Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering

Structural Engineering Chair

CHAPTER TWO
Force Systems
2.1. Introduction

Before investigating the system of forces in depth, we need to discuss regarding the behavior and
characteristics of force. Force is a vector physical quantity which can be defined as the action of
one body on another or an action which tends to accelerate a body.

As shown in the figure, tensile force is applied by a

cable which tilted with the given angel against the
vertical axis. The figure (b) can clarify the side view
of the force arrangement.
The force directed away from a given body is called
tensile force. The force specified here is away from
the body whose stress is more significant on the
horizontal bar element connecting the cable against
the bracket angle section.
Since the tensile force is directed at the fixed point
of application, it can be considered as fixed vector.

Principle of transmissibility

It states that a force may be applied at any point on its given line of action without altering the
resultant effects of the force external to the rigid body on which it acts.

The push force located at point B can be applied at point A in the form of tension which always
create hozizontal movmenet to the right direction.

Forces can be classified n to number of groups based on variable characteristics. The following
figures can clarify the discussion better.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

Fig: Force division based on arrangement

The relationship between external effect and internal forces depends on material property. The
internal system of forces here considered as response for the implied force at the external level. The
elastic and plastic behavior of the material will be required to determinate the enquired relationship
which is, yet, out of the scope of this course. Since the course deals essentially with the mechanics
of rigid bodies, we will treat almost all forces as sliding vectors for the rigid body on which they
act. The resultant external effects of a force are the target which will be investigated; the force may
be treated as a sliding vector, and it is highly significant to specify the magnitude, direction and line
of action of the force.

The following figure also shows another form of force classification.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

Contact and body forces are generated based on the contact scenario between the existing bodies.
If the two bodies are in contact with one pushing or pulling the other body, the created force named
as contact force. However, body forces are created by remote action without any contact between
the bodies. Gravitational magnetic forces are examples of body forces.

On the contrary, contact and distributed forces are grouped based on the area of contact between
the bodies. If the force is applied on small area compared to the existing entire area, then the force
can be considered as concentrated at a single point and the converse is true.

forces can also be coplanar and/or concurrent. If the line of action of the two forces intersects at a
same point, the forces are concurrent. On the other hand, If the existing forces are perpendicular to
each other, then they are coplanar. Hence, non-perpendicular forces are called non-coplanar forces
and non-intersecting forces are called non-concurrent forces.

A force may be measured either by comparison with other known forces, using a mechanical
balance, or by the calibrated movement of an elastic element.
The action of a force is always accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction.
F2

F2 R - principle of transmissibility
R = F1 + F2

F1
-The resultant R replaces F1 and F2 without altering the external
effects on the body upon which they act.
In addition to the need for combining forces to obtain their resultant, we often have occasion to
replace a force by its vector components which act in specified directions.

F2 R is resolved into F1 and F2.

R
R = F1 + F2
F1
F1 and F2 are vector components of R.

The relationship between a force and its vector components along the given axes must not be
confused with the relationship between a force and its orthogonal projections onto the same axes.
The components and projections of the vector will be equal only when the axes are perpendicular.
v
.Fa and Fb are orthogonal projections.
Fa .F1 and F2 are vector components in the a and b
directions
F2 R
F1 Fb b

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

2.2. Coplanar (Two-Dimensional) Force Systems

2.2.1. Resolution of a Force

The most common two-dimensional resolution of a force vector is into rectangular components.
y R = Fx + Fy= Fxi + Fyj

Fy
θ
Fx x
The scalar components Fx and Fy may in general be positive or negative, depending on the
quadrant into which F points.
Fx = Fcosθ , Fy = Fcosθ , F = (Fx2 + Fy2) θ = tan-¹ (Fy / Fx)
It is essential that we be able to determine the correct components of a force no matter how the
axes are oriented or how the angles are measured. F
β α
Eg. y F x y
β

F
y
x β
x

Fx = Fsin β Fx = - Fcosβ Fx = Fcos(β – α)

Fy = Fcos β Fy = - Fsinβ Fy = Fsin(β – α)

It is often convenient to utilize rectangular components in finding the sum or resultant force R.

F2y F2
F1
F1y
R
Ry

F1x F2x x
Rx

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Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair
R = F1 + F2 = (F1xi + F1yj) + (F2xi + F2yj) or

R = Rxi + Ryj = (F1x + F2x)i + (F1y + F2y)j

Rx = F1x + F2x = Σ Fx
Ry = F1y + F2y = ΣFy

R= (Rx2 + Ry2)
Revision on the Sine and Cosine Laws (Chapter 1)
Cosine law

R R2 = F12 + F22 – 2F1.F2cos(α)

F1 = F12 + F22 + 2F1.F2cos(θ)
γ
θ
β α θ
F2

Sine law

R/sin(α) = F2/sin(γ) = F1/sin(β)

If the angle θ=900---------------- F1 and F2 are perpendicular components of the force R. Hence,
cos(θ) = cos(α)=0 and R2= F12+F22

2.2.2. Moment, Couple and Force-Couple Systems

1/ Moment
A force may tend to rotate a body about an axis. This rotational tendency is known as the moment
M of the force or torque. Moment is a vector quantity having direction perpendicular to the plane
of the body and its sense depends on the direction in which the force tends to rotate the body. The
right-hand rule is used to identify the sense.

The magnitude of the moment or tendency of the force to rotate the body about an axis normal to
the plane of the body is proportional to the magnitude of the force and the moment arm, which is
the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force. The moment is
perpendicular to the plane of rotation and reaches maximum when the force and the arm are
perpendicular. If the force and the arm are not perpendicular, finding the perpendicular value is
always the first target.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

The magnitude of the moment is: M = F.d Its SI unit is Nm.

Sign convention consistency within a given problem is essential, in which the positive direction is
given for counterclockwise rotation.
In some two-dimensional and many three-dimensional problems to follow, it is convenient to use
a vector approach for moment calculations. The moment of F about point A of the above fig. may
be represented by the cross-product expression:
M = r X F, r X F = - F X r ---------- (reversed rotation)

Where, r = a position vector which runs from the moment reference point A to any point on the
line of action of F.
The magnitude of this expression is given by; M = Frsinα = Fd.

Note that the moment arm, in the above figure, d = rsinα does not depend on the particular point on
the line of action of F to which the vector r is directed. The direction and sense of M are correctly
established by applying the right-hand rule to the sequence r X F. The moment is perpendicular to
the plane containing the vectors r and F.

In evaluating the moment of a force about a given point, the choice between using the vector
cross product or using the scalar expression will depend largely on how the geometry of the
problem is specified. If the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the
moment center is given or is easily determined, then the scalar approach is generally simpler. If,
however, F and r are not perpendicular and are easily expressible in vector addition, then the
cross-product expression is often preferred.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

Varignon’s Theorem
It states that “the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the
components of the force about the same point.
P R

Q
r
o
r
Proof:
Mo = r X R , R = P + Q
r X R = r X (P + Q)
Using the distributive law of cross product,
Mo = r X R = (r X P) + (r X Q)

2/ Couple

Couple is the moment produced by two equal and opposite and non collinear forces.

-F - These two forces cannot be combined into a single force, since

F their sum in every direction is zero.
a - The effect of the two forces is entirely to produce a tendency.
d of rotation.
o

The magnitude of the couple M about an axis passing through any point such as o is;
M = F(a + d) – Fd = Fd (the magnitude contains no reference to the dimension a).The direction of
the couple is ccw.
The moment of a couple has the same value for all moment centers. This means the moment created
between the oppositely directed equal forces depends on their spacing, not the location of the point
of rotation.
The moment of a couple may be represented by vector algebra using the cross-product notation.

-F
M = rA X F + rB X (-F)
rB r F
= (rA - rB) X F
o rA
= r X F (the expression contains no reference to the moment
center o to arbitrary points A and B on the line of action of F and –F, respectively.
The direction of a couple is normal to the plane of the couple and the sense is established by the
right-hand rule.
A couple is unchanged as long as the magnitude and direction of the vector remain constant.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair
Force-Couple Systems
The effect of force acting on a body has been described in terms of the tendency to push or pull the
body in the direction of the force. It also considered to have a tendency to rotate the body about any
axis which does not intersect the line of the force. The representation of this dual effect is often
facilitated by replacing the given force by an equal parallel force and a couple to compensate for
the change in the moment of the force at another point.

It is possible to replace a force at a point by the same force acting at a different point and a couple
without altering the external effects of the original force on the body. The combination of the
force and couple at a given point is referred to as a force-couple system.

Eg. A A F
d =

F M = F.d
A given couple and a force which lies in the plane of the couple (normal to the couple vector)
may be combined to produce a single force by reversing the foregoing procedure.

2.2.3. Resultants
Most problems in mechanics deal with a system of forces, and it is usually necessary to reduce the
system to its simplest form in describing its action.

The resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force combination that can replace the original
forces without altering the external effect of the system on the rigid body to which the forces are
applied.

For any system of coplanar forces F1, F2, F3, etc. in the x-y plane, the resultant R of the forces is
given by:
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + ….. = ∑ Fn
= (F1xi + F1yj) + (F2xi + F2yj) + (F3xi + F3yj) + ……
= ∑ Fxi + ∑ Fyj
= Rxi + Ryj
Rx = ∑ Fx ; Ry = ∑ Fy , R = ((∑Fx)2 + (∑Fy)2)
θ = tan-1(Ry/Rx) = tan-1(∑Fy/ ∑Fx)
It is possible to reduce a given system of forces to a force-couple system at an arbitrary chosen
point.

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Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

Mo = M1 + M2 + M3
M1 = F1*d1
M2 = F2*d2
M3 = F3*d3

R
d d = Mo/R
R = ∑F
Mo = ∑M = ∑F*d’
Mo = R*d
The moment of the resultant force about any point equals the sum of the moments of the original
forces of the system about the same point.
If the resultant force R for a given force system is zero, the resultant of the system need not be
zero as it may be a couple.
Eg. F1
F1 + F2 = - F3

F2 R = 0, M = F3*d

d
F3

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair
2.3. (Three Dimensional) Force Systems

2.3.1. Resolution of a Force

z

Fzk F y

θz θy Fyj

θx
Fxi
x
Fxi, Fyj and Fzk are rectangular components of F.

F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk, Fx = Fcosθx, Fy = Fcosθy, Fz = Fcosθz

F = Fcosθxi + Fcosθyj + Fcosθzk = F (cosθxi + cosθyj + cosθzk)

nF = unit vector in the direction of F

F = nF.F
F= (Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2)

In solving three-dimensional problems, one must usually find the x, y and z scalar components of
a given or unknown force. In most cases, the direction of a force is described;
I) by two points on the line of action of the force, or
II) by two angles which orient the line of action.

I) using points

If the coordinates of two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) on the line of action of the force are
known and the direction of the force is from A to B, the force may be written as;

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

F = FnAB = F.AB/| AB | = F. (x2 – x1)i + (y2 – y1)j + (z2 – z1)k

((x2-x1)2 + (y2-y1)2 + (z2-z1)2)

II) Using two angles

z

Fz F

Φ
Fy
Fx θ
Fxy y

F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk

Fxy = F.cosΦ, Fz = F.sinΦ, Fx = Fxy.cosθ = F.cosΦ.cosθ,
Fy = Fxy.sinθ = F.cosΦ.sinθ
Rectangular components of a force F may be written with the aid of dot or scalar product
operation.
If the unit vector n = αi +βj +γk and F = F(li + mj + nk), the projection of F in the n direction is
given by:

i/ As a scalar
Fn = F. n = F (li + mj + nk). (αi + βj + γk) = F (lα + mβ + nγ)
ii/ As a vector
Fn = (F.n) n
If θ is the angle between F and n, F. n = Fncosθ, θ = cos-1((F. n)/ | F |)

Where the value of l, m and n are the cosine value of the angles in the corresponding axis.

It should be observed that the dot product relationship applies to non-intersecting vectors as well
as to intersecting vectors.

2.3.2. Moment, Couple and Force-couple Systems

In three dimensions, the determination of the perpendicular distance between a point or line and
the line of action of the force can be a tedious computation. The use of a vector approach using
cross-product multiplication becomes advantageous.

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Structural Engineering Chair
i/ Moment

Fig: Formation of moment in 3D

The moment Mo of F about an axis through O is given by;

Mo = r X F = (rxi + ryj + rzk) X (Fxi + Fyj + Fzk) = i j k

rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz

= (ry.Fz – rz.Fy)i + (rz.Fx – rx.Fz)j + (rx.Fy – ry.Fx)k

= Mxi + Myj + Mzk

If n is a unit vector in the  direction, the moment M of F about any axis  through O is
expressed by;
M = Mo .n = (r X F. n) --- which is the scalar magnitude.
Or
M = (Mo. n) n = (r X F. n) n ------ vector expression for the moment of F about an axis
 through O.

Varignon’s Theorem; - the sum of the moments of a system of concurrent forces about a given
point equals the moment of their sum about the same point.
F3
-The sum of the moments of the forces about O is;
F2
Mo = r X F1 + r X F2 + r X F3 + -------
= r X (F1 + F2 + F3 + ----)
F1 = r X  Fi
r =  (r X Fi)
=rXR

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
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Structural Engineering Chair
ii/ Couple

- F d F

B
r

rB A
rA
O
-If the vector r joins any point B on the line of action of –F to any point A on the line of action of
F. The combined moment (couple) of the two forces about O is;

M = rA X F + rB X (-F) = (rA – rB) X F = r X F

The moment of the couple, M = r X F. It is the same about all points.
- The moment of a couple is a free vector, whereas the moment of a force about a point
(which is also the moment about a defined axis through the point) is a sliding vector
whose direction is along the axis through the point.
- A couple tends to produce a pure rotation of the body about an axis normal to the plane of
the forces which constitute the couple.

Force-Couple System

Fig: Force couple system in space

The force F at point A is replaced by an equal force F at point B and the couple

M = r X F.

• Couple vectors obey all of the rules, which govern vector quantities.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair
2.3.3. Resultants

-Any system of forces may be replaced by its resultant force R and the resultant couple
M. For the system of forces F1, F2, F3, ----- acting on a rigid body, the resultant force R and the
resultant couple M is given by;

R = F1 + F2 + F3 + -------- =  Fi

M = M1 + M2 + M3 + ----- =  Mi

Fig: resultant force couple system for given forces

r1, r2 = vectors from O to any point on the line of action of F1 and F2 respectively.

In three dimensions, the magnitudes of the resultants and their components are;

Rx =  Fx, Ry =  Fy, Rz =  Fz R= ((Fx)2 + (Fy)2 + (Fz)2)

Mx =  (r X F)x , My =  (r X F)y , Mz =  (r X F)z , M = (Mx2 + My2 + Mz2)

.The magnitude and direction of M depends on the particular point selected. The magnitude and
direction of R, however, are the same no matter which point is selected.
Wrench Resultant

When the resultant couple vector M is parallel to the resultant force R, the resultant is said to be a
wrench. Screw driver application can be considered as an example for this situation. Any general
force system may be represented by a wrench applied along a unique line of action. However, the
wrench can be positive or negative depending on the direction of the force compared to the moment
as shown below.

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 Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Structural Engineering Chair

Fig: Types of Wrench

Wrench can be created when the force and the moment are not perpendicular as shown in the figure
(a) below. Then the force can be divided in to its components where one of the components is
parallel to the couple and the other is perpendicular to the couple. The perpendicular force can then
be represented by an equivalent force couple system shown in the figure (d) below. Hence, the
resultant force R and resultant couple M act at same point of the general force system.

Fig: Wrench resultant

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