent variables in time domain. Continuous-time signals are represented by a function or a graph. There are four ways of representing discrete-time signals. They are: 1, Graphical representation 2. Functional representation 3. Tabular representation 4, Sequence representation2_|_ Signats and systems 1.2.1 Graphical Representation Consider a signal x(n) with values x(3)=2 x(-2)=-3, x(I)=2, x(0)=0, xQ)=3, x(2)=! and igure 1.1. This discrete-time signal can be represented graphically as shown in ane 3 Figure 1.1 Graphical representation of diserete-time signal. 1.2.2 Functional Representation In this, the amplitude of the signal is written against the values of ». The signal given in 1.2.1 can be represented using functional representation as given below. 3 forn=-2 2 forn=-1 - 10 forn=0 x(n) = 3° forn=1 1 forn=2 2 forn=3 Another example is 2" forn20 x(n) 0 forn<0 1.2.3. Tabular Representation In this, the sampling instant and the magnitude of the signal at the sampling instant are represented in tabular form, The signal given in 1.2.1 can be represented in tabular form as shown below. n |2]-1Jo 1/2 x(n) | -3 | 2 3a 2 °nate 4.2.4 gequence Representation finite duration sequence given in 1.2.1 can be represented ay: A fini [32.0412 x(n) { 4 } ‘Another example 18 inate 30.1,-2, | f The arrow mr 1 denotes the n = 0 term. When no arrow is indicated, the frst torm ston =O finite duration sequence, that satisfies the condition x(n) = 0 for 1 <0 can be as x(n) = (3, 5. 2.1, 4. 7) correspon Soa represented Sum and product of discrete-time sequences ‘The sum of two discrete-time sequences is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of sequences {C,}={a,}+(b,) -» C, =a, +5, The product of two discrete-time sequences is obtained by multiplying the corresponding elements of the sequences. (C,}=la,}15,) > C, ab, The multiplication of a sequence by a constant & is obtained by multiplying each clement of the sequence by that constant. {C,]=la,) > C,=ka, 1.3 ELEMENTARY SIGNALS There are several elementary signals which play vital role in the study of signals and systems, These elementary signals serve as basic building blocks for the construction of more complex signals. Infact, these elementary signals may be used to model a large aumber of physical signals which occur in nature. These elementary signals are also called standard signals. The standard signals are: 1. Unit step function 2. Unit camp function 3. Unit parabolic function 4. Unit impulse function 5. Sinusoidal function 6. Real exponential function 7. Complex exponential function, etc. 1.3.1. Unit Step Function The step function is an important signal used for analysis of many systems. The step function is that type of elementary function which eaists only for positive time and is zero for negative time, It is equivalent to applying a signal whose amplitude suddenly changes and remains Constant forever after application.| 4 | Signats and Systems If a step function has unity magnitude, then it is called unit step function. The usefulness of the unitstep function lies in the fact that if we want a signal 10 Sta M1 Oso that it may have a value of zero for 1 < 0, we only need to multiply the given signal with unjy step function u(t). A unit step function is useful as a test signal because the response orate system for a unit step reveals a great deal about how quickly the system responds 10 a sudden change in the input signal. The continuous-time unit step function w(t) is defined as: ‘( 1 for 120 N= Wo 0 for1<0 From the above equation for u(f), we can observe that when the argument / in u(1) ig less than zero, then the unit step function is zero, and when the argument # in w(/) is greater than or equal to zero, then the unit step function is unity. The shifted unit step function w(t - @) is defined as: 1 forr2a t-a= O19 for tea It is zero if the argument (1 — a) < 0 and equal to 1 if the argument (t ~ a) 20. The graphical representations of u(t) and u(t ~ a) are shown in Figure 1.2[(@) and (b)]. (0) xr), 1 Se 77 t va 7 @ © function. Figure 1.2 (a) Unit step function, (b) Delayed unit step The discrete-time unit step sequence u(n) is defined as: (n) 1 forn20 n= MO for n<0 ‘The shifted version of the discrete-time unit step sequence u(n — k) is defined as 1 for n2k u(n—k)= 0 forn ink fl forn=e + d(n) =u(n)-u(n—1) FOB seas 3. x(n)= x x(k) 5(n—&) 4. Y wtnj din—ng)= xi) fn 1.3.5 Sinusoidal Signal A continuous-time sinusoidal signal in its most general form is given by x(t) = Asin (ait +9)CO 1 ar " where A= Amplitude @= Angular frequency in radians = Phase angle in radians Figure 1.10 shows the waveform of a sinusoidal sign A sinusoidal signal is an eerie of piven by a periodic signal. The time patiod of a continuous-time sinusoid signal is Figure 1.10 Sinusoidal waveform. The discrete-time sinusoidal sequence is given by x(n) = A sin (@n + ¢) where A is the amplitude, @ is angular frequency. ¢ is phase angle in radians and n is an integer. : “The period of the discrete-time sinusoidal sequence is: nom where N and m are integers. All. continuous-time sinusoidal sequences may or may not be periodic depending on the For a discrete-time signal to be periodic, the angular multiple of 27. “The graphical representation ofa discrete-time sinusoidal signal is shown in Figure 1.1 signals are periodic but discrete-time sinusoidal value of frequency @ must be a rational sin (on + 9) Figure 1.11 Discrete-time sinusoidal signal.43.6 Real Exponential Signat | continvoras time teal exponential signal has the gerteral Form ae: s wth = Alt here bos A and 7 are teal | w the parameter A ie the amplitude of the exponential mensied at = 0. The purameter Of can be either positive oF negative Depending on the value af oi we get different expmentialt 1, I= 0, the signal ef) is of constant amptitnde for all times, 2. Was positive, i¢ > 9. the signal e(r is growing exponential signet. 3. WE ais negative, be cr 0. the signal 1/7) is decaying exponential signit. These three waveforms are serum in Figure 1 £21, (8) and (cih at) = AC for a= 0 HDNET tow Mfr” (or ee ' ri ft VY XI A | 0 ' — a - f @ » ti Figure 1.12 Continuous-time rea! exponential signal: off) « Aa” for (a) ce 0, (b) co 0, (6) cS 0% b The discrete-time real exponential sequence 2” in defined: an; xi) =a tow all w Figure 1.13 illustrates different types of discrete-time exponential signals, xin)=a" a> T james’ ewet ) iw Figure 1.13 Discrete-time eaponcatial signal a* far (a) a> |, (hb cas b (eh as -L, (dy -b sasha x 12_| Signals and Systems When a > 1, the sequence grows exponentially as shown in Figure 1130). 7 When 0 0 @ x(t) ee it ye Loy @ © 4 anh. wor © Figure 1.14 Complex exponential signals. The discrete-time complex exponential sequence is defined as x(n) =a" nto) =a" cos (an + 9) + ja” sin (yn + 9) For |a| = 1, the real and imaginary parts of complex exponential sequence are sinusoidal For |a| > 1, the amplitude of the sinusoidal sequence exponentially grows as shows Figure 1.15(a). For |a| <1, the amplitude of the sinusoidal in sequence i as shown Figure 1.15(6) Juence exponentially decays aF Signats | 13 F Figure 1.15 Complex exponential sequence x(n) = a'e* for (a) a > 1, (by ae t 1.3.8 Rectangular Pulse Function ‘The unit rectangular pulse function f(x) shown in Figure 1.16 is defined as FE a(s}f oe feiss S77 lo otherwise It is an even function of . jm ~{t?2) oe 7 Figure L16 Rectangular pulse function. 1.3.9 Triangular Pulse Function The unit triangular pulse function A(i/t) shown in Figure 1.17 is defined as: 1) {t-Clefeey far |e] <(#/2) a( | t) \o fine |e| > 2/2) Ttis an even function of t.(02) igure 1.17, Triangular pulse function. 1.3.40 Signum Function 7 is defined as: ‘The wnit signum function sgn () shown 1 Figure 1.18 is define } for 1>0 sO) 5 for 1<0 sen) (a Ee 0 t -l Figure 1.18 Signum function The signum function can be expressed in terms of unit step function as: sgn (1) = =142u() 4.3.11 Sine Function ‘The sine function sine() shown in Figure 1,19 is defined as: sin sine ()==E for m9 << The sine function oscillates with period 2m and decays with increasing 1. Its value is zero nm, n= #1, 22, .... Iis an even function of 1, sine ()Signals_|_15 4.3.12 Gaussian Function Gaussian function ga(®) shown in Figure 1.20 is defined as: ‘The Balt) =e i for -220 Let tei and ao a @ a>0 J x 5(an r=+ fx (5) 6(e) de i at*la [E-(5) 2[3,(= aa) =1x0) a Similarly, for a < 0 fr . 1 J x0) sean d= Tal x(0)20 | Signats and Systems \ Now, consider 2 x) [al We know that x(0)= f x0 6 dt 1 jal“ Tal frosoe =fxo ial Siar a which indicates that S(at)= [a] 50) Sixth property 5) = 6-0) i.e. impulse function is an even function. Proof: Consider the scaling property, S(at)= 60 [al 1.4 BASIC OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS When we process a signal, this signal may undergo several manipulations involving the independent variable or the amplitude of the signal. The basic operations on signals are 3 follows: 1, Time shifting 2. Time reversal 3. Time scaling 4, Amplitude scaling 5. Signal addition 6. Signal multiplication The first three operations correspond to transformation in independent variable ¢ or n of a signal. The last three operations correspond to transformation on amplitude of a signal. 1.4.1 Time Shifting Mathematically, the time shifting of a continuous-time signal x(t) can be represented by WO=xt- 7) The time shifting of a si td a ET is posithe teen MY Fesult in time delay or time advance. In the abo equation if 7 is positive the shift is to the i ; ait | 7 is negative the shift isto the leh RS ae and then the shifting delays the signal, am en the shifting advances the signal. An a!ignals | 21 p, its delayed version and advanced yi signal * shifting a signal in time means that a sign an rayed in the time axis. or del ersion are shown in Figure 1.21[(a), (b) nal may be either advanced in the time axis (t=) (0 t x(t+T) A So A 67 [07 T+6 1 lO Tse 7 0 @ ) © Figure 1.21 (a) Signal, (b) Its delayed version, (c) Its time advanced version, Similarly, the time shifting operation of a discrete-time signal x(n) can be represented i i by y(n) = x(n - b) i i ime shifting the signal x(n) by k is shows that the signal y(n) can be obtained by time shifting the signal , te i positive, it is delay and the shift is to the right, and if & is negative, it is advance units. ift is to the left. a. . pa n stitry signal x(n) is shown in Figure 1.22(a). x(n ~ 3) which is tte by ft nat) to the right by 3 units fie. delay x(n) by 3 units) is shown in Figure 1. ww. a ”) which is obtained by shifting x(n) to the left by 2 units (ie. advancing x(n) by (n ‘ 2 units) is shown in Figure 1.22(c). x(n-3) 2 uw |-__ew i abe sy st x(n+2) 9 1 432101234 ” © Figure 1.22 (a) Sequence x(n), (b) x(a ~ 3), (€) x(n + 2). 14.2 Time Reversal 4d by folding the . q al Zhe ime reversal also alle ime fon of signal x() can be obisned by x0) It is signal about = 0. This operation is very useful in 7. ae is also called as the Obtained by replacing the independent variable r by (~1). Folding22 Signats and Systems (a) shows an arbitrary . = 0, Figure 1.23(a) shows trary sj feflection of the signal about the time origin ity is (9), and Figure 1.23(b) shows its reflection ne ‘The signal a(-1 + 3) obtained by ebifane The signi (lay by 3 units) is shown in Figure 1.2316) The 9 ersed signal x(~1) to the right by 3 onal x(-1 ~ 3) obtained by shifting 3 units) is shown in Figure 1.3 reversed signal x(-1) to the eft by 3 units (2 x1) a) A “o 1 2 3 4 ¢ o) 2 Or t+ 3) A A . 5 43 2 7 4 ' 7 6 5 - 0 'o 2 3 () c i ime reversed signal a{-1), (c) Time reversed P 1.23 (a) An arbitrary signal (0), (b) Time revers Time Prien ipa signal ee +3), (d) Time reversed and advanced signal x(-1 ~ 3), Other examples for time reversal operation are shown in Figure 1.2. 0) uo J A pp st @ $500 4uco A A 10 | 3 37 3 “ oi! ) Figure 1.24 Time reversal operations, The time reversal of a discrete-tim about n = 0, Figure 1.25(a) shows an version x(-n) is shown in Fi advanced versions of reve ‘ersed ne signal x(n) can be ol arbitrary discrete-time s gure 1.25(b), Fig signal x(-n), bined by folding the seaver ignal x(n) and its time 1eve tue 1.25[(c) and (d)] shows the delayed *| Signals_|_23 a 94 x) 49 ae | : 2 : le : oe ~ ~-—e —. - ero 1234 m S4321012 2 @ ) ‘e 49 on +3 = ag | et je) ed) 20 a 1° le 7% +e ++ ——_> : Lie 2d S ” B7G65432-112 7 © @ squre 1.25 (a) Original signal x(n), (b) Time reversed signal x(-n), (c) Time reversed and delayed Fist signal x(-n + 3), (d) Time reversed and advanced signal x(-n ~ 3). ‘The signal x(-n + 3) is obtained by delaying (shifting to the right) the time reversed signal x(-n) by 3 units of time. The signal x(-n ~ 3) is obtained by advancing (shifting to the ref the time reversed signal x(-n) by 3 units of time, Figure 1.26 shows other examples for time reversal of signals. a(n) ac) 2 @2 Original signal 2@2 Time reversed t 1 signal oo 0+ > — 2-10 123 4 a 432-101 2 7 @) 39 x(n) 3@ x62) 2 2@ Original signal 2@ 2 Time reversed " r signal wo os > * so 32-10123 4 7 4 0123 8 (b) Figure 1.26 Time reversal operations. EXAMPLE 1.4 Sketch the following signals (@) w-4 +2) (b) -2u(t + 2) ©) ~4r( @ 2r¢-2) © rer+3) (© M2) Solution; (@) Given x() = u(t + 2) The signal u(-t + 2) can be obtained by first drawing the unit step signal u(#) as shown in Figure 1.27(a), then time reversing the signal w(¢) about t = 0 to obtainq 24 | Signais and systems 4(-1) as shown in Figure 1.27(b), and then shifting the ape _e "0 the rip, by 2 units of time to obtain u(-1 + 2) as shown in Figure 1.27(0). ult) u(t) Wor 2) ee 0 7 To ‘ i . @ © © Figure 1.27 (a) Unit step signal, (b) Folded unit step signal, (¢) Delayed folded signal, (b) Given x(0) = -2u(t + 2) i ir ing the unit step signal ‘The signal —2u(r + 2) can be obtained by first drawing tt signal w(t) shown in Figure 1.28(a), then shifting the signal (‘) to the left by 2 units of time jg obtain u(r + 2) as shown in Figure 1.28(b), and then multiplying that signal u(r 4. y by -2 to obtain -2u(r + 2) as shown in Figure 1.28(c). uc) u(t +2) 4 -2u(r +2) — 1 cy a 0 Frey gmt fo ; -2! @ ® © Figure 1.28 (a) Unit step signal u(, (b) Shifted signal u(t + 2), (¢) Scaled signal ~2u(e + 2) (©) Given x() = -4r() The signal x(t) is a ramp signal with a slope of ~4 as shown in Figure 1.29. Figure 1.29 Ramp signal x(t) = ~4r(0). (@ Given x) = 2r@~2) The si . = it s Liens) 27 ~ 2) canbe obtained by frst drawing the ramp signal 2r(?) Wit slope of 2 as shown in Figure 1,3 ge . its 1° obtain 2r(¢ — 2) as shown in new rane shifting it to the right by 2 un!; | | ; Signals |_25 Slope =2 ees Figure 1.30 (a) Scaled ramp, (b) Delayed scaled ramp. (@) Given x(t) = r(-t + 3) The signal r(-t + 3) can be obtained by first drawing the unit ramp signal r(0) as shown in Figure 1.31(a), folding the signal r(t) about r = 0 to obtain r(-t) as shown igure 1.31(b) and then shifting it to the right (delaying) by 3 units of time to ee r(-t + 3) as shown in Figure 1.31(c). aret+3) rt) rt) 3 Slope =1 of 1 i 7 (0 T jor 2 3 7 @ ©) © Figure 131 (a) Ramp signal, (b) Folded ramp, (c) Delayed folded ramp. (Given x(t) = T(r - 2) The signal T(r - 2) can be obtained by first drawing II(2) as shown in Figure 1.32(a) and then shifting it to the right by 2 units to obtain [I(r - 2) as shown in Figure 1.32(b). 4m anle-2) a 1 =z |0 172 i 0 1s 2 25 7 @ () Figure 1.32 (a) Signal I1(#), (b) Signal T(¢ - 2). EXAMPLE 1.5 Sketch the following signals (@) un +2) u(-n +3) (b) x(n) =u(n +4) -u(n-2)26 Signals and Systems } Solution: . an +3) (a) Given a(n) =u(n +2) unt . | The signal u(n + 2) u(-n + 3) can be obtained by fo ae ene iln + as shown in Figure 1.33(a), then drawing u(-n + le ‘5 obtain u(r 2) 3(b) ay then multiplying these sequences element by eleme! un 4 } as shown in Figure 1.33(c). _ x(n) =0 for n<-2 and n> 3x0)=7 for 2 1, it is amplification and if insta js attenuation. A< He re the amplitude is rescaled. Hence the name amplitude scaling. Figure 1.35(a) shows an arbitrary signal x(1) and Figure 1.35(b) shows y(t) = 2x(2). a) ait) = 2x0) \ ft af pee Lif vA : V (a) Figure 1.35 Plots of (a) x(t) = cos ar, (b) y(#) = 2«(0). similarly, the amplitude scaling of a discrete-time signal can be represented by y(n) = ar(n) where a is a constant. Figure 1.36(a) shows a signal x(n) and Figure 1.36(b) shows a scaled signal y(n) = 2x(n). oa ot xn) | | y(n) = 2x(n) 2 2 I 2 1 | |_| -1 0 1 n oO L n @ ) Figure 1.36 Plots of (a) Signal x(n), (b) en) = 2x(n). 14.4 Time Scaling Time scaling may be time expansion or time compression. The time scaling of a signal x(#) an be accomplished by replacing ¢ by at in it. Mathematically, it can be expressed as: yd) = x(at)28 | Signals and Systems q and if a <1, it results in , i tor an ey sion by a facl point at ‘ar’ in signal x(1) becom a>li a 1, it results in time compres: om 8 expansion by a factor a because with that @ point at ‘r’ in y(2). mation y(f) = x(2r), i Consider 2 signal shown in Figure 1.37). For wane esformation Oe Pia compressed signal is as shown in Figure 1.3700) te time expanded signal is as shown in Figure 1.37(0) a(t) A yaa) a joi 2 3 ¢ 4-H) 4) ob 4 6! © Figure 1.37. (a) Original signal, b) Compressed signal, (c) Expanded signal. Observe that in Figure 1.37(a), x(0) is increasing linearly from O to 4 in the interval | 1 =-1 to ¢ = 0 and remaining constant at 4 in the interval ¢ = 0 to ¢ = 2 and decreasing linearly from 4 to 0 in the interval ¢ = 2 to 1 = 3. | In Figure 1.37(b), the time scaled (compressed) signal x(2f) increases linearly from 0 to 4 in the interval 1 = -(1/2) to ¢ = (0/2), remains constant at 4 from t = (0/2) to t = (2/2) and then decreases linearly from 4 to 0 in the interval 1 = (2/2) to 1 = (3/2). In Figure 1.37(c), the time scaled (expanded) signal x(1/2) increases linearly from 0 to 4, in the interval ¢ = -1 x 2 to 0 x 2, remains constant at 4 in the interval t = 0 x 210 1 = 2x 2 and then decreases linearly from 4 to 0 in the interval t = 2 x 2 tor = 2x3. In the discrete-time case, we can write the time scaling as follows. y(n) = x(an) again when a > 1, it is time compression and when a < 1, it is time expansion. Let x(n) be a sequence as shown in Figure 1.38(a). If a = 2, y(n) = x(2n). Then we cat plot the time scaled signal y(n) by substituting different values for n as shown in | Figure 1.38(b). Here the signal is compressed by 2. 30) = x(0) = 1 92) = x(4) = 0 and so on,To 1 2 3 4 «5 6 7 © yu 5 4 3 «2 Figure 1.38 Diserete-time scaling (a) Plot of x(n), (b) Plot of x(2n) (c) Plot of =(n/2) So to plot x(2n) we have to skip odd numbered samples in x(n). If a = (1/2), y(n) = x(n/2), then y(0) = (0) = 1 2) = a(1) =2 y(4) = x2) =3 y) = x3) =4 (8) = x4) = 0 y(-2) = x(-1) = 2 yA) = x2) = 3 yC6) = x3) = 4 y8) = x4) = 0 PA We can plot y(n) = x(n/2) as shown in Figure 1.38(). Here the signal is expanded by 2: II odd components in x(n/2) are zero because x(n) does not have any value in between the Sampling instants. __ Time scaling is very useful when data is to be fed at some rate and is to be taken out at a different rate,30 | Signals and Systems 1.4.5 Signal Addition i ) can be obtained by adding their y, | os (0 ae “The sum of two continuous-time signals (0 and 220) Or rinuous-time signal x) qt at every instant of time. Similarly, the oer e value of x2(0) from that of (y) d by sul in Figure 1.39[(a) and (b)]. 7 & another signal x4(¢) can be obtaine i ni every instant. Consider two signals x(0) and x”) Sho" 4x0 ef) 2 YZ». 1 — 0 1 2 3 4 7 ' *y ‘ ' @ : sdoeem 0-2 3 2 ——| a 1 I at 234 7 o 1 203 47 is @ Figure 1.39 Addition and subtraction of continuous-time signals. The addition of those two signals .x,() and x,(t) can be obtained by considering different time intervals as follows: For 0 $11 44(0) = 2 and x9(t) is rising linearly from 0 to 1. Hence x(t) + 29(¢) wil rise linearly from 2+ 0 = 2 to2+1=3. For] <1s3 x) =1 and x() =1 Hence x(t) + xg(0) will be equal to 1 + 1 = 2. For 3$1$4 y(t) = 2 and x,(0) falls linearly from 1 to 0. Hence xy(0) + x(¢) will fall linearly from 2+ 1 = 3 to 2 +0 = 2. ‘The sum xy(0) + x9(0) is as shown in Figure 1.39(c). toon as floes s2{) ftom (9 can be performed by considering different For 0. S11 x() = 2 and xy(t) rises linearly from 0 to 1 Hence 2y(0) ~x4() falls linearly from 2-0 = 202-1 = 1.| — Signals | _31 e9 at) = Land xd) por 181°" Hence x1(9 ~ Halt) = 1 24 ay() = 2 and 22(0) is falling linearly from 1 t0 0. por 3S!" pence x(t) ~ xa(0) rises linearly from 2-1 = 1 t02-0=2. difference 21(0) ~ (0) is as shown in Figure 1.39(d). jgorete-time domain, the sum of two signals x(n) and x(n) can be obtained by th corresponding sample values and the subtraction of x(n) from x(n) can be sing aating ch Sample of sf) rom the eomespontng sample of) as obiail phe di low. ira a(n) = (1, 2,3, 1,5) y x(n) = (2, 3, 4, 1, -2) - (a) #290) = (142,243,344, 14 15-2) = (35,723) and xn) — ¥9(0) = (1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 11,542) = (21, -1, -1, 0, 7) 446 signal Multiplication ‘The multiplication of two continuous-time signals can be performed by multiplying their Miues at every instant. Two continuous-time signals x(t) and x(0) shown in Figure 1.40[(a) and (b)] are multiplied as shown below to obtain x;(1) x,(¢) shown in Figure 1.40(c). poroSr$l x) = 2and x0) = 1 Hence x(0) x(t) = 2x 1=2 Porls#$2 m= 1 and x) =1+(-1) Hence x() x,(/) = (Df + (F- D)=1+¢-) nO ax) 1) 200) 2 2 . 7 ~Y jo 10620 83 fo 1 @ © © Figure 1.40 Multiplication of continuous-time signals, FPor2sts3° x) =1- (1-2) and n= Hence x(t) x,(t) = [1 - (¢- 2] 2 = 2-2-2) suchltinlication of two diserete-time sequences can te performed by set Values at the sampling instants.32 | Signats and Systems it x(n) = (1, -3, 2, 4,15) and x(n) a sn) ay (0) = {0 X2,-3X 2B AMIS 1572) = (2,3,6, 6,3} shown in Figure 1.41, find the signals, EXAMPLE 1.6 For the signal x(9. () x@r-+ 2) and »(5-2) (a) x(¢- 3) and x(t + 3) © (31) and (2+) (@ x(-t+ 2) and x(t ~ 2) 5 0) fae ee wpal for Example 1.6. Figure 141 Sig" Solution: (a) The signal x(¢- shown in Figure 1.42(a)- The signal x(t + 3) can be obl as shown in Figure 1.42(b). 3) can be obtained by shifting x(t) to the right (delay) by 3 units, tained by shifting x(1) to the left (advance) by 3 ux x(t=3) x(t +3) 2 | 2 1 [ 1 fot 2 3 4 5 7 2s at o © Figure 1.42. (a) Time delay, (b) Time advance. units to £ (b) The signal x(2r + 2) can be obtained by frst advancing x0 by two ) (t+ 2) -x(¢# 2) as shown in Figure 143(a) and then time scaling (compression fa factor of 2 as shown in Figure 1.43(b). by 2 ois © 7 1 The signal s-3] can be obtained by first time delaying x) nding) obtain x(t ~ 2) a8 shown in Figure 1.43(c) and then time scaling (°F “x(t — 2) by a factor of (1/2) as shown in Figure 1.43(4).Signals_|_33 x42) 2 2 a ee of oO 1 2 3 4 7 @ © x42) x((12)¢-2) 2 2 1 1 aea-tao 7 0 2 a 6 BT ® © igure 143. (0) Time advance, (0) Time compression, () Tine del () Time expanscn. (@) The signal x((53)f] can be obtained by time saling x() by a fator of (5/3) ive. by compressing the signal x(¢) by (3/5) times as shown in Figure 144(a). ‘The signal x((3/5) ] can be obtained by time scaling x(t) by a factor of (3/5), i.e. by expanding x() by (5/3) times as shown in Figure 1.44(b). The zero point remains as it is because 0 X @ = 0 itself. +3163) 4 AGE) 2: 1 1 | 7 35 fo 35 65 3B jo 3 st (@) ) Figure 1.44. (a) Time compression, (b) Time expansion. @ The signal x(-t + 2) can be obtained by folding the signal x(#) about r = 0 to obtain the time reversed signal x(-#) as shown in Figure 1.45(a) and then shifting x(-1) to the right by 2 units as shown in Figure 1.45(b). The signal x(—t — 2) can be obtained by shifting x(~) to the left by two units as shown in Figure 1.45(c).7 aS -i _ 7 27-1 fo 1 7 o i 2 3 © @ o i and (€) Time advance operations on 2), Figure 1.45 (a) Time reversal, (b) Time delays EXAMPLE 1.7 Sketch the following signals apuct+4) (@) w(t +2) ~ u(t 3) wer de © n(33)+ Te@r-35) (e) (u(r +2) @ n-rt-D-nt-3)+ 7-4) () r(-0.25 +0 Solution: (@) Given 2ult + 2) ~ 2u(t = 3) . Tae canal ula in abe at The signal 2u(t + 2) is obtained by wn in Figure 1.4600) er? as shown in Figure 1.460, he its and multiply shifting u(t) to the left by 2 units and multip! raed Aut) 2 q =a Te 7 o 1ad-5) 42u(t+ 2) ~ 2u(t—3) 2 2 1 . 0 3 2 0 3 t 2: © @ Figure 1.46 Waveforms for Example 1.7(a). The signal ~2u(r ~ 3) is obtained by shifting u(t) to the right by 3 units and multiplying by -2 as shown in Figure 1.46(c). The signal 2u(t + 2) — 2u(t ~ 3) obtained by adding signals 2u(1 + 2) and -2u(t - 3) is shown in Figure 1.46(4)- 2u(t+2)=2 for 12-2 and ~2ut-3)=-2 for 123ee | ) Signals | 35 2 for -2<1<3 au(t +2) ~2u0-3)=1 fore qherefo [0 otherwise Given u(t + 4) u(-t + 4) ) : tn «signal u() is shown in Figure 1.47(a). The signal u(r + 4) is obtained by shifting u(t) to the left by 4 units as shown in Figure 1.47(b). The signal u(-t + 4) is obtained by reversing u(t) to obtain u(—1) and then shifting u(—t) to the right by it units as shown in Figure 1.47(c). The signal u(r + 4) u(-t + 4) obtained by 4 inipiying the signals u(r + 4) and w(-t + 4) is shown in Figure 1.47(d). 1 for t2—4 agegel or [0 elsewhere a 1 for 1s4 u(-14+4)= and 0 elsewhere 1 for -46154 ‘Therefore, u(t +4) u(-1+4) = . 0 otherwise wo aue+4) i} i | _| | ___—_. mp Ss + |o ‘ @ ) ucts) u(t + 4ul-t+4) L 1 i | 7 ron a jo + 4 © @ Figure 147 Waveforms for Example 1.7(b). (©) Given n 2 +MQr-3.9) The signal T1() is shown in Figure 1.48(a). The signal E1{(t - 22] = T(0.5¢— lis obtained by first shifting T1(#) by 1 unit right and then expanding the time scale by 2 as shown in Figure 1.48(b). The signal T1@2r ~ 3.5) is obtained by first shifting TI by 3.5 units right and then compressing the time scale by 2 as shown in Figure 1.48(c). The signal M{(e - 22] + Hr = 3.5) is obtained by adding the signals TI[(t ~ 2)/2) and T1(2t = 3.5) as shown in Figure 1.48(¢).' 36 Signats and systems ne m-)) T1(0.51- 1) : 1 TT “V2 0 2 7 oan ae ot Lo @ © i +10-3.5) T2135) Tle ~29/2) + Te. 2 Toy) 1 1 | L jo 347 jo 2 0 Pas © @ ' Figure 148 Waveforms for Example 1.7(€). n(2}-1 for 1$1<3 2 T(2r-3.5)=1 for 15<1S2 pad 1 for I0 1 for t>-2 worrely for 1<-2 as shown in Figure 1.50(2). The product -t)=-1 for -2<1<0 r(-tu(e+2)=)0 for 1<-2 0 for r>0 as shown in Figure 1.50(b). r{-t) u(t+2) | =2 To * @ © Figure 1.50 Waveforms for Example 1.7(¢). Given r(-0.25t + 1) 1(-0.25t + 1) is obtained by time reversing the signal r(0) to obtain r(-*) delaying it (moving to right) by 1 unit to obtain r(-t + 1) and then expanding the signal ret +1) by 4 times. The entire operation is shown in Figure 1.51. : -0.25+1>0 reoaseen={ oa! for -0.25¢+1> 0 otherwise ie, reoasen= {re for <4 0 otherwise38_| Signals and Systems r(0.251+ 1 for f= and so on. This can be plotted as shown in Figure 1.51(¢)- a rere) + r-0.2514 1) Y “yy 7 z Jor t jo 1 20354 co) © Figure 1.51 Waveforms for Example 1.7(0) EXAMPLE 1.8 Express the following signals as sum of singular functions: a(n) atin) i | YSaser?s t @ po uncanEee 2-1 [01 2 t © x0 1 lor or ar ar srt pr? 45 -h (e) oO Figure 1.52 Waveforms for Example 1.8. Solution: (a) The given signal shown in Figure 1.52(a) is: (1) = dn +2) + d(n + 1) + d(n) + d(n- 1) (0 for ns-3 xQ)=41 for -2 ie 6 So, x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T = 1/6 sec. (©) Given a(t) = eA Since x(t) is a complex exponential signal it is periodic. Comparing it with e/, we have 2a_2n_1 o=4n or =a 7-- @ 47 2 So, x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T = 1/2 sec. (©) Given x(t) = sin mm u(t) sin zt is periodic with period T = 257-2 sec. u(t) exists only between t = 0 z to 1 =e, Hence it is not periodic. ‘Therefore, sin 11 u(t) which is the product of a periodic and a non-periodic signal is not periodic. @ Given x(t) = et! The plot of x(#) = el"! versus # is shown in Figure 1,60. It does not repeat at all. SO it is aperiodic,Signals | 47 Figure 1.60 Plot of (1) =o!!! ») Given xf) = cos 2t-+sin Jt Lot x(t} = (0+ ey) where x)= conde and e,(t)=sin V3 Comparing x4(f) = cos 21 with cos anf, we have = 2 ie. Ief,22 of f ot t 1 Period of x(t) is Taree Comparing x,(1) = sin ¥31 with sin ays, we have @,= V3, ie. Ith = V3 or f= Period of x(t) is q The ratio of two periods = = =—* T ws 2 Since T/T is not a ratio of two integers (ie, not rational qumber), the given signal x(t) is non-periodic. © Given x(0) =3 sin 20021 +4 cos 100r Let x(t) = (0) + 24(0) where 2\()=3sin 2002¢ and xy(r) = 4.c08 100r Comparing x,(1)=3 sin 2001 with A sin wy, we have ©, = 2007, ie. 2nf, = 200n of fi = 100 Period of x,(0) iswe have 5 100 oF p= 2 = Comparing x2(1) = 4 608 oor with B cos Oot, @, = 100, 4-€- 2h = 1 Period of x2(t) 18 hz Bla f 1100 _ J ods = 77/50 2 of two integers (ie. not a rational number), the g The ratio of two pe! Since Ty/T; is not a ratio signal x({) is non-periodic- (g) Given x) Let xen +2 x (0) = sin 101 and x,(t)=cos 202 in 101 + COS 20at where () =sin 10mt with sin @t, We have Comparing % a, = 107, ie. nf; = 10% OF hes Period of x(t) is yparing x2(f) = cos 201 with cos @2!, We have Com oy = 10n, ie. 2nfy= 208 or fa= 10 1 1 Period of x2(t) is here i 2 10 ‘The ratio of two periods = MS 7 10 é Ty = 2 Since T/T isa rational number (ratio of two integers 2 and 1), the given signal is periodic. ‘The fundamental period = T= 7, = 2%, = d sec 5 x(t) = sin (101 + 1) — 2 cos (5t — 2) (h) Given Let ID =4 (+H) where xiQ=sin (10141) and x(t) =2cos (St - 2) Comparing x,(t)=sin (10r +1) with sin (@t + 61), we have @, = 10, ie. 2mf,= 10 or fele=2 2xthe period of Comparing *2(0)=2c0s(5!~2) with A.os(ot-+0,), we have ‘The ratio of two periods = ae 2 20, = 7, Since Ti/Tz is a ratio of two integers (Le, a rational number) the given signal x(i) is periodic. Fundamental period T= 27; =7, = fee! (i) Given x(t) = je Since x(f) is a complex exponential signal it is periodic, Comparing this with the standard form x(t) = e/', we have @ = 6,50. 2nf=6 o fas a nr 1 Time period T=5 =F So, x(t) is periodic with period T = 7/3. Given x(t) = 3u(t) +2 sin 2r (Figure 1.61). Period of 3u(t) is zero, i.e. it is aperiodic. Period of 2 sin 2r is T = (27/2) = msec. 2 sin 2t is periodic. Therefore, x(t), the sum of an aperiodic signal and a periodic signal, is aperiodic. x(t) 3u(t) +2 sin 2t 3{ 240 At ft oN ee ae (a) Figure 161 Signal for Example 1.126).50_| Signals and Systems ess) 4 Bee) (k) Given xt) =6¢ Let xen Ot2O are) and wg () =8e where -(0=6e Conipiing 2108 ete) ith Ack@r), we have 2 a, = 4, ie. 2h =4 o =F 1a wi) jg Ty = fh 2 Bem), we have ‘Time period of eit ‘Comparing xyes with 3 a, = 3m ie. tf = 30 o haz servte ig Ty = Ml is T "Ey . ‘4 y _aI2 _ 3 The ratio of two periods = "= 775 —"q given signal x(t) is not periodic, Time period of 8e/" Since the ratio T/T is not rational, the Given x()=ult) -2ut-9) Period of u(t) as well as u(t ~ 5) is zero. So both u(t) and u(t ~ 5) are apr, ‘Therefore, x(0), the sum of two aperiodic signals, is aperiodic as shown y Figure 1.62. x) «) | u(t) = 2u(t~5) ae st Tp EE 4 L___... ~du(t- 5) @ o © Figure 1.62 Signal for Example 1.120). (m) Given x()=2+.008 21 2 is de signal extending from —s» to, The time period of c08 72 i T = (2n/2n) = 1. Since it is a rational number, cos 27t is periodic. Tah 2 as sho x(Q) = 2 + cos 2t1 is nothing but cos 2mr shi i | rt shifted upwards by 2 Figure 1.63. So (i) is also periodic with a fundamental period T= 186Signals_|_51 Figure 1.63 Signal for Example 1.12(m), | MPLE 1.13 Show that the complex exponential sequence x(n)= e!" is periodic only if a2® js a rational number. t solution: Given x(n) = el" | sq) will be pesiodic if x(n +N) =x [ie on me | ie | is is possible only if iN ay this is true only if aN =28t where & is a positive integer. mk 2. : 2+ = Rational E. a ional number This shows that the complex exponential sequence x(n)=e"" is periodic if wy/2m is a rational number. EXAMPLE 1.14 Let x(f) be the complex exponential signal, x(¢)=e"" with radian frequency @ and fundamental period T = 2m/a. Consider the discrete-time sequence x(n) obtained by the uniform sampling of x(#) with sampling interval 7,, ie. x(n) = x(nT,) =e Show that (1) is periodic if the ratio of the sampling interval T, to the fundamental period T of x(), ie, T/T is a rational number. Solution: Given x() =e x(n) =x(nT,) = Ts the sampling interval. Now, fundamental period 7 =2% ~$2_| Signals and Systems wT If x(n) is periodic with the fundamental period N. then x(ntN) =X) ot joo a ie. e 1 vol, = gins ie. ents et = Ss Not = ‘This is wue only if e 7 ie. Nogl, =2"m where m is a positive integer. n2tz, =20m T ie, This shows that x(n) is periodic if the ratio of the sampling interval to the fung, period of x(), T/T is a rational number. am EXAMPLE 118 Obtain the condition fr diserete-time sinusoidal signal to be perig . srnstitey si fe, Solutions In case of continuous-time signals, all sinusoidal signals are periodic, "not all sinusoidal sequences are periodic. Bit discrete. Consider a discrete-time signal given by a(n) = Asin (ayn + 8) where A is amplitude, y is frequency and @ is phase shift. ‘A discrete-time signal is periodic if and only if x(a) =a(n +N) for all n sin [ay(n+N)+0)]= Asin (@yn +O + 0)N) 1 is, there must be an integere Now, x(n) = Therefore, x(n) and x(n + N) are equal if @gN = 2m, Tha such that _2am_, fm y= SR eta| r Ne a(t a riod, hand From the above equation we find that, for the discrete-time signal to be pen” fi amen reine ey use 9 nna mulple of Otherwise the aise ignal is aperiodic. The smallest val itive ji N. integer ™ © Soe eal pion jue of positive integer N, for some integer "| Signals | 53 LE 116 Determine whether the followin, od ia } @ () © @ Solntion @) (b) © @ 8 discrete-time si iodi ? ermine the fundamental period, ignals are periodic or not? sin (0.0200) (b) sin (Sn) cos An (8) sin sco 280 ne co("}=o(") (© cos (§+039) ere (h) 14 @/2#03 _ mart ee x(n) =sin(0.022n) Comparing it with x(n) = sin (2fn), 0.027 Lk = =001-=—=+ an 100 Here f is expressed as a ratio of two integers with k = 1 and N = 100. So it is rational. Hence the given signal is periodic with fundamental period N = 100. wehave 0.020=2nf or f= Given x(n) =sin (Stn) ‘Comparing it with x(n) =sin (27fn), we have dnf= Sm or Here f is a ratio of two integers with k = 5 and N = 2. Hence it is rational. Therefore, the given signal is periodic with fundamental period N Given x(n) = cos 4n Comparing it with x(n) = 0s 2afn, we have Qnf=4 or fae * Since f = (2/n) is not a rational number, x(n) is not periodic. . 2an 2an x(n) =sin —+ 8 Given Comparing it with x(n) =sin 2fyn + cos2afyn an L_& we have Inf=— or soa i) fey ™ Qn 1 rm=Z oor Aes54 Signals and Systems Since Ni =3 is a ratio of wo integers, the sequence (7) 5 Ib i LCM of NM; = 3 and Ny = 5 j of x(n) is the LCM of N; and Ny Here y= Sig 1. the given sequence is periodic ‘ith fundamental period N= 15. S. 1) cos (©) Given x(n) =€08[ & J 8G Comparing it with x(n) =COS (onfin) cos Of") 1 we have 2afy o fi “Tn which is not rational and which is rational ‘Thus, 0s (r/6) is non-periodie and cos (nxl6) is periodic. x(n) is non beeause itis the product of periodic and non-periodic signals. Pei n (0 Given x(n) = €08 & + 03] Comparing it with x(n) =¢08 (27. +), we have 2nfn = 0.3n and phase shift == 20323 2 20" which is not rational. Hence, the signal x(n) is non-periodic. (g) Given x(n) =e" Comparing it with x(n) =e, 1_k we have apa= or fer=m 2 fan which is rational. Hence, the given signal x(n) is periodic with fundamental period N=“ (h) Given a(n) 2140223 eiten? Let s(n) = 14 022903 _ pital ato) =14 049 — 40 = y(n) + p(n) +2500) where —-y(n)=1, x3(n) =e" and x(n) =e"rr 1 is a de signal (0) an arbitrary period Ny = y(n) = e403 = gi2mhn one @nfn 1_ ky o fase - aa aay, where Ny = 3, Hence x2”) is periodic with period N, = 3, ay(r) =e = pin SFE = aan or M_l_p. oa yg 737 Rational number esas = Rational number 7,421 ‘The LCM of Ny Nass = 5x35 ‘The given signal x(n) is periodic with fundamental period NV = 10.5. 183 Energy and Power Signals Jn electrical systems, signals may represent voltage or i, current. Consider a voltage signal v(t) across a resistance R producing a current i(f) as shown in Figure 1.64. Ww) The instantaneous power developed in R is given by Pt) = ve) I(t) Figure 1.64 Simple resistive circuit. =i() Rit)=P OR When R = 1 ohm, the power dissipated is called normalized power. So Normalized power p(t) =v7() or ?@) If (0) or i() is denoted by a signal x(t), then the instantaneous power is equal to the square of the amplitude of the signal. ie, po) = [xo ‘Thus, for current as well as voltage, the equation for normalized power is same. The total energy or normalized energy of a continuous-time signal x(0) is given by T E= Lt J |x(of dt joules toe S36 _|_ Signats and Systems, ‘The average power or normalized 2 r 1 e = i flor ae watts Pe Lor Jl as mms value of the signal «(- fal x(n). the integrals are replaced by summati ) is defined as: ation, 4 The square root of P is known In the case of discrete-time sign energy E of a discrete-time signal x(7) e=> jon? a(n) is defined as: thot wer P of a discrete-time signal 1 < 2 aa x(n) oe DN #1 x |xeol jgnals and power signals. However th cher be classified as energy signals nor power signals. van energy signal if and only if its total ener fal, average power P = 0. Non-p. wire fai Sia and the average po P= Signals may also be classified as enerey si signals which can neit «A signal is said to bi , (ie. 0 < E< =). For an energy sign are examples of energy signals. ha tes © A signal is said to be a power signal if its average power Pj, fui (ie. 0 < P< ©). For a power signal, total energy E = ©. Periodic examples of power signals. ignals «Both energy and power signals are mutually exclusive, ic. no signal can bei energy signal and power signal. © The signals that do not satisfy the above properties are neither energy signals. power signals. EXAMPLE 1.17. Determine the power x= and rms value of the signal x(1) = A sin (ay § sin(@t +8) Solution: Given . 1 Ty ae ‘Then Average power P= Lt 37 J xo ar Lt 2 =k or lh sin (@pt+0)| dt aT uf [ence a TT 4 2 at Ae eutLfa-ut a Ja Lg le (Qayt +20) at 5 eu” a {Integration of cosine furelt! 7 re aT J4t-0 one full cycle is always ero! 7