chapter 4

Fundamentals of CAD

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The computer has grown to become essential in the operations of business, govern-
ment, the military, engineering, and research. It has also demonstrated itself, espe-
cially in recent years, to be a very powerful tool in design and manufacturing. In
this and the following two chapters, we consider the application of computer tech-
nology to the design of a product. This chapter provides an overview of
computer-aided design. Chapter 5 is concerned with the hardware components
uscd in a CAD system. Chapter 6 describes some of the graphics software used for
computer-aided design.

The CAD system defined

As defined in Chapter 1, computer-aided design involves any type of design
activity which makes use of the computer to develop. analyze, or modify an
engineering design. Modern CAD systems (also often called CAD/CAM systems)
are based on interactive computer graphics (ICG). Interactive computer graphics
denotes a user-oriented system in which the computer is employed to create,

75
 Computer-Aided Design
transform, and display data in the form of pictures or symbols. The user in the
who communicates data and
computer graphics design system is the designer,
commands to the computer through any of several input devices. The computer
communicates with the user via a cathode ray be (CRT). The designer creates an
commands to call the desired software suh
image on the CRT screen by entering
in most systems, the image is constructed out of
routines stored in the computer.
basic geometric elements-points, lines, circles, and so on. It can be modified
reduced in size, moved to
according to
the commands of the designer enlarged,
and other transformations. Through these
another location on the screen, rotated,
various manipulations, the required details
of the image are formulated.
combination of hardware and software. The
The typical ICG system is a
hardware includes a central processing unit, one or more workstations (including
the graphics display terminals), and peripheral devices such as printers, plotters,
shown in Figure 4.1. The
and drafting equipment. Some of this hardware is
process.
software consists of the computer programs needed to implement graphics
The software would also typically include additional specialized
ing on the system. functions required
application programs to accomplish the particular engineering
by the user company.
It is important to note the fact that the ICG system is one component of a
the oher major com
computer-aided design system. As illustrated in Figure 4.1,
Interactive is a tool u::ed by the
ponent is the human designer. computer graphics
to solve a design problem. In effect, the ICG system magnifies
the powers
designer

FIGURE 4.1 Some of the important components in a computer-aided design system. (Co
tesy of Computervision Corp.)
ndamentals of CAD
77
of the designer.
This has been referred to as the
synergistic effect. The designer
performs he portion of the design process that is most suitable to human intellec-
ual skills (conceptualization, independent thinking); the computer perfoms the
task best suited to its capabilities (speed of calculations, visual display, storage of
large amounts of data), and the resulting system exceeds the sum of its com-
ponents.
There are several fundamental for
design system:
reasons implementing a computer-aidea

. To increase the
productivity of the designer. This is accomplished by
helping the designer to visualize the product and its component subassemblies and
parts andby reducing the time required in synthesizing, analyzing, and document
ing the design. This productivity improvement translates not only into lower design
cost but also into shorter project completion times.
2. To iprove the quality of design. A CAD system permits a more
thorough engineering analysis and a larger number of design alternatives can be
investigated. Design emors are also reduced through the greater accuracy provided
by the system. These factors lead to a better design.
3. To improve communications. Use of a CAD system provides better
engineering drawings, more standardization in the drawings, better documentation
of the design, fewer drawing erors, and greater legibility.
4 To create a data base for manufacturing. In the process of creating the
documentation for the product design (geometries and dimensions of the product
and for components, bill of materials,
its components, material specifications
much of the required data base to manufacture the product is also created.
etc.)

Historical perspective
The evolution of computer-aided design has been largely related to
developments
in computer graphics. Of course, CAD encompasses much more than
computer
graphics, as we shall discuss in the remainder of this chapter. However, ICG foms
the essential technological foundation for computer-aided design. An excellent his-
tory of the development of computer graphics is presented in an article by Chasen
(3]. We discuss some of the important highlights of his article in this section.
One of the significant initial projects in the area of computer graphics was
the development of the APT language at the Massachusetts Institute of
in the middle and late 1950s. APT is an acronym for
Technology
Automatically Programmed
Tools, and this project was concerned with developing a convenient way to define
geometry elements for numerical control part programming using the computer.
We discuss numerical control
programming, and in particular the APT language,
in Chapter 8. Although the development of APT was an
important milestone in the
field of computer
graphics, the early use of APT was not accomplished interac-
tively.
Another concept which took form during the late 1950s the
was
"light
 78 Computer-Aided Design
nen. The idea for this device came about during research on the
processing of
radar data for a defense project called SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environ
ment system). The purpose or the project was to develop a system to
analyze radar
data and to present possible bomber targets on a CRT display. To save time i
displaying the interceptor aireraft against the bombers, the notion of using a lioha
pen to identify a particular sector of the CRT screen was developed.
During the early 1960s, Ivan Sutherland worked on a project at MIT
called
Sketchpad"" and presented a paper on some of his results at the Fall Joint Conm
puter Conference in 1963. The Sketchpad project is
significant because
it
represents of the
one first demonstrat ions of the creation and
manipulation of
images in real time on a CRT screen. To many observers, it marks the beginning of
interactive computer graphics.
A number of large industrial
concems, including General Motors,
IBM.
Lockheed-Georgia. Itek Corp., and MclDonnell (now McDonneil-Douglas), all
became active projJects in conputer graphics during the 1960s. Several of these
in
projects eventually emerged in the form of commereial products (e.g., Unigraphics
by McDonnell-Douglas and CADAM by Lockheed). In the late 1960s several
CADCAM system vendors wer also tormed, including Calma in 1968 and Appli.
con and
ComputervISIon in 1969. These tims sell "turnkey systems, which
include all or most of the hardware and software components needed by the user.
Other vendor fims have specialized in computer graphics software. Ome of the
more familiar names in this area is Pat Hanratty, whose MCS
Company developed
the well-known AD 2000 (a later version is ANVIL 400), a
general-purpose
software CAD package.
4.2 THE DESIGN PROCESS
Before examining the several facets of computer-aided design, let us first consider
the general design process. The process of designing something is characterized by
Shigley [15] as an iterative procedure, which consists of six identifiable steps or
phases:
IRecognition of need
2 Definition of problem
3 Synthesis
4 Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem
exists for which some corrective action should be taken. This might be the ident1ifi;
cation of some defèct in a current machine design by an engineer or the perception
of a new product marketing opportunity by a salesperson. Detinition of the prod
tals of CAAD
79
lem involves a thorough specification of the item to be
designed. This specification
includes physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality, and
formance. operating pe
Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly iterative in
designthe
process. A certain
component or
subsystem of the overall system is conceptuali7ecd
by the designer, subjected to analysis, improved through this analysis procedure
and redesigned. The process is repeated until the design has been optimized within
the constraints imposed the designer. The
on
components and subsystems are syn-
thesized into the final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
Evaluation is concerned with measuring the
design against the
specifications
established in the problem definition phase. This evaluation often requires
fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess operating the
performance,
ity, reliability, and other criteria. The final phase in the design process is
qual-
the
presentation of the design. This includes documentation of the design by means a
drawings, matenal specifications, assembly lists, and so on. Essentially, the docu-
mentation requires that a design data base be created. Figure 4.2 illustrates the
basic steps in the design process, indicating its iterative nature.
Engineering design has traditionally been accomplished on drawing boards.
with the design being documented in the form of a detailed engineering drawing.
Mechanical design includes the drawing of the complete product as well as its

Recognition
of need

Definition of
problem

Synthesis

Analysis and
optimization

Evaluation

Presentation FIGURE 4.2 The general design proc-

ess as defined by Shigley [13]
 80 Computer-Aided Design
components and subassemblies, and the tools and fixtures required to manufacture
the product. Electrical design is concencd with the preparation of circuit
diagrams, specification of electronic components, and so on. Similar manual docu
mentation is required in other engineering design ficlds (structural design, aircraft
design, chemical engineering design, etc.). In each engincering discipline, the
approach has traditionally been to synthesize a preliminary design manually and
then to subject that design to some form of analysis. The analysis may involve
sophisticated engineering calculations or it may involve a very subjective judgment
of the aesthete appeal possessed by the design. The analysis procedure identifies
certain improvements that can be made in the design. As stated previously, the
process is iterative. Each iteration yields an improvement in the design. The trouble
with this iterative process is that it is time consuming. Many engineering labor
hours are required to complete the design project.

4.3 THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTERs

FOR DESIGN

The various design-related tasks which are performed by a modem computer-aided

design system can be grouped into four functional areas:
. Geometric modeling
2. Engineering analysis
3 Design review and evaluation
4. Automated drafting

These four areas correspond to the final four phases in Shigley's general design
process, illustrated in Figure 4.3. Geometric modeling corresponds to the synthesis
phase in which the physical design project takes form on the ICG system.
Engineering analysis coresponds to phase 4, dealing with analysis and optimiza
tion. Design review and evaluation is the fifth step in the general design pro-
cedure. Automated drafting involves a procedure for converting the design image
data residing in computer memory into a hard-copy document. It represents an
important method for presentation (phase 6) of the design. The following four sec-
tions explore each of these four CAD functions.

Geometric modeling
In computer-aided design, geometric modeling is concerned with the computer
compatible mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The mathemat"
ical description allows the image of the object to be displayed and manipulated on
a graphics terminal through signals from the CPU of thhe CAD system. Tne
nentals of CAD 81

Computer-s ided
The design process
design

Recognition of
need

Problem
definition

Synthesis Geometric
modeling

Analysis and Engineering

optimization analysis

Design review
Evaluation and evaluation

Automated
Presentation
drafting

FIGURE 4.3 Application of computers to the design process.

software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be designed for effi-
cient use both by the computer and the human designer.
To use geometric modeling, the designer constructs the graphical image of
the object on the CRT screen of the ICG system by inputungthree types of com-
mands to the computer. The first type of command generates basic geometric ele-
ments such as points, lines, and circles. The second command type is used to
accomplish scaling, rotation, or other transformations of these elements. The third
type of command causes the various elements to be joined into the desired shape of
the object being created on the ICG system. During this geometric modeling pro-
Cess, the computer converts the commands into a mathematical model, stores it in
the computer data files, and displays it as an image on the CRT sereen. The model
can subsequently be called from the data files for review, änalysis, or alteration.
There are several different methods of representing the object in geometric
modeling. The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object. In this form,
 Computer-Aided Design
82

FIGURE 4.4 Example of wire-frame

drawing of a part. (Courtesy of Compu-
tervision Corp.)

lines, as shown Figurein Wire.

4.4.
the object is displayed by interconnecting on the capabil.
into three types, depending
frame geometric modeling is classified
ites of the ICG system. The three types
are:

. 2D Two-dimensional representation is used for a flat object.

This goes somewhat beyond the 2D capability by permitting a
2 2/D
three-dimensional object to be represented as long as it has no side-wal

details.
This allows for full three-dimensional modeling of a more com
3 3D
piex geometry.

of an object are sometimes

Even three-dimensional wire-frame representations
models can be enhanced by several
inadequate tor complicated shapes. Wire-frame
different methods. Figure 4.5 shows the same object shown in the previous figue
but with two possible improvements. The first uses dashed lines to portray the rear
front. The second
edges of the object, those which would be invisible from the
enhancement removes the hidden lines completely, thus providing a less cluttered

FIGURE 4.5 Same workpart as shown in Figure 4.4 but with (a) dashed lines to show r88

edges of part, and (b) hidden-line removal. (Courtesy of Computervision Corp.)

undamentals of CAD
83

FIGURE 4.6 Solid model of yoke part

as displayed a computer graphics
on

system. (Courtesy of Computervision

Corp.)

picture of the object for the viewer. Some CAD systems have an automatic
"hidden-line removal feature," while other systems require the user to identity the
lines that are to be removed from view. Another enhancement of the wire-frame
model involves providing a surface representation which makes the object appear
solid to the viewer. However, the object is still stored in the computer as a wire-
frame model.
The most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling in three
dimensions. This method, illustrated in Figure 4.6, typically uses solid geometry
shapes called primitives to construct the object. We shall discuss the difference
between wire-frame and solid models in Chapter 6.
Another feature of some CAD systems is color graphics capability. By mear
of color, it is possible to display more intormation on the graphics screen. Colored
images help to clarify components in an assembly, or highlight dimensions, or a
host of other purposes. The benefits ofcolor graphics are discussed in Chapter5.

Engineering analysis
In the formulation of nearly any engineering design project, some type of analysis
is required. The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat-transfer
computations, or the use of differential equations to describe the dynamic behavior
of the system being designed. The computer can be used to aid in this analysis
work. It is often necessary that specific programs be developed internally by the
engineering analysis group to solve a particular design problem. In other situa-
tions, commercially available general-purpose programs can be used to perfomm
the engineering analysis.
Turnkey CADICAM systems often include or can be interfaced to engineer-
ing analysis software which can be called to operate on the current design moxl:l
 Computor-Aided Design
We discuss two important exanmples of this type:

Analysis of mass properties

Finite-element analysis
The analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of a CAD system that
has probably the widest application. It provides properties of a solid object being
analyzed, such as the surface area, weight, volume, center of gravity, and moment
of inertia. For a plane surface (or a cross section of a solid object) the correspond
ing computations include the perimeter, area, and inertia properties.
Probably the most powerful analysis feature of a CAD system is the fini
element method. With this technique, the object is divided into a large number of
finite elemnents (usually rectangular or triangular shapes) which fom an intercon-
necting network of concentrated nodes. By using a computer with significant com-
putational capabilities, the entire object can be analyzed for stress-strain, heat
transter, and other characteristics by calculating the behavior of cach node. By
determining the interrelating bchaviors of all the nodes in the system, the behavior
of the entire object can be assessed.
Some CAD systems have the capability to define automatically the nodes
and the network structure for the given object. The user simply defines certain
parameters for the finite-element model, and the CAD system proceeds with the
computations.
The output of the finite-element analysis is often best presented by the sys-
tem in graphical format on the CRT screen for easy visualization by the user. For
example, in stress strain analysis of an object, the output may be shown in the
form of a deflected shape superimposed over the unstressed object. This is illus-
trated in Figure 4.7. Color graphics can also be used to accentuate the comparison

MWAID

HEEA FIGURE 4.7 Finite-element modeling

for stress-strain analysis. Graphics
display shows strained part superim
posed on unstrained part for comparison.
(Courtesy of Applicon Inc.)
entals of CAD
85
before and after deflection of the object. This is illustrated in Figure 5.6 for the
same image as that shown in Figure 4.7. If the finite-clement analysis indicates
behavior of the design which is undesirable, the designer can modify the shape and
recompute the finite-element analysis for the revised design.

Design review and evaluation

Checking the accuracy of the design can be accomplished conveniently on the
graphics terminal. Semiautomatic dimensioning and tolerancing routines wnicn
assign size specifications to surfaces indicated by the user help to reduce the possi-
bility of dimensioning errors. The designer can zoom in on part design details and
magnify the image on the graphics screen for close scrutiny.
A procedure called layering is often helpful in design review. Forexample,a
good application of layering involves overlaying the geometric image of the ina
shape of the machined part on top of the image of the rough casting. This ensures
thatsufficient material is available on the to accomplish the final machined
casting
dimensions. This procedure can be performed in stages to check each successive
step in the processing of the part.
This
Another related procedure for design review is interference checking.
is a risk that the
involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there
the same space. This risk occurs in the
components of the assembly may occupy
design of large chemical plants,air-separation cold boxes, and other complicated
piping structures.

One of the most interesting evaluation

features available computer
on some

available kinematics packages provide the

aided design systems is kinematics. The such as hinged
motion of simple designed mechanisms
capability to animate the visualization of
and linkages. This capability enhances the designer's
components otheer
ensure against interference with
the operation of the mechanism and helps to must often
kinematics on a CAD system, designers
components. Without graphical models to represent the mechanism.
Com-
resort to the use of pin-and-cardboard
available to perform kinematic analysis. Among
mercial software packages are of Mechanical
ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis
these are pograms such as can be
at the University of Michigan. This type of program
Systems), developed mechanism to accomplish a
useful to the designer in constructing the required
very
specified motion and/or force.

Automated drafting
involves the creation ofhard-copy engineering drawings
Automated drafting computer-aided design depart-
from the CAD data base. In some early
directly represented the principal justification for
ments, automation of the drafting
process in
CAD systems can increase productivity

investing in the CAD system. Indeed,

five times over manual drafting.
the drafting function by roughly of computer-aided design systems
lend them-
features
Some of the graphics
86 Computer-Aided Design

(b) (c)
(a)
FIGURE 4.8 Three views of a wire trame biock: (a) oDlique, (D) isometnc, (C) perspective

selves especially well to the drafting process. These features include automatin
dimensioning, generation of crosshatched areas, scaling of the drawing, and the
capability to develop sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details
The ability to rotate the part or to perform other transformations of the image (eg,
oblique, isometric, or perspective views), as illustrated in Figure 4.8, can be o
significant assistance in drafting. Most CAD systems are capable of generating as
many as six views of the part. Engineering drawings can be made to adhere to
company drafting standards by programming the standards into the CAD svstem
Figure 4.9 shows an engineering drawing with four views displayed. This drawine
was produced automatically by a CAD system. Note how much the isometric view
promotes a higher level of understanding of the object for the user than the three
orthographic views.
We discuss the various pieces of equipment for creating the hard-copy draw
ing in Section 5.5.

Parts classification and coding

In addition to the four CAD functions described above, another feature of the CAD
data base is that it can be used to develop a parts classification and coding system.
Parts classification and coding involves the grouping of similar part designs irto
classes, and relating the similarities by means of a coding scheme. Designers can
use the classification and coding system to retrieve existing part designs rather than
always redesigning new parts. There are several uses of such systems in manutac
turing also, and we postpone further discussion of this subject until Chapter 12.