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SGHU 3253

GPS/GNSS OVERVIEW
TAJUL ARIFFIN BIN MUSA (PhD)
UTM-Geomatic Innovation Research Group (GnG)
Faculty Built Environment & Surveying
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA.
Email: tajulariffin@utm.my
Mobile: 017-7294601
PART I:
GEODESY
GEODESY

What is Geodesy?
• Geodesy is “the branch of science concerned with:
✓ the determination of the size & shape of the Earth,
✓ the exact position of points on, above or within the
Earth, and
✓ a description of its variable gravity field.

• Geodesy is also a geoscience that contributes to our


understanding of the solid Earth, Atmosphere,
Ionosphere, Cryosphere & Oceans.
GEODESY
The “Pillars” of Geodesy
(1) Geometry of the Earth’s Surface(s) and
their time variation

Reference Frames

(2) Earth Rotation and (3) The Earth’s Gravity Field


Polar Motion and its time variation
GEODESY
Geodesy’s Tools…
Classic...
Modern…
PART II:
THE GNSS
THE GNSS
Versatile Geodetic Tool
Source: MGEX (2017)

Global Positioning System GLObalnaya NAvigazionnaya GALILEO, EUROPE


(GPS), USA Sputnikovaya Sistema 18 Operational Satellites
31 Operational Satellites (GLONASS), RUSSIA
23 Operational Satellites

BeiDou Navigation Quasi-Zenith Satellite System NAVigation with


Satellite System (QZSS), JAPAN Indian Constellation
(BDS), CHINA 4 Operational Satellites (NAVIC), INDIA
33 Operational Satellites 7 Operational Satellites
THE GNSS

What is GNSS?
Global Navigation Satellite
System
• “GNSS is a satellite system
that is used to pinpoint
geographic location of a
user's receiver anywhere on
land and sea, in the air or in
Earth orbit.”
• A common term for GPS,
GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou,
QZSS and NAVIC.
THE GNSS

MALAYSIA in the Hotspot …

Source: insideGNSS (2012)


THE GNSS

Billions

Source: GSA (2012)


THE GNSS
• Extra satellites improve continuity
-Ex: being independent GNSS means major system problems, unlikely
as they are, are a very remote possibility of occurring simultaneously.
• Extra satellites and signals can improve ‘accuracy’
- Ex: more measurements can be processed by the receiver’s positioning
algorithm & faster ‘fix’ position.
• Extra satellites and signals can improve efficiency
- Ex: reduce the time required to resolve parameters of interest from the signals.
• Extra satellites and signals can improve availability
- Ex: Improved ability to work in areas where satellite signals can be obscured or
attenuated, such as in urban canyons, under tree canopies, etc.
• Extra satellites and signals can improve reliability
- Ex: With extra measurements the data redundancy is increased, which helps
identify any measurement outliers.
PART III:
THE GPS
THE GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS),
originally Navigation Satellite Timing And
Ranging (NAVSTAR) GPS, is a space-based
radio navigation system owned by the
United States government and operated by
the United States Air Force.

The GPS project was launched by the U.S.


Department of Defense in 1973 and
became fully operational in 1995, consists • Available 24 hours a day,
of 24 satellites. Among the advantages of • Multi-billion dollar market exhibiting
GPS are; vigorous innovation,
• Positioning accuracy from ten meters • A technology that addresses a wide
down to the sub-centimeter level, range of users,
• Available to all users anywhere on the • Single global reference coordinate
earth, system, i.e., World Geodetic System
• Instantaneous positioning, 84 (WGS84).
• All-weather system,
• No user charges,
THE GPS
• Currently 31 active
Block IIA/IIR/IIR-M/IIF
satellites in orbit.
• Six nearly circular
orbital planes, ±20,
200km altitude.
• ±55º inclination.
• 11 hour 58 min orbits.
• At least 4 satellites
visible at anytime,
sometimes > 13
satellites (in Equatorial
Source: Paulsava (2016) area).
THE GPS
Signal Carrier & Ranging Codes

The L1, L2 & L5 frequencies are


modulated by Pseudo-Random-
RF sinusoidal signal Noise (PRN) codes:
in the L-band. P1 & C/A Code on L1
P2 Code on L2
 CNAV on L5

A unique sequence of 0 and 1


assigned to each satellite.The
GPS Signal Carrier sequences, called pseudo-random
noise (PRN) are generated with
special mathematical recipe (a
random recipe).

1
0
Code
THE GPS
GPS Signal
Transmit ranging codes & ephemeris information
(and other data) on three (3) L‐bands carriers.
These carriers are modulated by
Pseudo-Random-Noise (PRN) L5 Carrier, 1176.45 MHz,
ranging codes and navigation 𝝀𝑳𝟓 = 25.48 cm
message. • Civil Navigation (CNAV)
Message
L1 Carrier, 1575.42 MHz, L2 Carrier, 1227.6 MHz,
𝝀𝑳𝟏 = 19.03 cm 𝝀𝑳𝟐 = 24.42 cm
• C/A-Code (Civil) • P(Y)-Code Encrypted
• P(Y)-Code Encrypted • L2C (Civil)
• L1C (Civil) Source:
https://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/modernization/civilsignals/
• Military (M- Code) (updated: January 2019)
THE GPS
GPS MODERNIZATION Source: GPS.GOV (2017)
LEGACY SATELLITE MODERNIZED SATELLITES

BLOCK IIA BLOCK IIR BLOCK IIR-M BLOCK IIF BLOCK III

0 Operational 12 Operational 7 Operational 12 Operational In Production


➢ Course Acquisition ➢ C/A code on L1 ➢ All legacy signals ➢ All Block IIR-M ➢ All Block IIF signals
(C/A) code on L1 ➢ P(Y) code on L1 & L2 ➢ 2nd civil signal on L2 signals ➢ 4th civil signal on L1
freq. for civil users ➢ On-board clock freq. (L2C) ➢ 3rd civil signal on L5 freq. (L1C)
➢ Precise P(Y) code monitoring ➢ New military, M- freq. (L5) ➢ Enhanced signal
on L1 & L2 freq. for ➢ 7.5 year design code signals for ➢ Advanced atomic reliability, accuracy
military users lifespan enhanced jam clocks & integrity
➢ 7.5 year design ➢ Launched in 1997- resistance ➢ Improved accuracy, ➢ Satellites 11+: laser
lifespan 2004 ➢ 7.5 year design signal strength & reflectors, search &
➢ Launched in 1990- lifespan quality rescue payload
1997 ➢ Launched in 2005- ➢ 12 year design ➢ 15 year design
➢ Last one 2009 lifespan lifespan
decommissioned in ➢ Launched in 2010- ➢ 1st launched no
2016 2016 earlier than 2018
THE GPS
GPS Receiver: Code-based
Military-Type Receiver
• Applications: Tracking & navigation, missile guidance, rescue & recovery, tactical
planning.
• Price: Unknown (permission from Dept. of Defense, USA).
• Accuracy: approximately 5-10 m (navigation solution).
Navigation-Type Receiver
• Applications: General navigation purposes (car navigation, location based
services , mass market).
• Price: Typically < RM 10K.
• Accuracy: Rose to approximately 15m (navigation solution).
DGPS-Type Receiver
• Applications: Precise navigation application (hydrography survey, flight/vessel
approach, precision agriculture).
• Price: Typically < RM 30k.
• Accuracy: < 5m (differential: depends on user distance to ref. station/beacon).
THE GPS
GPS Receiver: Carrier-phase
Survey-Type Receiver Geodetic-Type Receiver

• Applications: For high precision positioning &


• Applications: Mainly used for horizontal and scientific applications (crustal & structural
vertical measurements for boundary analysis, deformation, seismic survey, atmospheric
mapping, topography, structural and civil studies, datum determination)
design. • Accuracy: High accuracy (up to mm) with
• Accuracy: High accuracy (from few cm – dm) specific high precision scientific software,
with relative positioning, in real-time or post- processing technique & only in post-processed
processed mode. mode.

• Price: Typically < RM100K • Price: Typically < RM150K


THE GPS
GPS OBSERVATION: Measurement Data in RINEX (O-File)
THE GPS
GPS OBSERVATION: Measurement Data in RINEX (O-File)
tn
t1
2
1
Carrier phase measurement
3193877.342cycle x 0.1903m = 607794.858m is
ambiguous by an unknown integer cycle (N) of
complete wavelength between satellite to receiver t0 N
N

C/A-code provide pseudo-


range or unambiguous range
of 23482160.401m from
satellite to receiver.

Code Range Carrier Phase


From ranging codes (C/A and P-code), with a Carrier phase measurements on L1 and/or L2,
precision of 0.1 to >1 metre. with mm precision
Low precision, unambiguous range High precision, but ambiguous measurements.
measurements.
THE GPS
GPS OBSERVATION: Measurement Data in RINEX (O-File) - GNSS
Rinex Version: 3.00 – 3.##

More info: ftp://igs.org/pub/data/format/rinex302.pdf


THE GPS
GPS OBSERVATION: Navigation Data (RINEX N-File)
• Navigation data consists of:
• Information on satellite health, satellite position & velocity (ephemeris), satellite clock bias
parameter, data on the ionosphere parameter & approximate orbital data for all satellite (almanac).
THE GPS
GPS OBSERVATION: Navigation Data (RINEX N-File)
Keplerian Elements

• Define satellite position in


orbit - v
• Define size and shape of
satellite orbit - a, e
• Define the orientation of
satellite orbit - ω
• Define the orbital plane in
equatorial system - Ω, i

Source: modified from Wing-Yee (2006)


THE GPS

Keplerian Elements
v True Anomaly
a Semi-major axis of ellipse
e Eccentricity
i Inclination of the orbit • Define satellite position in orbit - v
• Define size and shape of satellite
Ω Right ascension of the
orbit - a, e
ascending node
• Define the orientation of satellite orbit
ω Argument of perigee

• Define the orbital plane in equatorial
system - Ω, i
THE GPS

Keplerian Ellipse e
Satellite

r
earth

Apogee Perigee

• position vector, r
Satellite Position
• true anomaly, ν focus
• semi-major axis, a : Size of Orbit
• eccentricity, e : Shape of Orbit Original Sourced:
Chan Wing-Yee, Geodetic Survey, HK
THE GPS
Keplerian in Equatorial System
Axis coincides with
Z
• argument of perigee,  : celestrial ephemerides pole
orientation of orbit
• right ascension of the Satellite Perigee
orbital plane
ascending node, 
in equatorial
• inclination, i system

Equatorial plane ν

X i Y

Ascending node
Modified from:
Chan Wing-Yee, Geodetic Survey, HK
THE GPS

Orbit Perturbations
• Although Keplerian elements
describe the GPS orbits, forces of
Δn - secular change in mean anomaly
(or argument of perigee).
gravitational and non-
gravitational perturb motion of • •
GPS satellites. , i - secular drift of ascending node in
equatorial plane and change in
• The perturbations are inclination with time.
characterised by periodic and
secular components, and must be
continually determined through Cuc , Cus , Crc , Crs , Cic , Cis - amplitudes
the analysis of tracking GPS data. of cosine and sine harmonic correction
• The perturbations parameters terms to alongtrack, radial and about
are: crosstrack values.
THE GPS

Broadcast Ephemerides
Broadcast ephemerides are part of
satellite navigation message, and based
on observations and computation at the
Master Control Stations.
The ephemerides are broadcast (mostly)
every hour and should only be used
during the prescribed period of
approximately four hours to which they
refer.
Broadcast ephemerides data are used to
compute GPS satellite orbit.
THE GPS

Other Orbit Products:


SAMPLE
TYPE ORBIT ACCURACY LATENCY UPDATES
INTERVAL
orbits ~100 cm
Broadcast ~5 ns RMS real time -- daily
Sat. clocks
~2.5 ns SDev
orbits ~5 cm
Ultra-Rapid at 03, 09,
real time 15 min
(predicted half) Sat. clocks ~3 ns RMS 15, 21 UTC
~1.5 ns SDev
orbits ~3 cm
Ultra-Rapid at 03, 09,
3 - 9 hours 15 min
(observed half) Sat. clocks ~150 ps RMS 15, 21 UTC
~50 ps SDev
orbits ~2.5 cm 15 min
at 17 UTC *Notes:
Rapid Sat. & Stn. ~75 ps RMS 17 - 41 hours
daily 5 min 1 Picosecond (pc) = 1 × 10−12
clocks ~25 ps SDev 1 Nanosecond (ns) = 1 × 10−9
orbits ~2.5 cm 15 min
every
Final (Precise) Sat. & Stn. ~75 ps RMS 12 - 18 days
Thursday Sat : 30s Source:
clocks ~20 ps SDev Stn : 5 min http://www.igs.org/products
THE GPS
GPS OBSERVATION: Navigation Data - Precise Orbit
• Navigation data consists of:
– Information on satellite position and clock
record.

Source:
ftp://igs.org/pub/data/format/sp3_docu.txt
PART IV:
GPS POSITIONING &
OBSERVATION
TECHNIQUE
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Positioning Mode Static
Point Positioning The principle is based on determining the vector
between two stationary receivers or known as baseline
The coordinate of a point with
vector by using carrier-phase data. Usually for a long
respect to the WGS84 datum is
hours observation.
determined from a single receiver
which measure C/A code ranges to
Rapid Static
(four or more) satellites.
The principle is similar as static
method (using carrier-phase data)
except the occupation time is
shorter (5 to 15 minutes) and the
DGPS baseline should be comparatively
This technique involves in short, less than 15 kilometres.
determining the combined effect of
navigation message ephemeris and Pseudo-Kinematic
satellite clock errors by using C/A The point of interest are
code at reference station and revisited after about an hour (to
transmitting corrections, in real-time, get different satellite
to a user’s receiver. configuration) to facilitate
ambiguity resolution and to
obtain a better accuracy by
Network-RTK RTK using carrier-phase data.
It is a carrier-phase based The coordinate of roving
positioning by combining and receiver is computed in Stop & Go
(near) real-time by the Kinematic
interpolating measurements This mode is characterised by alternatively stopping
roving receiver once it It is based on one stationary
from a network of reference and moving one receiver as the rover linked with
received carrier-phase and one moving receiver. The
stations (i.e. Continuous another receiver that served as a based station. The
data from the base station two receivers perform the
Operating Reference Station main interest in the stopped positions and several
via communication link observation simultaneously
(CORS) or Permanent GPS measurement (carrier-phase data) epochs at the
(i.e., radio-link or internet- using carrier phase data.
station). stop locations are accumulated and averaged.
based).
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Positioning Mode

User coordinates
in WGS84.
User coordinates
Point Positioning/Navigation Solution follow datum being
used by base station.

User Relative Positioning


coordinates
in WGS84.

Differential Positioning/DGPS
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
GPS Error Sources & Biases
Satellite dependent:
• Satellite clock uncertainties
• Ephemeris uncertainties
• Hardware Errors

Satellite-Receiver dependent:
• Atmospheric Delay
➢ Ionospheric Delay
➢ Tropospheric Delay
• Carrier phase ambiguity

Receiver dependent:
• Receiver clock uncertainties
• Multipath (imaging & scattering)
• Ref. coordinate uncertainties
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Satellite-Receiver Geometry
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Expected GPS Accuracy Code Measurement
Phase Measurement
Modes of Positioning
Point Positioning

There are several main factors that influenced


GPS positioning accuracy: Point
(Civil)
✓ Type of receiver (code or carrier),
✓ Positioning mode (surveying or navigation), Point
✓ Measurement errors and biases & satellite- (Military)
receiver geometry,
✓ Processing technique (algorithm, error WADGPS
Differential/Relative

modelling & software).


DGPS

Relative Navigation

Surveying & Geodesy Accuracy

1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10 m
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Rapid Static for GCP Establishment
Rapid static is highly recommended for the establishment of Ground Control Point (GCP)
for drone mapping . The principle is similar as static method (using carrier-phase data)
except the occupation time is shorter (5 to 15 minutes) and the baseline should be
comparatively short, usually less than 15 kilometres.

Short Baseline Long Baseline


GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Relative Positioning (Rapid Static)
• Rapid static technique with radial
observation approach enable large number
of GCPs to be determined in a short amount
GCP 1
of time. However, re-occupation is needed
GCP 2 for checking purposes which is time
consuming.
Base/Reference • Employ radial
Station A
observation approach
GCP 3 with two (2) base
stations running
throughout the
Base/Reference
Station B
observation. In this
Baseline vector 1’
GCP 1 ∆X’, ∆Y’, ∆Z’ case, nearby
GCP 2 Continuously Operation
Reference Station
(CORS) can be utilised.
Base/Reference
Station A

GCP 3
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Rapid Static for GCP Establishment

3D Cartesian Coordinate
Note: Z is not Height
GPS CORS A 3D Geographical Coordinate
( XA, YA, ZA ) in Latitude, Longitude and
Ellipsoidal Height.
(φA, λA, hA )

GCP in 2D plane mapping


coordinate Northing (NGCP) GPS CORS B
& Easting (EGCP) (i.e., after GCP
( X’B, Y’B, Z’B)
map projection) and ( NGCP, EGCP, HGCP ) ( N’ GCP, E’ GCP, H’ GCP) (φ’B, λ’B, h’B )
associated Orthometric
Height (HGCP). ( NGCP, EGCP, HGCP )
- ( N’ GCP, E’ GCP, H’ GCP)
Redundancy ΔN, ΔE & ΔH depends on job specification
usually less than 3 cm for horizontal and
check for GCP less than 6 cm for vertical accuracy.
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: Job Specifications
You are required to establish a total of 272 GCPs along the road with a total distance of
134 kilometres. The GPS survey observation shall meet the following requirements:

Base Station
1. Establish a GPS base station for every 30 km chainage and network to MyRTKnet stations.
2. Make use of dual frequency survey type GPS receivers.
3. A minimum of one (1) hour duration GPS static observation at each base station with 1 second
data sampling rate.
4. Minimum satellite mask angle above the horizon is 10 degrees.
5. Maximum Positional DOP during observation is 3.
6. Provide all GPS observation information in the observation form and keep all observation data in
RINEX format.
7. Network baseline processing with fixed integer solution required for all baselines.
8. Maximum allowable misclosure per loop of baselines is 10 ppm.
9. All baselines are required to be adjusted relative to MyRTKnet stations (constraint to at least two
(2) MyRTKnet stations during network least square adjustment).
10.Output base stations geodetic coordinates in GDM2000 with maximum allowable residual of 3cm
in any one component (X, Y, Z).
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: Job Specifications
Ground Control Point (GCP) Project Report
1. Establish a GCP for every 500 metres. 1. Project sketch showing the network.
2. A minimum of 15 minutes GPS fast static observation 2. Station description and diagrams.
technique. 3. Observation form.
3. Follow item 4-6 in the base station establishment. 4. Raw GPS observation data files.
4. Single baseline processing with fixed integer solution 5. Baseline processing results.
required for each baseline. 6. Repeat baseline analysis.
5. Repeat single baseline processing with different base 7. Least square adjustment results.
station. 8. Final coordinate list.
6. Provide the projected 2D coordinate in RSO
Geocentric.
7. Maximum different from item 4 & 5 must not exceed
3cm in 2D coordinate and 6 cm in orthometric height.

GPS Levelling
1. Observe at least three (3) nearby Bench Mark (BM).
2. Follow item 2-10 in the base station establishment.
3. Apply GPS levelling technique to obtain orthometric
height and follow requirement in the establishment
of GCP (item 10).
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: Project Area

Distribution of GPS stations In Project Area (8 GPS base stations + 272 GCPs).
This project was completed in 8 days.
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: GPS Network & GCP
BASE8 GPS base
BASE7
stations network
connected with
BASE6
MyRTKnet
stations using
BASE5 static
BASE2 BASE4 observation.
BASE1 MyRTKnet Station

BASE3 Primary Control Point

GCP establishment GCP5 GCP6 GCP7


GCP4
relative to two (2)
GCP3
base stations using
GCP2 BASE2
rapid static GCP1
(E057)
Primary Control Point 2
technique with
BASE1
radial observation (E020)
Primary Control Point 1 Ground Control Point
approach.
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: Redundancy Check
Point RSO Geocentric Coordinate (BASE1) RSO Geocentric Coordinate (BASE2) Difference (m)
Name Northing Easting Height Northing Easting Height Horizontal Vertical

Example of redundancy check in 2D plane coordinates (RSO geocentric ) and


Orthometric Height for each GCP.
GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: GCP Location

Good Site Selection


GPS POSITIONING & OBS TECHNIQUE
Previous Project by UTM: GCP Location

Obstructed Site
PART V:
GPS APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
General GPS Applications
Timing
• Financial & banking system.
• Telecommunication system.
• Electrical power grids.
• Computer network &
system applications.
Navigation & Tracking
• Vehicle Guidance &
Navigation.
• Fleet Management.
• Traffic Guidance System.
• Aviation.
• Public safety & disaster relief General Mapping &
Social Activities
• Land Valuation (capitalised
value of potential yield).
• Soil & crops documentation
• Precise farming.
• Fishing, hiking & travelling.
• Rescue service.
• Mobile Mapping.
APPLICATIONS
GPS Surveying
Cadastral survey
Hydrographic survey • Cadastral Reference
•Maritime surveying. mark.
•Depths profiling. • Locating boundary.
•Wreck search. • Support Cadastral
Control Infra.

Engineering survey
• Infrastructure
development (road, rail,
ports, monitoring).
• Asset capture, planning of
utility services
(power, water,
telecommunications).
APPLICATIONS
Geodetic & Scientific Studies Land Deformation &
Regional Geodynamic Study Structural Monitoring
• Monitor (near real-time) behavior • Structures stability
and motion of tectonic faults. monitoring.
• Earthquake related pre-/co-/post- • Alarming system.
seismic motions.
• Determination of point
Year velocity.
• Structures maintenance.
2005.2 2005.3 2005.4 2005.5 2005.6 2005.7 2005.8 2005.9 2006
1

-1

• Horizontal & Vertical


Displacement (cm)

-2

-3

-4 Displacements.
• Temporal Height Variations.
-5

-6

-7

Space weather
Space weather GPS Meteorology
• Monitoring the conditions
• Monitoring of the
the conditions Earth's
of the ionosphere.
Earth's • The effects from tropospheric
• Solar maximum
ionosphere.& impact to communications systems, delay areelectric power
considered grids & satellites.
to be
• Solar maximum
• Scintillation & impact in
effect, especially to Equatorial
communications
area. ‘noise’, but it is also a ‘signal’,
systems, electric power grids & satellites. that can be studied to improve
• Scintillation effect, especially in Equatorial our understanding of Earth’s
area.
atmosphere.
GPS for Drone & Underground Utility Mapping
in UTM, Johor.
A project executed by Undergrads & Postgrads
REFERENCES
• GPS.GOV (2017). Official U.S. government information about the Global Positioning System
(GPS) and related topics, http://http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/ (last
visited January, 2019).
• Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H. and Collins, J. (2013). Global Positioning System:
Theory and Practice. Springer-Verlag Wein, Austria. Revised edition.
• MGEX (2017). The Multi-GNSS Experiment and Pilot Project (MGEX), http://mgex.igs.org/ (last
visited January, 2019).
• Musa, T. A. (2017). Lecture Notes SGHU2252 & SGHU3253, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
• Misra, P., & Enge, P. (2001). Global Positioning System: Signals, Measurements and
Performance Second Edition. Massachusetts: Ganga-Jamuna Press.
• Omar, M.K., Ses, S. and Mohamed, A. (2005). Enhancement of Height System for Malaysia using
Space Technology : The Study of The Datum Bias Inconsistencies In Peninsular
Malaysia, Research Report Vot 72367 Faculty of Geoinformation Science &
Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
• Rizos, C. (1997). Principles and Practice of GPS Surveying, University of New South Wales.
• Wing-Yee, C. (2006). Introduction to RINEX, GPS Raw Data, Geodetic Survey Section, HK.
• Wolf, P. R., & Dewitt, B. A. (2000). Elements of Photogrammetry: with Applications in GIS
(Vol.3). New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Gunawardene, N. (2014). When Worlds Collide. Ceylon Today.
• PSU (2019). Lesson 7: Static, DGPS, RTK, https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog862/ (last
visited March 2019).
For any future inquiries please contact:
TAJUL ARIFFIN BIN MUSA (PhD)
Geomatic Innovation Research Group (GnG)
Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Email: tajulariffin@utm.my
Mobile: 017-7294601

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