UNIT-IV

Data Analysis
Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modelling data to
discover useful information for business decision making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to
extract useful information from data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis. In
any research, the step of analysis of the data is one of the most crucial tasks requiring
proficient knowledge to handle the data collected as per the pre decided research design of
the project. • Data analysis helps to answer the research questions and to help determine the
trends and relations ship among variables.
Why analyse data in research- Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell
or problems to solve. It starts with a question, and data is nothing but an answer to that
question. But, what if there is no question to ask? Well! It is possible to explore data even
without a problem – we call it ‘Data Mining’ which often reveal some interesting patterns
within the data that are worth exploring. Irrelevant to the type of data, researchers explore,
their mission, and audiences’ vision guide them to find the patterns to shape the story they
want to tell. One of the essential things expected from researchers while analysing data is to
stay open and remain unbiased towards unexpected patterns, expressions, and results.
Remember, sometimes, data analysis tells the most unforeseen yet exciting stories that were
not expected at the time of initiating data analysis. Therefore, rely on the data you have at
hand and enjoy the journey of exploratory research.
Types of data in research- Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after
assigning a specific value to it. For analysis, you need to organize these values, processed and
presented in a given context, to make it useful. Data can be in different forms; here are the
primary data types.
1. Qualitative data: When the data presented has words and descriptions, then we call it
qualitative data. Although you can observe this data, it is subjective and harder to
analyse data in research, especially for comparison. Example: Quality data represents
everything describing taste, experience, texture, or an opinion that is considered quality
data. This type of data is usually collected through focus groups, personal qualitative
interviews, or using open-ended questions in surveys.
2. Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are called
quantitative data. This type of data can be distinguished into categories, grouped,
measured, calculated, or ranked. Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length,
weight, scores, etc. everything comes under this type of data. You can present such data
 in graphical format, charts, or apply statistical analysis methods to this data. The
(Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a significant
source of collecting numeric data.
3. Categorical data: It is data presented in groups. However, an item included in the
categorical data cannot belong to more than one group. Example: A person responding to
a survey by telling his living style, marital status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes
under the categorical data. A chi-square test is a standard method used to analyse this
data.
Qualitative Data
Data analysis in qualitative research- Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little
differently from the numerical data as the quality data is made up of words, descriptions,
images, objects, and sometimes symbols. Getting insight from such complicated information
is a complicated process. Hence it is typically used for exploratory research and data analysis.

Finding patterns in the qualitative data- Although there are several ways to find patterns in
the textual information, a word-based method is the most relied and widely used global
technique for research and data analysis. Notably, the data analysis process in qualitative
research is manual. Here the researchers usually read the available data and find repetitive or
commonly used words. For example, while studying data collected from African countries to
understand the most pressing issues people face, researchers might find “food” and “hunger”
are the most commonly used words and will highlight them for further analysis.

Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research-

 Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently employed technique for
data analysis in research methodology. It can be used to analyse the documented
information from text, images, and sometimes from the physical items. It depends on the
research questions to predict when and where to use this method.
 Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyse content gathered from various
sources such as personal interviews, field observation, and surveys. The majority of
times, stories, or opinions shared by people are focused on finding answers to the
research questions.
 Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyse
the interactions with people. Nevertheless, this particular method considers the social
context under which or within which the communication between the researcher and
 respondent takes place. In addition to that, discourse analysis also focuses on the
lifestyle and day-to-day environment while deriving any conclusion.
 Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon happened,
then using grounded theory for analysing quality data is the best resort. Grounded theory
is applied to study data about the host of similar cases occurring in different settings.
When researchers are using this method, they might alter explanations or produce new
ones until they arrive at some conclusion.

How to Prepare data for analysis- The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it
for the analysis so that the nominal data can be converted into something meaningful. Data
preparation consists of the below phases.
Phase I: Data Validation- Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is
per the pre-set standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided into four different stages
 Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the
questionnaire
 Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in
compliance with the research criteria
 Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data
sample
 Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an
online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the
questionnaire.
Phase II: Data Editing- More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with
errors. Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them
accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein the researchers have to confirm that the
provided data is free of such errors. They need to conduct necessary checks and outlier
checks to edit the raw edit and make it ready for analysis.
Phase III: Data Coding- Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation
associated with grouping and assigning values to the survey responses. If a survey is
completed with a 1000 sample size, the researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish
the respondents based on their age. Thus, it becomes easier to analyse small data buckets
rather than deal with the massive data pile.
Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research- After the data is prepared for
analysis, researchers are open to using different research and data analysis methods to derive
meaningful insights. For sure, statistical techniques are the most favoured to analyse
numerical data. The method is again classified into two groups. First, ‘Descriptive Statistics’
used to describe data. Second, ‘Inferential statistics’ that helps in comparing the data.
1. Descriptive statistics- This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types
of data in research. It presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data
starts making sense. Nevertheless, the descriptive analysis does not go beyond making
conclusions. The conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers have
formulated so far. For quantitative market research use of descriptive analysis often give
absolute numbers, but the analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the rationale behind
those numbers. Nevertheless, it is necessary to think of the best method for research and
data analysis suiting your survey questionnaire and what story researchers want to tell.
For example, the mean is the best way to demonstrate the students’ average scores in
schools. It is better to rely on the descriptive statistics when the researchers intend to keep
the research or outcome limited to the provided sample without generalizing it. For
example, when you want to compare average voting done in two different cities,
differential statistics are enough. Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’
since it is commonly used to analyse a single variable.
2. Inferential statistics- Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger
population after research and data analysis of the representing population’s collected
sample. For example, you can ask some odd 100 audiences at a movie theatre if they like
the movie they are watching. Researchers then use inferential statistics on the collected
sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the movie. Here are two significant
areas of inferential statistics.
 Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research data and
demonstrates something about the population parameter.
 Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the survey research
questions. For example, researchers might be interested to understand if the new
shade of lipstick recently launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help
children to perform better at games.

Data Interpretation-
Data interpretation refers to the process of using diverse analytical methods to review data
and arrive at relevant conclusions. The interpretation of data helps researchers to categorize,
manipulate, and summarize the information in order to answer critical questions.
The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it needs to be done properly.
Data is very likely to arrive from multiple sources and has a tendency to enter the analysis
process with haphazard ordering. Data analysis tends to be extremely subjective. That is to
say, the nature and goal of interpretation will vary from business to business, likely
correlating to the type of data being analysed. While there are several different types of
processes that are implemented based on individual data nature, the two broadest and most
common categories are “quantitative analysis” and “qualitative analysis”.

How to Interpret? The interpretation of data is designed to help people make sense of
numerical data that has been collected, analysed, and presented. Having a baseline method (or
methods) for interpreting data will provide your analyst teams with a structure and consistent
foundation. Indeed, if several departments have different approaches to interpret the same
data while sharing the same goals, some mismatched objectives can result. Disparate methods
will lead to duplicated efforts, inconsistent solutions, wasted energy, and inevitably – time
and money. In this part, we will look at the two main methods of interpretation of data: a
qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Qualitative Data Interpretation- Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word –
categorical. With qualitative analysis, data is not described through numerical values or
patterns, but through the use of descriptive context (i.e., text). Typically, narrative data is
gathered by employing a wide variety of person-to-person techniques. These techniques
include:
 Observations: detailing behavioural patterns that occur within an observation group.
These patterns could be the amount of time spent in an activity, the type of activity,
and the method of communication employed.
 Focus groups: Group people and ask them relevant questions to generate a
collaborative discussion about a research topic.
 Secondary Research: much like how patterns of behaviour can be observed, different
types of documentation resources can be coded and divided based on the type of
material they contain.
  Interviews: one of the best collection methods for narrative data. Inquiry responses
can be grouped by theme, topic, or category. The interview approach allows for
highly-focused data segmentation.
A key difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is clearly noticeable in the
interpretation stage. Qualitative data, as it is widely open to interpretation, must be “coded”
so as to facilitate the grouping and labelling of data into identifiable themes. As person-to-
person data collection techniques can often result in disputes pertaining to proper analysis,
qualitative data analysis is often summarized through three basic principles: notice things,
collect things, think about things.

Quantitative Data Interpretation- If quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in

one word (and it really can’t) that word would be “numerical.” There are few certainties
when it comes to data analysis, but you can be sure that if the research you are engaging in
has no numbers involved, it is not quantitative research. Quantitative analysis refers to a set
of processes by which numerical data is analysed. More often than not, it involves the use of
statistical modelling such as standard deviation, mean and median.

The purpose of collection and interpretation is to acquire useful and usable information and to
make the most informed decisions possible. From businesses to newlyweds researching their
first home, data collection and interpretation provides limitless benefits for a wide range of
institutions and individuals.

Data analysis and interpretation, regardless of the method and qualitative/quantitative status,
may include the following characteristics:

Data identification and explanation

Comparing and contrasting of data
Identification of data outliers
Future predictions
Data analysis and interpretation, in the end, help improve processes and identify problems. It
is difficult to grow and make dependable improvements without, at the very least, minimal
data collection and interpretation. What is the keyword? Dependable. Vague ideas regarding
performance enhancement exist within all institutions and industries. Yet, without proper
research and analysis, an idea is likely to remain in a stagnant state forever (i.e., minimal
growth). So… what are a few of the business benefits of digital age data analysis and
interpretation? Let’s take a look!

1) Informed decision-making: A decision is only as good as the knowledge that formed it.
Informed data decision-making has the potential to set industry leaders apart from the rest of
the market pack. Studies have shown that companies in the top third of their industries are, on
average, 5% more productive and 6% more profitable when implementing informed data
decision-making processes.
2) Anticipating needs with trends identification: data insights provide knowledge, and
knowledge is power. The insights obtained from market and consumer data analyses have the
ability to set trends for peers within similar market segments. A perfect example of how data
analysis can impact trend prediction can be evidenced in the music identification application,
Shazam.
3) Cost efficiency: Proper implementation of data analysis processes can provide businesses
with profound cost advantages within their industries. A great example of the potential for
cost efficiency through data analysis is Intel. Prior to 2012, Intel would conduct over 19,000
manufacturing function tests on their chips before they could be deemed acceptable for
release. To cut costs and reduce test time, Intel implemented predictive data analyses. By
using historic and current data, Intel now avoids testing each chip 19,000 times by focusing
on specific and individual chip tests. After its implementation in 2012, Intel saved over $3
million in manufacturing costs.
4) Clear foresight: companies that collect and analyze their data gain better knowledge about
themselves, their processes, and performance. They can identify performance challenges
when they arise and take action to overcome them. Data interpretation through visual
representations lets them process their findings faster and make better-informed decisions on
the future of the company.
https://www.datapine.com/blog/data-interpretation-methods-benefits-problems/
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#:~:text=Definition%20of
%20research%20in%20data,smaller%20fragments%2C%20which%20makes%20sense.

Report Writing in Research Methodology

A report is a well-written formal document that briefly describes the process and findings of a
research. It outlines the systematic investigation, recommendations, and gaps that need
further inquiry. A well-crafted research report tells you about all the main areas of a research
process.

Importance of a report in research methodology- Below are some points that make the report
crucial in research methodology:
 Knowledge transfer- A report contributes to the existing knowledge. Through this
report, we can communicate effectively with the findings of the investigation.
 Identification of knowledge gaps- A research report identifies knowledge gaps that
can be investigated further. The report shows what and how much has been done.
 presents information precisely- A research report makes you able to show research
information in a concise and precise manner.
 Time-efficient- A report is a time-efficient document because you don’t have to spend
much time detailing the findings. Rather, it is written briefly and you can send it
through email to the concerned people.

Structure-
 Title- The title of your research should point to the objectives, aims, and findings of
your systematic investigation.
 Table of contents- The table of contents will make the readers able to navigate your
research report.
 Abstract- In the abstract section, the reader can have an overview of the important
aspects of research such as method, data collection, and findings. While writing the
abstract you should follow the format of 5ws and 1H; what, where, when, who, why,
and how.
 Introduction- You can write aims and the problems that become the cause of your
research. You should also indicate whether you have achieved your objectives of the
research or it requires further work.
 Literature review- In a literature review, you will write a survey that highlights
existing knowledge about the research topic. In the literature review, you can present
the research hypothesis and its implications.
 Investigation- In this portion of the investigation, write in-depth information briefly
about the research process that includes methodology, data collection, sample,
research subjects, and analysis.
  Findings- In this portion, you are expected to show the results and findings of your
systematic investigation.
 Discussion- Now, you will further explain the results of the research that you outlined
earlier. Justify for each finding and show whether the outcomes are according to the
hypothesis or not.
 Conclusion- Finally, you will write a summary of your research in which you will talk
about the whole report of research methodology.
 Reference and appendices- In this section, mention all the primary and secondary
sources used during research.

Tips for writing a report in research methodology- Before writing a report in research
methodology, you must create an outline of its core areas and then write its detail concisely.

 Define your audience- Always keep your audience in mind so that you can determine
the tone while writing the report. If the report is for a general audience, you can
present information in a simple way. While if you are writing for a particular
audience, you can use field-specific or technical terms as well.
 Include significant findings- In report writing, exclude all irrelevant information and
only highlight important findings and data. Just present the abridged version of the
systematic investigation.
 Include illustrations- You can use illustrations and visual presentations to make your
data more efficient. You can use charts, graphs, and relevant images to bring
additional credibility to systematic investigation.
 Choose the right title- The title of the report should be clear and precise. It must
contain keywords of your research. The title should show a clear idea of the
investigation so the readers can easily grasp the focus of the research.
 Proofread the report- After completion of report writing, you must proofread and edit
it wherever it needs before you publish the report. The second look will make the
information valid and authentic. You can ask someone to go through your report or
use any editing and proofreading software as well.
Conclusion- A report is a concise document that is the essence of research. So, you should be
very careful while writing a report after conducting research. It should be accurate, clear, and
concise. Its findings can communicate with the readers.

Guidelines for researchers

 To be honest- At the heart of all research endeavour, regardless of discipline or

institution, is the need for researchers to be honest in respect of their own actions in
research and in their responses to the actions of other researchers. This applies to the
whole range of research, including experimental design, generating and analysing data,
publishing results, and acknowledging the direct and indirect contributions of colleagues,
collaborators and others. All staff and students must refrain from plagiarism, piracy or
the fabrication of results. Committing any of these actions is regarded as a serious
disciplinary offence.
 To be open- While recognising the need for staff and students to protect their own
interests and the interests of the University in the process of planning and carrying out
their research, the University encourages them to be as open as possible in discussing
their work with other researchers and with the public. The University supports the widest
dissemination of results possible, unless confidentiality agreements have been put in
place and/or it has been agreed that sponsors will own a part or all of the intellectual
property.
 To document results clearly and accurately- In order to respond to the needs of funding
bodies, the University requires researchers to keep clear and accurate records of the
research methods used and of the results obtained, including interim results. This is
necessary not only as a means of demonstrating proper research practice, but also in case
questions are subsequently asked about either the conduct of the research or the results
obtained.
 To be critical of your results- Academics should always be prepared to question the
outcome of their research. While fully supporting academic freedom and acknowledging
the pressures of time and resources under which researchers often have to work, the
University expects research results to be checked before being made public.
 To ensure that data is stored securely and for the appropriate amount of time-
Researchers should ensure that all personal data is stored securely. This means that
 electronic data must be held on a secure server and/or be password protected. Hard copy
of data must be kept in a locked filing cabinet or similar. Data must be stored in an
appropriate format, normally for a period of at least 10 years from the date of any
publication which is based upon it. Where specific regulations with regard to data
retention apply, e.g., from funders, these regulations should prevail, particularly where
the required retention period is longer than the University requires.
 To acknowledge fully the role of collaborators and other participants- The issue of
authorship is an important aspect of good research practice and, in the context of the
growth of multiple authorship in recent years, the University expects anyone listed as an
author of a research output to accept personal responsibility for ensuring that they are
familiar with the contents of the output. The contributions of formal collaborators and all
others who directly assist or indirectly support the research must be properly
acknowledged. This applies to any circumstances in which statements about the research
are made, including provision of information about the nature and process of the
research and in publishing the outcome. Failure to acknowledge the contributions of
others is regarded as unprofessional conduct. Conversely, collaborators and other
contributors carry their share of the responsibility for the research and its outcome.
Authors are also responsible for ensuring that they agree with the way in which their
contribution to any research output is presented. Where appropriate, the support of
funding bodies should be acknowledged in publications.
 To exercise a duty of care to all those involved in the research- A researcher has a duty
of care to all those involved in the research, whether as subjects/participants or as part of
the research team, a duty which includes:  Ensuring that those involved are fully aware
of all the risks and dangers in advance of that involvement  Protecting the
confidentiality of those involved unless consent has been attained to reveal their identity
or any other confidential information  Ensuring appropriate informed consent is
obtained properly, explicitly and transparently

Research Misconduct- Research misconduct includes:  Fabrication of evidence, data,

results or consents Misrepresentation of evidence, data, results or consents  Undisclosed
duplication of publication  Inappropriate attribution of work  Failure to declare a conflict
of interests  Plagiarism - i.e. the copying of ideas, data or text without permission or
acknowledgement  Mismanagement of data or evidence  Breach of duty of care to
subjects/participants

Research Ethics
What is it?
 Ethics are the set of rules that govern our expectations of our own and others’ behavior.
 Research ethics are the set of ethical guidelines that guides us on how scientific research
should be conducted and disseminated.
 Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers It is the
guideline for responsibly conducting the research.
 Research that implicates human subjects or contributors rears distinctive and multifaceted
ethical, legitimate, communal and administrative concerns.
 Research ethics is unambiguously concerned in the examination of ethical issues that are
upraised when individuals are involved as participants in the study.
 Research ethics committee/Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews whether the
research is ethical enough or not to protect the rights, dignity and welfare of the
respondents.
Objectives-
 The first and comprehensive objective – to guard/protect human participants, their
dignity, rights and welfare .
 The second objective – to make sure that research is directed in a manner that assists
welfares of persons, groups and/or civilization as a whole.
 The third objective – to inspect particular research events and schemes for their ethical
reliability, considering issues such as the controlling risk, protection of privacy and the
progression of informed consent.

Broad Principals-
1. MINIMIZING THE RISK OF HARM- It is necessary to minimize any sort of harm to the
participants. There are a number of forms of harm that participants can be exposed to. They
are:
 Bodily harm to contributors.
 Psychological agony and embarrassment.
 Social drawback.
 Violation of participant’s confidentiality and privacy.
In order to minimize the risk of harm, the researcher/data collector should:
 Obtain informed consent from participants.
 Protecting anonymity and confidentiality of participants.
 Avoiding misleading practices when planning research.
 Providing participants with the right to withdraw.
2. OBTAINING INFORMED CONSENT -One of the fundamentals of research ethics is the
notion of informed consent. Informed consent means that a person knowingly, voluntarily
and intelligently gives consent to participate in a research. Informed consent means that the
participants should be well-informed about the:
 Introduction and objective of the research
 Purpose of the discussion
 Anticipated advantages, benefits/harm from the research (if any)
 Use of research
 Their role in research
 Methods which will be used to protect anonymity and confidentiality of the
participant
 Freedom to not answer any question/withdraw from the research
 Who to contact if the participant need additional information about the research
3. PROTECTING ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY- Protecting the anonymity
and confidentiality of research participants is an additionally applied constituent of research
ethics. Protecting anonymity: It means keeping the participant anonymous. It involves not
revealing the name, caste or any other information about the participants that may reveal
his/her identity. Maintaining confidentiality: It refers to ensuring that the information given
by the participant are confidential and not shared with anyone, except the research team. It is
also about keeping the information secretly from other people.
4. AVOIDING MISLEADING PRACTICES- The researcher should avoid all the deceptive
and misleading practices that might misinform the respondent. It includes avoiding all the
activities like communicating wrong messages, giving false assurance, giving false
information etc.
5. PROVIDING THE RIGHT TO WITHDRAW- Participants have to have the right to
withdraw at any point of the research. When any respondent decides on to withdraw from the
research, they should not be stressed or forced in any manner to try to discontinue them from
withdrawing.

Apart from the above-mentioned ethics, other ethical aspects things that must be considered
while doing research are:
 Protection of vulnerable groups of people- Vulnerability is one distinctive feature of
people incapable to protect their moralities and wellbeing. Vulnerable groups comprise
captive populations (detainees, established, students, etc.), mentally ill persons, and
aged people, children, critically ill or dying, poor, with learning incapacities, sedated or
insensible. Their participation in research can be endorsed to their incapability to give
an informed consent and to the need for their further safety and sensitivity from the
research/researcher as they are in a greater risk of being betrayed, exposed or forced to
participate.
 Skills of the researcher: Researchers should have the basic skills and familiarity for the
specific study to be carried out and be conscious of the bounds of personal competence
in research. Any lack of knowledge in the area under research must be clearly specified.
Inexperienced researchers should work under qualified supervision that has to be
revised by an ethics commission.
Advantages-
 Research ethics promote the aims of research.
 It increases trust among the researcher and the respondent.
 It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and
welfare of research participants.
 Researchers can be held accountable and answerable for their actions.
 Ethics promote social and moral values.
 Promotes the ambitions of research, such as understanding, veracity, and dodging of
error.
 Ethical standards uphold the values that are vital to cooperative work, such as belief,
answerability, mutual respect, and impartiality.
 Ethical norms in research also aid to construct public upkeep for research. People are
more likely to trust a research project if they can trust the worth and reliability of
research.
Disadvantage-
 Possibilities to physical integrity, containing those linked with experimental drugs and
dealings and with other involvements that will be used in the study (e.g. measures used
to observe research participants, such as blood sampling, X-rays or lumbar punctures).
 Psychological risks: for example, a questionnaire may perhaps signify a risk if it fears
traumatic events or happenings that are especially traumatic.
 Social, legal and economic risks: for example, if personal information collected during a
study is unintentionally released, participants might face a threat of judgment and
stigmatization.
 Certain tribal or inhabitant groups may possibly suffer from discrimination or
stigmatization, burdens because of research, typically if associates of those groups are
recognized as having a greater-than-usual risk of devouring a specific disease.
 The research may perhaps have an influence on the prevailing health system: for
example, human and financial capitals dedicated to research may distract attention from
other demanding health care necessities in the community.

The term ‘Supervision’ is made up of two words, Super and Vision. Super means over and
above and Vision means seeing. Therefore, supervision means overseeing the work of
subordinates to ensure that they are working according to the plans and policies of the
organisation. It is instructing, guiding and observing the subordinates at work to ensure that
they are working as per the plans. The aim of supervision is to ensure that subordinates work
efficiently and effectively to accomplish the organisational objectives. For many researchers,
one of the most rewarding aspects of their work is providing supervision to research trainees,
which allows them to expand their research portfolio and to pass on their knowledge and
expertise. In doing so, supervisors play an important role in promoting quality research that is
conducted with integrity. A researcher may find themselves supervising research trainees,
such as Higher Degree Research (HDR) students, undergraduate students (with a research
component) or research assistants.
Importance or Roles of Supervision
The roles of supervision are as follows:
 Interpersonal contact with workers: Day-to-day contact and friendly relations with the
workers is maintained by the supervisor. He acts as a guide, friend and philosopher to
the workers.
 Link between workers and management: A supervisor acts as a link between workers
and management. He communicates managerial policies and decisions to the workers
and conveys workers’ suggestions, ideas, complaints and grievances to the management.
Supervisor helps to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts between the management and
workers.
 Maintains discipline: He maintains discipline in the organisation by enforcing rules and
regulations. He uses various techniques to maintain discipline among the subordinates.
  Promotes group unity: A supervisor helps in maintaining group unity amongst the
subordinates. He sorts internal differences among the workers and follows a people-
oriented approach to build and maintain harmonious relations in the organisation.
 Helps in improving performance: Supervision helps in inspiring and guiding workers to
achieve organisational goals. As a supervisor is in direct contact with the workers, he is
in better condition to improve the performance of the workers. He motivates them to
work hard and improve their productivity by using both financial and non-financial
incentives.
 Provides training to employees: Supervisors provide on-the-job training to new and
existing employees to make an efficient team of workers. They instruct, suggest,
criticise, and guide the employees, which makes them efficient and reduces accidents
and wastage of resources in the workplace.
 Influences workers: Supervisor influences the workers by inspiring them to cooperate
and contribute to the best of their ability. A supervisor can build up higher morale of the
employees through effective leadership.
 Provides feedback: A supervisor evaluates the performance of the workers as per the
predetermined standards. By measuring the actual performances, the weakness of the
employees is identified. The supervisor provides feedback and corrective measures are
taken by the supervisors and subordinates to improve the performance.
Supervisors will promote responsible practices in all areas of research including (but not
limited to):
 ethics compliance,
 management of data and materials,
 authorship, publication and dissemination of research outputs.
Supervisors will also:
 ensure that all trainees receive education in discipline-based research methods and
related skills.
 ensure that trainees complete training (staff will complete ELMO modules and
students Interact 2 module. Contact the Research Integrity Unit for enrolment)
 have the competency to fulfil these obligations and seek support where required.
Research Design and its Type-
By the term ‘research‘, we can understand that it’s a collection of data that includes critical
information by taking research methodologies into consideration. In other words, it is a
compilation of information or data explored by setting a hypothesis and consequently
coming up with substantive findings in an organised way. The research design helps a
researcher to pursue their journey into the unknown but with a systematic approach by
their side. The way an engineer or architect frames a design for a structure, likewise the
researcher picks the design from various approaches in order to check which type of
research to be carried out.
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research
methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.
For Types- https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-design/
Social research is the study of social trends, dynamics and principles that exist between
individuals and within societies. Professionals perform social research in order to better
understand the social factors that motivate and influence human beings and to analyse how
and why humans interact with each other. This broad category of research includes topics in
many social science fields, such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. Organizations
may use social research to improve their marketing practices, and government institutions
can use this research to inform legislature and other policies. Professionals who conduct
social research may study a variety of topics related to human behaviours and interactions,
including interpersonal encounters, the formation of societies and the development of
individuals’ personalities. Investigating these topics can help social scientists learn more
about how individuals, groups and societies interact, develop and function. Understanding
this practice and what it involves can help you determine if you want to pursue a career in
psychology, sociology or anthropology.
Legal research is "the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to support
legal decision-making. In its broadest sense, legal research includes each step of a course of
action that begins with an analysis of the facts of a problem and concludes with the
application and communication of the results of the investigation. Legal Research is the
process of locating an answer to an unknown legal problem, verifying the law, and reading
cases or statutes.
DOCTRINAL RESEARCH
 The research is focused primarily on legal proposals.
 Appellate Courts and traditional legal theories are the basis of data for a doctrinal
author.
 In the initial stage of legal education, it is agreed that legal research methods should
be used as it helps academicians with their primary studies.
 The doctrinal research takes less time.
 Doctrinal legal analysis is a result of a perception of the legal truth of a scholar.
These two perceptions, though, are both compelling and logical.
 Doctrinal research provides the instruments required in the legal judgment for
attorneys, judges, and others.
 This study attempts to find substantive law loopholes, anomalies, ambiguities, and
contradictions. Such analysis provides quick responses on legal issues.

DISADVANTAGES
 Often it is found that the fundamental social action varies from the activities
requested by the legal standard. The doctrinal legal research is thus arbitrary in
nature.
 It is also known as a "trivial doctrinal examination" cause sometimes it is done
without proper understanding of the legal system's social, financial, and political
significance.[3]
 The doctrinal approach is often criticized for being detached from reality; by focusing
on legal documents, it often fails to query or challenge the law's implementation,
instead of analysing it only on the basis of internal continuity.
 Nonetheless, the doctrinal analysis should underpin most legal study, as a robust
doctrinal analysis to determine what the policy is often a prerequisite to researching,
particularly in places where the laws are unclear or changing.
PURPOSE OF DOCTRINAL LEGAL RESEARCH
 The following points answer the question – why doctrinal research is essential in law.
The principal objectives of the legal doctrinal study include but are not limited to:
 To build, assess and apply knowledge to contemporary legal issues by generating
new ideas, concepts, and doctrines;
 Ensure continuity, accuracy, and legal clarity
 To provide prosecutors, judges, and those with the appropriate resources to take
action on a vast spectrum of topics, often with little time.
 The primary goal of the doctrinal legal analysis is to reinforce the significant part of
the law that may accomplish the larger legal objective.
 There are apparent differences in the level of complexity of the doctrinal legal study.
In the first instance, the method of doctrinal research often used by students and
professionals is unsuitable.

Research is an analytical intellectual exercise involving probing for information in an area of

study to get information and facts, analysing them and drawing meaningful conclusions
affirming or rejecting the hypothesis put to test. Legal research is the process of examining a
legal issue. Advocacy is a profession which requires legal research for each case that is taken
up. Legal information in relation to the matter has to be collected which could be laws,
precedents of court, custom or usage, position internationally etc. From this information,
relevant information has to be sifted, logical answers to the question have to be found and
around those, arguments have to be built, drafted and presented effectively in court
providing responses for the opposite view by the opposing Counsel. Legal research helps not
only in advocacy through deeper understanding of law, precedents etc. but also provides
insights into the application of law, gaps in law or implementation, which can form the basis
for suggestions for correcting the position. Writing research papers and presenting them
hones the writing and communication skills developing the students’ competence and
capability.
Hypothesis-
A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point
of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes
components like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research
hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more
variables. The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable. If the
hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship between
variables. The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.
https://www.projectguru.in/understanding-the-importance-of-a-research-hypothesis/

Various Sources of Data Legal-

http://www.lawhub.in/blogs/3151-sources-of-research.html
https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/insights/legal/b/thought-leadership/posts/the-
future-of-online-legal-research
https://libguides.depaul.edu/c.php?g=253630&p=1690107

Recent Trends in Legal Research

https://www.reva.edu.in/blog/future-of-law-an-insight-into-emerging-trends-in-the-field-of-
legal-studies
Deduction and Induction
https://conjointly.com/kb/deduction-and-induction/
https://www.msubillings.edu/asc/resources/writing/pdf/Induction%20vs%20Deduction.pdf

Read PPT too plus the word file

https://www.ilovephd.com/why-research-design-is-important-for-a-researcher/