REVIEW THE FOLLOWING:

Module 1: Characteristics of Earth as a planet

The Earth is a unique planet among the other planets because of the life exists
on it. Here are the characteristics that make Earth a unique planet:
 There are few stars around the Sun making it safe from gravitational
pulls, gamma rays and collapsing; it makes our planet in a safe
region in our solar system. Unlike other young stars that burst and
explode, our Sun is a stable star making it a long lasting star.
 Our planet’s orbit is called as the Goldilocks’ Zone because the
water exists in a liquid state on its surface due to the right amount of
energy the Earth is receiving from the Sun.
 The Earth’s core produces its own magnetic field thus protecting our
planet from solar flares coming from the Sun.
 The Earth was tilted towards the Sun making it shakes while it goes
around the Sun.
 It can shift the climate from hot to cold at around 40,000 years that
may vary because of the Moon’s gravitational pull.
 It has a high altitude ozone layer protecting us from unsafe UV rays.

 Earth as a System
System is a set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an
interconnecting network. Earth acts as a system that are related to each other,
the
system of Earth is consisted by the different subsystems:

1. Biosphere includes all living things on Earth. Even in deep vents that light
cannot
penetrate serve as a habitat to the exotic-life forms and in the hot springs
for the
bacteria.
2. Atmosphere is a blanket of gas that surrounds our planet up to the
edge of space.
The very important roles of this part is to provide us the air that we breath
and protect
us from the ultraviolet radiation that comes from the Sun.

Layers of the Atmosphere:

 Troposphere is the bottom layer wherein the weather occurs.
 Tropopause is the outer boundary.
 Stratosphere is the layer where the ozone layer is located; the
ozone absorbs the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The outer
layer in the stratopause.
 Mesosphere is the third layer which is the coldest layer;
research balloons cannot reach this layer.
 Thermosphere is fourth layer wherein a little fraction of
atmosphere is present.
  Exosphere the outermost layer; and the thinnest layer of
atmosphere because the atmosphere gases fade until
reaching vacuum of space.

3. Geosphere is the solid part of portion of the Earth. It is the largest among
the rest
of the Earth’s subsystems.

Layers of the Earth

A. Crust is the thin rocky outer layer of the Earth.

Two types: continental (granitic rocks) and oceanic (basaltic rocks);
rocks of the
oceanic crust are younger than the rocks at the continental crust.

B. Mantle is the thickest layer that consists the 82% of the Earth’s
volume.
Two parts: upper mantle is divided into two, the lithosphere (sphere
of rock) and
the asthenosphere (weak sphere: solid but mobile and the lower
mantle is solid
due to the increasing pressure and it has very hot rocks that are
capable of
having a gradual flow.

C. Core is thought to be an iron-nickel alloy with minor oxygen,

silicon and sulfur.
Two regions: outer core is a liquid layer that is responsible in
producing the
magnetic field of the Earth; inner core is solid because of the
extreme pressure
in the center of the Earth.

4. Hydrosphere is all the waters on or near the Earth surface that

continuously moving,
evaporating and back to precipitating to the land and back to the
ocean. The main
role of this part is to provide fresh water to the organisms and is important
to produce
different landforms.

Properties of Mineral

1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral.
• Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a
polished metal.
• Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, etc.

2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically

 surface) to abrasion.

3. Color and streak –maybe a unique identifying property of certain minerals

(e.g.
malachite – green, azurite – blue).

4. Streak on the other hand is the color of a mineral in powdered form.

5. Crystal Form/Habit – the external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is

displayed /observed as these crystals grow in open spaces.

6. Cleavage – it is the property of some minerals to break along parallel

repetitive
planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces.

7. Fracture – some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces
that are irregular and non-planar.

8. Specific Gravity – it is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an

equal volume of water.

9. Others – there are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in
their identification (e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.).
Magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite
fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered form.

 Classification of Minerals

1. Silicates – minerals containing two of the most abundant elements in the

earth’s
crust, namely, silicon and oxygen.
Ex. quartz, beryl (emerald), and feldspar.

2. Oxides – minerals containing oxygen anion (O2 -) combined with one or more
metal ions.
Ex. Hematite, spinel, sapphire.

3. Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen anion (SO4) - combined with
other ions.
Ex. Baryte, gypsum, and anhydrite.

4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2) - combined with one or more
ions.
Ex. pyrite, galena, and sphalerite.

5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3) 2- combined

with
other elements.
Ex. Calcite, magnesite, and dolomite.

6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elements.

a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical
 conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, silver).
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have
lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth).
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond).

7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more

elements. Ex. fluoride, halite, and chloride.

Module 2: Types of Rocks

A. Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of molten rocks called

magma.
Characteristics are these rocks are formed when magma solidifies, as the
magma
cools, mineral crystals will begin to grow, these crystals will grow and
interlock to
form a hard crystalline rock, and basalt is usually formed when magma
solidifies on
the surface and granite hardens within the earth’s crust.

Types
1. Plutonic (Intrusive) igneous rocks formed from magma that cools and
crystalline
beneath the earth.
Ex. Diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.
2. Volcanic (Extrusive) igneous rocks formed from magma which has
spilled out
onto the surface of a volcano.
Ex. Basalt, andesite, dacite, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.

B. Sedimentary rocks are formed with the accumulation, compaction,

and
cementation of sediments. Sediments that have settled at the bottom of
a lake, sea
or ocean, and have been compressed over millions of years.
Characteristics are the
rocks are formed due to the build-up of sediments over time, the
weathered and
eroded material is built up in layers, as more material is added on top –
this will push
any air and/or water out and will compact the material together into a
hard rock, and
often contain fossils of plants and animals.

Types
1. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from mechanical weathering
debris.
Ex. breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
 2. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when dissolved materials
precipitate
from solution.
Ex. rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some dolomites, and some limestones.
3. Organic sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of plant
or animal
debris.
Ex. coal, some dolomites, and some limestones.

C. Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and pressure; changing one

type of rock
into another type of rock. Characteristics are these are formed when
either igneous
or sedimentary rocks are changed, heat and/or pressure will cause the
elements in
the original rock to react and re-form, metamorphic rocks are highly
resistant to
erosion and are often used in building materials.

Types
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks have a layered or banded appearance
that is
produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure. Ex. gneiss, phyllite,
schist, and slate.
2. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are novaculite do not have a layered
or banded
appearance. Ex. hornfels, marble, quartzite

Module 3: Where does Earth’s internal heat come from?

Three main sources of earth's internal heat

1. Heat of accretion- Heat is generated when the planet formed and

accreted from
planetesimals. Colliding planetesimals convert gravitational potential
energy to kinetic
energy and then thermal energy. It takes long for the heat to move out of
the earth
during its development. This occurs through both "convective" transport of
heat within
the earth's liquid outer core and solid mantle and slower "conductive"
transport of heat
through non convecting boundary layers, such as the earth's plates at the
surface. As
a result, much of the planet's primordial heat, has been retained when
earth was
formed.

2. Frictional heating- is caused by denser core material sinking to the

center of the
 planet. Earth's interior is the site of great amounts of heat. Most of this heat
is produced
by the decay of radioactive elements. Overall, the flow of Earth's internal
heat is
outward toward Earth's surface. Many geologic processes and features,
such as
tectonic plate motion, volcanism, and metamorphism, are also related to
the Earth's
internal heat. Large convection currents in the Earth's mantle cause heat
to circulate
within the Earth's interior. These convection currents are linked to tectonic
plate motion
and geologic activity at plate boundaries.

3. Radioactive Decay- heat from the decay of radioactive elements

came from four
radioactive isotopes .A major source of Earth's heat is radioactivity, the
energy
released when the unstable atoms decay.
These four isotopes are:
1. Uranium-238 (238U) 3. Thorium-232(232Th)
2. Uranium- 235(235U) 4. Potassium-40(40K)

Module 4: Metaphormism

There are three ways or origins that metamorphic rocks can form:

1. Contact metamorphism occurs when magma comes in contact with an

already
existing body of rock and produced non-foliated (rocks without any
cleavage)
rocks such as marble, quartzite, and hornfels.

2. Regional Metamorphism occurs over a much larger area, and it is

caused by a
large geologic process such as mountain-building and usually produces
foliated rocks
such as gneiss and schist. Schist is a medium grade metamorphic rock
that has been
subjected to more heat and pressure than slate, which is a low-grade
metamorphic
rock. Regional metamorphism commonly associated with convergent
plate boundaries
and the formation of mountain ranges.

3. Dynamic Metamorphism also occurs because of mountain-building.

These huge
forces of heat and pressure cause the rocks to be bent, folded, crushed,
flattened,
and sheared.

Metamorphic rocks are divided into two categories:

1. Foliates are composed of large amounts of micas and chlorites.

Foliated rocks have
mineral crystals that are aligned in planes or bands in rock. These minerals
have very
distinct cleavage. Foliated metamorphic rocks usually split along the
cleavage lines that
are parallel to the minerals that make up the rock. Slate, as an example,
will split into
thin sheets. Foliate comes from the Latin word that means sheets, as in the
sheets of
paper in a book.

Examples:
● Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock with perfect cleavage that
allows it to split
into thin sheets. Slate usually has a light to dark brown streak. Slate is
produced
by low grade metamorphism, which is caused by relatively low
temperatures and
pressures.
● Schist is a medium grade metamorphic rock. This means that it has been
subjected
to more heat and pressure than slate, which is a low-grade metamorphic
rock.
Schist is a more coarse-grained rock. The individual grains of minerals can
be seen
by naked eye.

2. Non-Foliated is a metamorphic rock that has no cleavage at all.

Quartzite and marble are
two examples of non-foliates rock that have unaligned mineral crystal
which contains more
coarse grains and generally have a random shape that is granular in
appearance.
Examples:
● Quartzite is composed of sandstone that has been metamorphosed.
Quartzite is
much harder than the parent rock sandstone. It forms from sandstone that
has come
into contact with deeply buried magma. Quartzite looks similar to its
parent rock.
● Marble is metamorphosed limestone or dolomite. Both limestone and
dolomite have
a large concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Some of the
different colors of
marble are white, red, black, mottled and banded, gray, pink, and green.

Grain size reflects pressure and temperature conditions of metamorphism.

● Higher temperatures and pressures (higher grades of metamorphism)
favor
larger grains.
● Lower temperatures and pressures favor smaller grains.

Mineral composition:

● Reflects the composition of the parent rock and the pressure

● Temperature conditions under which the metamorphism occurred.
Module 5: Formation of folds and faults

A fold is a bend in rock layers that results from stress.

Types of Folds:

 An anticline is a fold in which the oldest layer is in the center of the

fold.
Anticlines are commonly arch shaped.

 A syncline is a fold in which the youngest layer

is in the center of the fold. Synclines are commonly bowl shaped. A
monocline is a
fold in which both limbs are horizontal or almost horizontal.

 Monoclines form when one

part of Earth’s crust moves up or down relative to another part.

Fracture is a break along which there is no movement of the surrounding

rock.

Fault is a break along which the surrounding rock moves.

 The hanging wall is the rock above the fault plane.
 The footwall is the rock below the fault plane.

Module 6: Geological Hazards and Hazard Maps

 Geological hazards
 Volcanic Eruption- A volcanic eruption is when lava and gas are
released from a volcano—sometimes explosively. Volcanoes
 erupt when molten rock called magma rises to the surface.
Magma is formed when the earth's mantle melts.
Melting may happen where tectonic plates are pulling apart or
where one plate is pushed down under another.

Volcanic hazards directly associated with eruption

1. Lava flow
2. Tephra fall or ash fall and ballistic projectiles
3. Pyroclastic density currents or PDCs (pyroclastic flow,
pyroclastic
surge, base surge)
4. Lateral blast
5. Volcanic gas

Volcanic hazards indirectly associated with eruption

1. Lahar, flooding
2. Debris avalanche, landslide
3. Volcanic tsunami
4. Ground deformation (subsidence, fissuring)
5. Secondary explosion
6. Secondary PDCs and ash fall

 Earthquake- (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the

shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden
release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.

 Focus - where the rock breaks and seismic waves

begin; can be at deep or shallow depths.
 Epicenter – point on the surface directly above the
focus; usually what is used to locate the position of
an earthquake.

 Landslide is the mass movement of rock, soil, and debris down a
slope due to gravity.

The types of landslides are:

A. Rotational – more resistant rocks over underlying weaker rocks;

B. Translational – occur in a very wet weather when near surface
soil is
saturated;
C. Block – moving mass move downslope as a coherent mass;
D. Rock fall -single and small rock falls from cliffs build up to form
talus;
E. Topple – occur when a cliff is eroded by waves at its base;
F. Debris flow – sloppy wet mudflows to slurries of rock debris
similar to wet
concrete;
G. Debris avalanche – rushes down the side of a volcano to the
valley floor;
H. Earthflow – a downslope viscous flow of fine -grained materials
saturated
I. Creep -slow downslope movement of material under gravity
over a large
area and
J. Lateral spread – form on gentle slopes and have a rapid fluid-
like flow.
 Relative vs. Absolute Dating

Relative dating methods estimate whether an object is younger

or older than other things found at the site. Relative dating does
not offer specific dates, it simply allows to determine if one
artifact, fossil, or stratigraphic layer is older than another.

Absolute dating methods provide more specific origin dates and

time ranges, such as an age range in years. How specific these
dates can be will depend on what method is used.

 Relative Dating Methods

 Stratigraphy: Assuming that soil layers in a deposit

accumulate on top of one another, and that the bottom
layers will be older than the top layers, stratigraphy allows
archaeologists to construct a relative chronological
sequence from the oldest (bottom) to youngest (top)
layers. Artifacts found in these layers are at least as old as
the deposit in which they were found.

 Seriation: a technique that was common in the mid-20th

century, seriation looks at changes in certain styles of
artifacts present at a site. A chronology is developed
based on the assumption that one cultural style (or
typology) will slowly replace an earlier style over time.

 Fluorine dating: a technique that analyzes how much of

the chemical fluorine has been absorbed by bones from
the surrounding soils in order to determine how long the
specimen has been underground.

 Absolute Dating Methods

 Radiocarbon Dating: One of the most widely known

radiometric dating techniques, radiocarbon dating
measures the decay of the radioactive isotope Carbon-14
(C-14) in any organic material found in archaeological
deposits, such as wood, plants, textiles, and human or
animal remains to determine its age.

 Dendrochronology: Since most trees produce a ring of

new wood annually, archaeologists use the variations in
cross-sections of wood to produce timelines.

 Thermoluminescence: Useful for determining the age of

pottery or ceramics, it can be used to date materials
containing crystalline minerals to a specific heating event
in the past (such as when the item was made).

 Fission-track dating: A technique that determines age of

various minerals and glasses based on the trails of
damage done by the spontaneous fission of uranium-238,
the most abundant isotope of uranium.
  Potassium-argon (K-Ar) and Argon-argon (Ar-Ar): measure
the ratio of argon gas in igneous volcanic rock to estimate
how much time has elapsed since the rock cooled and
solidified.

 Archaeomagnetic dating: Magnetic particles in most

materials of geological origin, such as rocks and clay, are
analyzed to track shifts in the earth’s magnetic fields over
time.

Module 7: Hydrometeorological Hazards

caused by the extreme meteorological and climate events such as

floods, droughts, hurricanes, tornadoes, landslide, or mudslide. Severe
storm, strong winds, floods, and droughts develop at different spatial
temporal scales, but all can become disasters that can cause
infrastructure damage and claim thousands of lives annually worldwide.

Types of Hydro Meteorological Hazards

 Tropical Cyclones (Typhoon) are characterized by strong

winds, heavy rain, and a distinct low-pressure center
(called the ―eye‖). It is also called hurricanes, tropical
storms, or tropical depressions depending on its source
location. Tropicalcyclone intensity is measured from the
maximum wind speed. Major hazards associated with
tropical cyclones are: Storm surge and storm tide, heavy
rainfall and inland flooding, high winds, rip current and
tornadoes.

 Monsoons are defined as the seasonal variation of wind

patterns which can
bring significant amount of different portions of the earth.

Two prevailing monsoons present in the Philippines:

Amihan, Northeastern Wind is characterized by cool,

relatively dry winds prevailing from the east. Amihan is
usually experienced from September to June bringing fair
weather.

Habagat, Southwest Wind is characterized as the hot and

humid winds from the west. Bringing a lot precipitation,
habagat is experienced for the rest of the year following
amihan. Flood is the flow of water in areas that are
normally dry. Flooding can happen from different events
such as heavy rainfall, tidal effects, storm surges,and
tsunamis.
Module 8: Coastal Processes

Coastal processes include coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater

intrusion.

 Coastal Erosion is the wearing away of the land by the sea and is
done by destructive waves.

Five common processes that cause coastal erosion:

1. Corrasion is when waves pick up beach material (e.g. pebbles)

and hurl them at the base of a cliff.

2. Abrasion occurs as breaking waves which contain sand and

larger fragments erode the shoreline or headland. It is commonly
known as the sandpaper effect.

3. Hydraulic action is when waves hit the base of a cliff air is

compressed into cracks. When the wave retreats the air rushes out
of the gap. Often this causes cliff material to break away.

4. Attrition is when waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into

each other and break up.

5. Corrosion/solution is when certain types of cliff erode as a result of

weak acids in the sea.

 Saltwater Intrusion

Saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers of shorelines and

coastal areas
is a threat to the quality of the freshwater supply. Generally, coastal
groundwater
aquifers are vulnerable to seawater intrusion due to their hydraulic
connection with the
sea and are responsive to various factors.

• Saltwater intrusion is also a major concern commonly found in

coastal aquifers
around the world.

• Saltwater intrusion is the induced flow of seawater into freshwater

aquifers
primarily caused by groundwater development near the coast.
Where groundwater
is being pumped from aquifers that are in hydraulic connection with
the sea,
induced gradients may cause the migration of salt water from the
sea toward a
well, making the freshwater well unusable.
Factors Affecting Saltwater Intrusion

1. Tidal oscillation - is modified to a greater or lesser extent by irregular

factor which mainly are the atmospheric pressure and the
momentum exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean

2. Seasonal changes - affect soil moisture, evaporation rates, river

flows, lake levels, and snow cover

3. Geological formations - is the natural formations and structures in the

bedrocand soil, usually created by extremely slow geological
processes of varying age Geological formations, such as potholes or
igneous rock dykes in bedrock.

 Coastal Submersion

This often takes place during violent storms, when sand is dragged or
pushed underwater, and it tends to return to the visible place (via
wave action) it had previously been when the seas have calmed
down. At its most extreme, submersion can temporarily submerse an
island, and create islands as well. When sea levels rise, submersion has
a larger impact, and this can be very bad for island biodiversity.