MODULE-2

METEREOLOGY
1. Explain the structure and the composition of atmosphere
Composition of the atmosphere:
The atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelope a planet and is held in place by
the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and
the temperature of the atmosphere is low.
 The atmosphere of earth is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%), carbon
dioxide (0.04%) and trace gases. A variable amount of water vapour is also present in the
atmosphere (approx.1% at sea level) and it decreases with altitude.
 Carbon dioxide gas is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. It is transparent to the
incoming solar radiation but is opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of
terrestrial radiation and reflects back some of it towards the earth’s surface.
 Dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. They originate from different sources like fine
soil, smoke-soot, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors. Dust and salt particles act
as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.
Dust Particles
 Dust particles are in higher concentrations in temperate and subtropical regions due to dry winds
in contrast to the polar and equatorial regions.
 They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of the atmosphere condenses to create
clouds.
Nitrogen
 The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen.
 Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
 Biotic things need nitrogen to make proteins.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying the required nitrogen for living things.
Oxygen
 The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen.
 It is used by all living things and is essential for respiration.
 It is obligatory for burning.
Carbon Dioxide
 The atmosphere is composed of 0.03% carbon dioxide.
 Plants use it to make oxygen.
 It is significant as it is opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation and transparent to incoming solar
radiation.
 It is also one of the gases responsible for the greenhouse effect.

Structure of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature conditions –
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
Troposphere

 It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.

 The average height of the troposphere is 13 km; its height is about 8 km near the poles
and about 18 km at the equator. At the equator, its thickness is greatest because heat is
transported to great heights by strong convection currents.
 All the climatic and weather changes take place in this layer of the atmosphere.
 The temperature decreases with the increase in height; for every 165 m of height, the
temperature decreases by 1℃ (normal lapse rate).
 Tropopause is a zone that separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. The
temperature in this zone is nearly constant (-80℃ over the equator and about -45℃ over
the poles) and hence, it is called the tropopause.

Stratosphere

 It is the second layer of the atmosphere, just above the troposphere and extends up to a
height of 50 km.
 This layer of the atmosphere contains the ozone layer which absorbs ultraviolet radiation
from the sun and protects life from harmful forms of energy. The UV radiations absorbed
by the ozone layer gets converted into heat, that is why the stratosphere gets warmer
with increasing altitude (unlike the troposphere).
 Weather-related phenomena are absent in this layer of the atmosphere, that is why
aeroplanes fly in the stratosphere for a smooth ride.
 Stratopause separates the stratosphere and mesosphere.

Mesosphere

 Mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere which extends up to a height of 80 km.
 In this layer, temperature decreases with increasing altitude and drops down to minus
100℃ at the height of 80 km.
 Meteorites burn in this layer on entering the atmosphere from outer space.
 Its upper limit is mesopause which separates the mesosphere and thermosphere.

Thermosphere

 The ionosphere lies within the thermosphere. It is located between 80 and 400 km above
the mesosphere and contains electrically charged particles called ions, hence the name
ionosphere.
 In this layer of the atmosphere, temperature increases with increasing height.
 Radio Waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
 Satellites orbit in the upper part of the thermosphere.
 
Exosphere

 The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere is called the exosphere.
 This layer gradually merges with outer space.

2. With neat sketch Explain the Plume behaviour for the different atmospheric conditions (2)
PLUME BEHAVIOUR:
 Plume refers to the path and extent in the atmosphere of the gaseous effluents
released from a source usually a stack (chimney).
 The behaviour of a plume emitted from any stack depends on localized air stability.
 The Geometric forms of stack plumes are a function of the vertical temperature and wind
profiles, vice versa, by looking at the plume one can state stability condition and dispersive
capacity of atmosphere.
 The behaviour and dispersion of a plume entirely depends on the environmental lapse
rate (ELR).
 Effluents from town stacks are often injected to an effective height of several 100m above
ground because of the cumulative effects of buoyancy and velocity on plume rise other
factors influencing the flume behaviour are the diurnal (seasonal) variations in the
atmospheric stability and the long-term variations which occur with change in seasons.

Six types of plume behaviour are shown in the figure below, the spread of the plume is
directly related to the vertical temperature gradient as shown in the figure.
i) Looping
ii) Coning
iii) Fanning
iv) Lofting
v) Fumigation
vi) Trapping
i) LOOPING: It is a type of plume which has a wavy character. It occurs in a highly
unstable atmosphere because of rapid mixing. The high degree of turbulence helps in
dispersing the plume rapidly but high concentrations may occur close to the stack if the
plume touches the ground.
ii) CONING: It is a type of plume which is shaped like a CONE. This takes place in a near
neutral atmosphere, when the wind velocity is greater than 32 km/hr. However, the plume
reaches the ground at greater distances than with loping.
iii) FANNING: It is a type of plume emitted under extreme inversion conditions. the plume
under these condition will spread horizontally, but little if at all vertically. Therefore the
prediction of ground level concentration (SLC) is difficult here.
iv) LOFTING: Lofting occurs when there is a strong lapse rate above a surface inversion.
under this condition, diffusion is rapid upwards, but downward diffusion does not
penetrate the inversion layer under these conditions, emission will not reach surface.
v) FUMIGATION: It is a phenomenon in which pollutants that are emitted into the
atmosphere is brought rapidly to the ground level when the air destabilizes.
vi) TRAPPING: This refers to conditions where the plume is caught between inversion and
can only diffuse within a limited vertical height. The lofting plume is most favorable air
to minimizing air pollution. The fumigation and trapping plumes are very critical from
the points of ground level pollutant concentrations.
3. Explain the Gaussian plume dispersion equation for the gaseous pollutants
GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL:
There are several models available for predicting the concentrations downwind of a single
source, but most of them are Numerical methods. However, under a set of simplifying
assumptions the analytical solutions can be obtained. The first formulation for the steady state
concentration downwind from a continuous point source was presented by SUTTON and further
developed by PASQUILL AND GIFFORD. This solution is commonly known a GAUSSIAN PLUME
MODEL. The concentration distribution perpendicular to the plume axis is assumed to be
Gaussian.
Consider a continuous point source located at x-y=o and at a height Z-H. A description of the
pollutant concentration (ga) could be facilitated by assuming that all the pollutants are reflected
an image source of equal strength at x=y=o and Z= -H. in this method, known as the method of
images, the solutions of both the Real and image sources are added together. The resultant
equation for pollutant concentration at a selected location (x, y, z) in the three dimensional filed
downwind of the elevated point source is given by
 4. Explain the important meteorological parameters the influence air pollution.
Wind, speed and direction
I. Temperature
II. Atmospheric stability
III. Mixing height
IV. Rainfall and precipitation
V. Humidity
VI. Solar radiation
VII. Visibility
i) Wind, speed and direction:
 It changes the concentration of pollutant near ground level.
 The pollutant gets diluted with high volume of atmospheric air.
 Gustiness determines the dilution of the pollutant with air.
 In plane area the wind speed decides the movement of pollutant.
 In hilly areas hills deflect the air flow.
 Wind speed can be measured by anemometer.

ii) Atmospheric Stability and inversion:

 It is defined as the measure of atmospheric tendency to encourage the vertical motion.

 The degree of atmospheric stability is determined by temperature differences between the
air parcel and the air surrounding in it.
 The rate at which the atmospheric temperature decreases with increase in altitude is known
as lapse rate.
 When the negative lapse rate occurs, a dense cold air at the ground level is covered by warm
air at higher level. This is inversion.
 Due to the temperature inversion the atmosphere is stable and mixing of air with pollutant
takes place.

iii) Mixing height:

 It is the height above the earth surface to which pollutant will extend through the atmospheric
turbulence.

iv) Precipitation and Rainfall:

 It exerts two-fold cleansing action on the pollutant.

 Rainfall accelerates the deposition of particulate matter on the ground.

v) Humidity:

 The moisture content of the atmosphere affects the corrosive action of air pollutant and
represents the potentiality for fog formation.

vi) Solar Radiation:

 It includes the chemical reaction between atmospheric air components and pollutants in air.
 The reaction depends upon the location.
5. Explain wind rose with neat sketch in detail (1)
WINDROSE DIAGRAM:
 It is defined as any one of a class of diagrams designed to show the distribution of wind
direction experienced at a given location over a considerable period. In other words, the wind
rose shows the prevailing direction of the wind.
 The most common form consists of a circle from which eight- or sixteen-lines Cinergy, one
for each direction.
 The length of each line is proportional to the frequency calm conditions are cantered in the
centre.
 There are many variations in the construction of wind roses.
 The wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale to represent percentage
frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades, lines etc… to represent various
wind speeds observation corresponding to wind speed below 1 lm/hr are recorded as CALM.
6. What is maximum mixing depth? How is it determined?
7. Write definition for plume rise. Give different formulas used to calculate used to calculate the
plume rise.
Plume rise means the vertical distance from the point at which an effluent stream is
discharged into the outdoor atmosphere to the highest point attained by the centre line of the
effluent stream.
8. Define DALR and ELR.
DALR: The rate at which dry air cools as it rises is called the dry adiabatic lapse rate and is
independent of the ambient air temperature. The term “adiabatic” means that there is no heat
exchange between the rising parcel of air under consideration and the surrounding air.
 dry adiabatic lapse rate the rate at which dry (i.e., unsaturated) air cools when rising
adiabatically through the atmosphere as a result of the utilization of energy in expansion. It is
9.8°C/km.
ELR: The prevailing lapse rate at a particular time and the particular place and determined by
sending a balloon equipped with thermometer is called environmental lapse rate.

9. Explain the application of wind rose diagram.

 wind direction determines the quality of air and pollution, and wind roses are helpful for
detecting the pollution in air, and also explained that winds are lighter during the night than
during the day and in summer as compared to winter.
 A wind rose is a way to graphically show wind speed and wind direction over a certain period
of time, at a specific location.
 The importance of wind analysis is to formulate the concept of building façade and landscape,
as well as building structure. This paper will concentrate on the first one. To formulate the
concept of building and landscape, architects should know about wind, its types and
categories.
  A rose diagram shows the circular distribution of directional data. The diagram plots lines at
each of the 360 degrees of a compass distribution, with the length proportional to the number
of values in that direction. With small data sets, directions can be binned.
 Wind rose diagrams help you visualize wind patterns at a site. Use them to better inform your
design decisions, but be aware of unique microclimates and site considerations that wind rose.
 A wind rose gives you information on the relative wind speeds in different directions, i.e. Each
of the three sets of data (frequency, mean wind speed, and mean cube of wind speed) has
been multiplied by a number which ensures that the largest wedge in the set exactly matches
the radius of the outermost circle in the diagram.

10. With a neat sketch, explain the effective stack height. How do you calculate the effective stack
height?
11. With a neat sketch, explain the wind speed recorder and wind direction recorder devices used
in measuring meteorological variables.
 The wind speed is transmitted to a recorder or indicating panel by either mechanical
optical or electrical means.
 Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the wind's speed, and
those that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a close connection between the
 pressure and the speed, an anemometer designed for one will give information about
both.
 A simple type of anemometer, consists of four hemispherical cups each mounted on one
end of four horizontal arms, which in turn were mounted at equal angles to each other on
a vertical shaft.
 The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the cups in a manner that
was proportional to the wind speed.
 Therefore, counting the turns of the cups over a set time period produced the average
wind speed for a wide range of speeds.
 On an anemometer with four cups it is easy to see that since the cups are arranged
symmetrically on the end of the arms, the wind always has the hollow of one cup
presented to it and is blowing on the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross.

wind direction recorder devices used in measuring meteorological variables.

 An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure. Anemometers
are important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns. They are also important to
the work of physicists, who study the way air moves.
 The most common type of anemometer has three or four cups attached to horizontal arms. The
arms are attached to a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, making the rod spin. The
stronger the wind blows, the faster the rod spins. The anemometer counts the number of
rotations, or turns, which is used to calculate wind speed. Because wind speeds are not
consistent—there are gusts and lulls—wind speed is usually averaged over a short period of time.
 A similar type of anemometer counts the revolutions made by windmill-style blades. The rod of
windmill anemometers rotates horizontally.
 Other anemometers calculate wind speed in different ways. A hot-wire anemometer takes
advantage of the fact that air cools a heated object when it flows over it. (That is why a breeze
feels refreshing on a hot day.) In a hot-wire anemometer, an electrically heated, thin wire is placed
in the wind. The amount of power needed to keep the wire hot is used to calculate the wind speed.
The higher the wind speed, the more power is required to keep the wire at a constant
temperature.
 Wind speed can also be determined by measuring air pressure. (Air pressure itself is measured by
an instrument called a barometer.) A tube anemometer uses air pressure to determine the wind
pressure, or speed. A tube anemometer measures the air pressure inside a glass tube that is closed
at one end. By comparing the air pressure inside the tube to the air pressure outside the tube,
wind speed can be calculated.
 An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure. Anemometers
are important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns. They are also important to
the work of physicists, who study the way air moves.