Regulation – 2017(CBCS Scheme) MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION – 17EC741

MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION - 17EC741

MODULE – 2:

MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION REPRESENTATION: Introduction, digital principles,

text, images, audio, video.

TEXT BOOK:
1. Multimedia Communications: Applications, Networks, Protocols and
Standards, Fred Halsall, Pearson Education, Asia, Second Indian reprint 2002.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. “Multimedia Fundamentals: Vol 1 - Media Coding, and Content Processing”,

Ralf Steinmetz, Klara Narstedt, Pearson Education, 2004.

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 Regulation – 2017(CBCS Scheme) MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION – 17EC741

MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION REPRESENTATION

INTRODUCTION:

 All types of multimedia information are process and store within the computer
in a digital form.
 Textual information: contains strings of characters entered through
keyboard. Code word: each character represented by a unique combination of
fixed number of bits. Complete text hence, can be represented by strings of
code words.
 Image: computer-generated graphical images made up of a mix of lines, circles,
squares, and so on each represented in a digital form. Ex.: line - represented by
start and end co-ordinates of the line, each coordinate being defined in the
form of a pair of digital values relative to the complete image.
 Audio and video: microphone and video cameras produce electrical signals,
whose amplitude varies continuously with time amplitude indicating the
magnitude of the sound wave/image-intensity at that instant.
 Analog Signal: signal whose amplitude varies continuously with time. In order
to store and process analog signal type of media in a computer we should
convert any time-varying analog signals into a digital form is necessary.
 for speech and audio - in like, loud speakers, and for display of digitized images
in like, computer monitors - digital values of media types must be converted
back again into a corresponding time-varying analog form on output – from
the computer.
 for a particular media type:
 Conversion of analog signal into digital signal is carried out using an electrical
circuit known as Signal Encoder, it includes following steps:
1. Sampler: It samples the amplitude of analog signals at repetitive time
intervals.
2. Quantization: converting amplitude of each sample into a
corresponding digital value.
 Conversion of stored digital sample relating to a particular media type into
their corresponding time-varying analog form is performed by a electrical
circuit is known as a signal decoder.
 All media types associated with the various multimedia applications stored and
processed within a computer in an all-digital form so, different media types can
be readily integrated together resulting integrated bitstream can be
transmitted over a single all-digital communication network.

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Digitization principles: Analog signals:

 Figure above shows general properties relating to any time-varying analog

signal. In figure amplitude of signals varies continuously with time.
 Fourier analysis: A mathematical technique used to show that any analog
signal is made up of a possibly infinite number of single-frequency sinusoidal
signals, whose amplitude and phase vary continuously with time relative to
each other.
 Ex.: highest and lowest frequency components of the signal shown in Figure a.
maybe those shown in Figure b.
 Signal bandwidth: range of frequencies of the sinusoidal components that
make up a signal.
 Figure below (c). Shows two examples relate to an audio signal first - relate to a
speech signal second - relate to a music signal produced by say, an orchestra.

 Speech is a humans produce sounds, which are converted into electrical signals
by a microphone are made up of a range of sinusoidal signals varying in
frequency between 50Hz and 10kHz and for music range of signals is wider

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varies between 15kHz to 20kHz being comparable with the limits of the
sensitivity of the ear.
 Analog signal when, being transmitted through a network BW of transmission
channel (range of frequencies, channel will pass) ≥ BW of the signal if BW of
channel < BW of signal some low and/or high frequency components will be
lost, thereby degrading the quality of the received signal. Such, a channel is
called the bandlimiting channel as in Figure below.

Encoder design:

 Signal encoder is a electronic circuit converts, time-varying analog signals to digital

form.

 Figure above. shows - principles of an encoder consists of 2 main circuits:

1. Bandlimiting filter.
2. ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) which has 2 components:
I. Sample-and-hold circuit.
II. Quantizer
 Figure below. Shows the typical waveform set for the signal encoder.

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 Regulation – 2017(CBCS Scheme) MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION – 17EC741

 Bandlimitng filter: remove selected higher-frequency components from the

source signal (A).
 Sample-And-Hold: got output of bandlimiting filter, (B) signal used to sample
amplitude of the filtered signal at regular time intervals (C) and to hold the
sample amplitude constant between samples (D) signal Quantizer circuit got
signal (D) which converts each sample amplitude into a binary value known as
a codeword like (E) signal.
 Polarity (sign) of sample: positive or negative relative to the zero level
indicated by most significant bit of each codeword. A binary 0 indicates a
positive value and a binary 1 indicates a negative value.
 To represent the amplitude of a time-varying analog signal precisely require 2
things:
1. Signal should be sampled at a rate > maximum rate of change of signal
amplitude.
2. Number of quantization levels used to be as large as possible.

Sampling Rate:
 Nyquist Sampling Theorem: states that for an accurate representation of a
time- varying analog signal it's amplitude must be sampled at a minimum rate
that is equal to or greater than twice the highest sinusoidal frequency
component that is present in the signal known as Nyquist rate, normally
represented as either Hz or, or correctly, samples per second (sps).

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 Regulation – 2017(CBCS Scheme) MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION – 17EC741

 sampling signal at a rate < Nyquist rate results in additional frequency

components being generated that are not present in the original signal which,
in turn cause original signal to become distorted.
 Figure below, shows effect of under sampling single-frequency sinusoidal
signal caused by sampling a signal at a rate lower than the Nyquist rate.

 Ex.: original signal is assumed to 6kHz sine wave sampling rate(8ksps)<

Nyquist rate (12ksps, 2*6ksps) results in a lower frequency 2kHz signal being
created in place of the original 6kHz signal such, signals called alias signals
(since, they replace the corresponding original signals).
 In general, all frequency components present in the original signal higher in
frequency than half the sampling frequency being used (in Hz) generate
related lower-frequency alias signals which will simply add to those making up
the original source signal thereby causing it to become distorted.
 Band limiting filter/Antialiasing filter: source signal is passed into the band
limiting filter to pass only those frequency components up to that determined
by Nyquist rate any higher-frequency components in the signal which are
higher than this are removed before the signal is sampled.
 In practice transmission channel, used/available has a lower bandwidth than
that of source signal to avoid distortion bandwidth and hence, frequency range
of the transmission channel that determines the sampling rate used rather
than the BW of the source signal in such cases, source signal may have higher
frequency component, than those dictated by the Nyquist rate of the
transmission channel so, it is necessary to pass the source signal through a
band-limiting filter (designed to pass only those sinusoidal frequency
components which are within the BW of the transmission channel) so,
generation of any alias signals caused by under sampling source signal is
avoided.

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Quantization intervals:

 To represent in the digital form the amplitudes of the set of analog samples
would require an infinite number of binary digits. When finite numbers of
digits are used, each sample can be represented by a corresponding number of
discrete levels.
 Figure below. Shows effect of using a finite number of bits

 Ex.: here, 3 bits to represent each sample including a sign bit results in 4
positive and 4 negative quantization intervals, the two magnitude bits - being
determined by the particular quantization interval the analog input signal is in
at the time of each sample.

 if Vmax, is the maximum positive and negative signal amplitude.

 n: number of binary bits used
 q: magnitude of each quantization interval is given by
 Signal - anywhere within a Quantization intervals will be represented by the
same binary codeword. Thus each codeword: corresponds to a nominal
amplitude level - which, is at the center of the corresponding quantization
interval. Thus, Actual signal level - may different from this by: up to + or -q/2.

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 Quantization Error: It is the difference between the actual signal amplitude and
the corresponding nominal amplitude.
 Figure below. shows quantization error values shown expanded.
 Usually the error values vary randomly from sample to sample thus
quantization error is also known as Quantization noise.
 Noise: This term used in electrical circuits to refer to a signal whose, amplitude
varies randomly with time.
 Smallest amplitude relative to its peak amplitude of the signal is the influencing
factor for the choice of the number of quantization intervals for a particular
signal.
 With high-fidelity music: It is important to be able to hear very quiet passages
without any distortion created by quantization noise.
 Dynamic range, D (of the signal) is the ratio of the peak amplitude of a signal to
its minimum amplitudes.
 decibels (dB): D is normally quantified using logarithmic scale.
 Determining the quantization intervals, and number of bits to be used it is
necessary to ensure level of quantization noise relative to the smallest signal
amplitude is acceptable.
Decoder design:

Analog signals are store, process and transmitted in the digital form, prior to
their output, normally analog signals must be converted back again into their
analog form.
Ex.: loudspeakers - are driven by an analog current signal.
Signal decoder is electronic circuit which performs the conversion of digital to
analog form.

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 Regulation – 2017(CBCS Scheme) MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION – 17EC741

Digital To Analog Converter(DAC) is a circuit which converts each digital

codeword (A) into an equivalent analog sample (B), amplitude of each level
being determined by, corresponding codeword.
Fourier analysis: used to show that output of DAC comprises sinusoidal
frequency components make up the original (filtered) analog signal + an
infinite number of additional higher-frequency components.
For original signal to reproduce DAC output is passed through a LPF, which
only passes those frequency components that made up the original filtered
signal (C).
Normally, high-frequency cut-off of the LPF is made same as that used in band
limiting filter of the encoder so, LPF is known as - recovery (reconstruction
filter).
Most multimedia application involving audio and video communications
channels is 2-way simultaneous. TEs hence, support both input and output
simultaneously. So, audio/video signal encoders and decoders in each TE, are
often combined into a single unit audio/video encode-decoder or audio/video
codec.

TEXT:

Definition: “In information technology, text is a human-readable sequence of

characters and the words they form that can be encoded into computer-
readable formats such as ASCII. Text is usually distinguished from non-
character encoded data, such as graphic images in the form of bitmap s and
program code, which is sometimes referred to as being in "binary" (but is
actually in its own computer- readable format)”.
There are 3 Types of text used to produce pages of documents:
1. Unformatted Text: alternative name plaintext and it enables pages to
be created comprises of strings of fixed-sized characters from a limited
character set.
2. Formatted Text: alternative name rich text and it enables pages and
complete documents to be created which, comprise of strings of
characters of different styles, size and shape with tables, graphics, and
images inserted at appropriate points.
3. Hypertext: It enables an integrated set of documents (each comprising
formatted text) to be created which have defined linkages between
them.

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Unformatted text:

Two examples of character sets widely used to create pages consisting of

unformatted text strings are:
1. ASCII character set
2. Mosaic character set
Table below shows set of characters, available in the ASCII character set.

 ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange is one of the most
widely used character sets.
Table shows binary codewords used to represent each character. Each
character is represented by a unique 7-bit binary codeword.
Use of 7 bits means there are 128 (27) alternate characters and codeword used
to identify each character and is obtained by combining the corresponding
column (bits 7-5) and row (bits 4-1) bits together.
Bit 7 is MSB and Bit 0 is LSB thus codeword for uppercase M is 1001101.
Printable Characters: It is a collection of normal alphabetic, numeric and
punctuation characters but ASCII total characters also includes a number of
control characters including:
1. Format control characters: BS (backspace), LF (Linefeed), CR (Carriage
Return), SP (Space), DEL (Delete), ESC (Escape), and FF (Formfeed).
2. Information separators: FS (File Separator), RS (Record Separator).
Transmission control characters: SOH (Start-Of-Heading), STX (Start-Of- Text),
ETX (End-Of-Text), ACK (Acknowledge), NAK (Negative Acknowledge),
SYN(Synchronous Idle), and DLE (Data Link Escape).
Fig. b tabulates the character set which is the supplementary version of that in Fig.
a.

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 Regulation – 2017(CBCS Scheme) MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION – 17EC741

Characters in columns 010/011 and 110/111 are replaced by set of mosaic

characters.
Mosaic characters used with uppercase characters to create relatively simple
graphical images.
A example application which uses mosaic character set are Videotext and
Teletex which are mosaic general broadcast information services available,
through a standard television set, used in number of countries.
Some simple graphical symbols and text of larger sizes can be constructed by
the use of groups of the basic symbols.

Formatted text:

It is produced by most word processing packages used extensively in the

publishing sector for the preparation of papers, books, magazines, journals, and
so on.
Examples of word processing packages are MS word, libaro office, kingsoft
office, office pro etc.
Word processing packages enables documents to be created that consist of
characters of different styles and of variable size and shape, each of which can
be plain, bold, or italicized. Variety of document formatting options are
supported to enable an author to structure a document into chapters, sections
and paragraphs, each with different headings and with tables, graphics, and
pictures inserted at appropriate points.
To achieve each of above features author of the document enters specific
commands which, results in a defined format-control character sequence

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normally, a reserved format-control character followed by pair of other

alphabetic or numeric characters.
Figure. a below shows - example of the formatted text string

Figure. b below shows - printed version of the string

To print a document consisting of formatted text:

printer must be first set up, microprocessor within the printer must be
programmed to detect and interpret the format-control character sequences in
the defined way and to convert the following text, table, graphic, or picture into
a line-by-line form ready for printing.
Commands such as print preview often provided which cause the page to be
displayed on the computer screen in a similar way, to tell how it will appear
when it is printed.
WYSIWYG: what-you-see-is-what-you-get can be achieved as above.

Hypertext:

It is a type of formatted text enables a related set of documents (known as

pages) to be created which define linkage points on pages referred to as
hyperlinks between pages.
Ex.: universities describe their structure and the courses and support services
they offer in prospectus, a booklet organized in a hierarchical way.
In order for the reader to find out information about a particular course,
facilities offered by the university, typically, reader would start at the index and
use this to access details about the various departments, the courses each

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offers, and so on by switching between the different sections of the booklet.

Similarly, hypertext can be used to create an electronic version of such
documents (pages) with the index, descriptions of departments, courses on
offer, library, and other facilities all written in hypertext as pages with various
defined hyperlinks between them to enable a person to browse through its
contents in a user-friendly way.
Typically, the linked set of pages that, make up the prospectus would all be
stored in a single server computer particular department choose to provide a
more in-depth description of the courses and facilities it offers.
Ex.: contents of courses, current research projects, staff profiles, or
publications these can also implemented as linked set of pages on a different
computer, and providing all the computers at the sites are connected to the
same network (and use the same set of communication protocols), additional
hyperlinks between the two sets of ages can be introduced.

Linked set of pages stored in the server accessed and viewed using a browser
(a client program).
Browser can run in either the same computer on which the server software is
running or more usually, in a separate remote computer.
Home Page: associated with each set of linked pages comprises a form of index
to the set of pages linked to it each of which has a hyperlink entry-point
associated with it.
Hyperlinks: are forms of underlined text string user. Initiates the access and
display of a particular page by pointing and clicking mouse on the appropriate
string/link.
Each link: associated with textual name of the link + related format-control
information for its display + a unique network-wide name known as URL
(Uniform Resource Locator).
URL comprises a number of logical parts including:
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1. Unique name of the host computer where, page is stored.

2. Name of file containing the page which, collectively enables browser
program to locate and read each requested page.
To access the home page of a particular document on a server user do the
following:
1. Enters its URL in response to a prompt by the browser program.
2. Browser uses this first to locate the server computer on which the
particular page is stored and then to request the page contents from the
server.
3. Browser on receipt of content displays these on the client computer
screen using the included format control commands.
4. User after accessing the home page associated with a site is able to
access and browse through the contents of the linked set of pages in the
order he or she chooses.
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) is an example of a more general set of
mark-up languages used to describe how the contents of a document are to be
presented on a printer or a display.
Mark-up term being used by a copy editor when the printing of documents was
carried out manually.
Ex. of Languages of mark-up category:
1. Postscript ((printed) page description language)
2. SGML (Standard Generalized Mark-up Language on which HTML is based)
3. Tex
4. Latex
Output of above languages is similar to that produced by many word
processing systems but, unlike word processors they are concerned only with
thee formatting of a document in preparation for its printing or display.
HTML concerned solely with hypertext and designed specifically for use with
the WWW (World Wide Web) in particular, for the creation of web pages
concerned primarily with the formatting of pages:
To enable a browser program running on a remote computer to display a
retrieved page on its local screen.
For the specification of hyperlinks to enable a use to browse interactively
through the contents of a set of pages linked together by means of hyperlinks.
Directives are page formatting commands in HTML each sandwiched
between a pair of tags (< >) include commands to start new paragraph (<P>),
start and end boldface (<B> text </B>), present in the form of a bulleted list
(<HL> list </HL>), include an image (<IMG SRC=" a image" >), and so on.

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Hypermedia: other media types, such as sound and video clips can also be
included hypermedia and hypertext terms often used interchangeably when
referring to pages created in HTML.
Specification of a hyperlink made by specifying both the URL where, the
require page is located together with the textual name of the link.
Ex.: specification of a hyperlink to a page containing 'Further details' would
have the form <A HREF= "URL">Further details</A>.

Images:

Definition: “An image is an artifact that depicts or records visual perception”.

Ex: 2-D picture.
Different mode of Image generation:
1. Computer-generated images generally referred to as computer
graphics or simply, graphics.
2. Digitized images of both documents and pictures.
There are 3 types of images:
1. Graphics
2. Digitized documents
3. Digitized pictures
These images are displayed and printed in 2-D matrix form of individual
picture elements.
Pixels (Pels): are individual picture elements.
Each of the 3 types of images is represented differently within the computer
memory, or more generally, in a computer file each type of image is created
differently.

Graphics:
A range of software packages and programs are available for creation of
computer graphics.
They provide easy-to-use tools to create graphics which, are composed of all
kinds of visual objects including lines, arcs, squares, rectangles, circles, ovals,
diamonds, stars, and so on, as well as any form of hand-drawn (normally
referred to as freeform) objects produced by drawing desired shape on the
screen by means of a combination of a cursor symbol on the screen.
The mouse facilities are also provided to edit these objects. Ex.: to change their
shape, size, or color and, to introduce complete predrawn images, either
previously created by the author of the graphic or clip-art (selected from a
gallery of images that come with the package).

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Better packages provide many hundreds of such images.

Textual information can be included into a graphic together with precreated
tables, graphs, digitized pictures and photographs which have been previously
obtained. Objects can overlap each other with selected object nearer to the
front than another with add fill and add shadows to objects to give the
complete 3-D effect.
Computer's Display Screen: It can be considered as made up of 2-D matrix of
individual pixels each of which can have a range of colors associated with it.
Ex.: VGA (Video Graphics Array) common type of display
Figure below. Shows a matrix of 640 horizontal pixels by 480 vertical pixels. 8
bits/pixel which allows each pixel to have one of 256 different colors.

All objects including the free-form objects made up of a series of lines

connected to each other. curved line as what may appear in practice, is a series
of very short lines each made up of a string of pixels which, in the limit, have the
resolution of a pair of adjacent pixels on the screen.
Figure below. shows some examples

Attributes: each object has a number of attributes associated with it they include:
1. Its shape - a line, a circle, a square, and so on.
2. Its size - in terms of pixel positions of its border coordinates.
3. Color of border.

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4. its shadow, and so on

Editing of an object involves simply, changing selected attributes associated
with the object.
Ex.: As in Figure below, square can be moved to different location on the
screen by simply, changing its border coordinates and leaving the remaining
attributes unchanged.

Object shape: It can be either open or closed.

Open object: start of the first line and end of the last line that make up the
object's border are not connected i.e., they do not start and end on the same
pixel.
Closed object: start of the first line and end of the last line that make up the
object's border are connected i.e., they start and end on the same pixel.
For closed objects color-fill can be done i.e., pixels enclosed by its border can
all be assigned the same color to rendering (creation of the solid objects, by
color-fill) as in Figure below.

All objects are drawn on the screen by the user simply specifying name of the
objects and its attributes including its color-fill and shadow effect if required
set of more basic lower-level commands are then used to determine both the
pixel locations that are involved and the color that should be assigned to each
pixel.
Representation of a complete graphic is analogous to the structure of a
program written in a high-level programming language.
2 forms of representation of computer graphic
1. High-level version (similar to the source code of a high-level program).
2. Actual pixel-image of the graphic (similar to the byte-string, generally,
as bit-map format).
Graphic can be transferred over a network in either form
High-level program form much more compact requires less memory to store

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the image requires less BW for its transmission destination must be able to
interpret various high-level commands.
Bit-map form used to avoid above requirements there are a number of
standardized forms of representation such as:
1. GIF (Graphical Interchange Format)
2. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)
SRGP (Simple Raster Graphics Package) convert the high-level language into
a pixel-image form.

Digitized documents:

 It is produced by the scanner associated with a facsimile (fax) machine.

 Figure below. shows principles of facsimile (fax)

Scanner associated with the fax machine operated by scanning each complete
page from left to right to produce a sequence of scan lines that start at the top
of the page and end at the bottom vertical resolution of scanning procedure is
either 3.85 or 7.7 lines/mm which is equivalent to approximately 100 or 200
lines/inch.
As each line is scanned output of the scanner is digitized to a resolution of
approximately 8pels with fax machines/mm.
Fax machines use just a single binary digit to represent each pel:
1. 0 for white pel
2. 1 for black pel
Figure below. Shows digital representation of the scanned page.

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For a typical page which produces a stream of about two million bits.
Printer of fax then, reproduces original image by printing out the received
stream bits to a similar resolutions.
Use of a single binary digit per pel means, fax machines are best suited to
scanning bitonal (black-and-white) images such as printed documents
comprising mainly textual information.

Digitized pictures:

Scanners used for digitizing continuous tone monochromatic images (such as,
printed picture, scene) normally, more than a single bit is used to digitize each
pel.
Ex.: good quality black and white pictures can be obtained by using 8bits/pel
yields 256 different levels of gray per element varying between white and black
which gives substantially increased picture quality over a facsimile image when
reproduced.
For color images to understand digitization format used, it is necessary to
understand the principles of how color is produced and how the picture tubes
used in computer monitors (on which the images are eventually displayed)
operate.

Color Principles:

Studies have shown that human eye sees just a single color when a particular
set of 3 primary colors are mixed and displayed simultaneously.
Color gamut is a whole spectrum of colors which is produced by mixing
different proportions of 3 primary colors red (R), green (G), and blue (B).

Figure. A below shows mixing technique used is called additive color mixing.

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Additive Color Mixing: Black is produced when all three primary colors are
zero particularly useful for producing a color image on a black surface, as is the
case in display application.
Subtractive Color Mixing: complementary to additive color mixing produces -
similar to additive color mixing range of colors.
Fig. b shows - as - in subtractive color mixing white is produced, when the 3
chosen primary colors cyan (C), Magenta (M), and Yellow (Y) are all zero these
colors are particularly useful for producing a color image on a white surface as
in, printing applications.

Raster-scan principles:

Picture tube used in most television sets operates using raster-scan.

It involves raster a finely focused electron beam i.e., raster scan over the
complete screen as shown in the figure below.

Progressive scan: Here each complete scan comprises a number of discrete

horizontal lines first of which starts at the top left corner of the screen and, the
last of which ends at the bottom right corner at this point, the beam is deflected
back again to the top left corner. Scanning operation repeats in the same way
this type of the scanning is called as progressive scanning.

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Figure below, shows progressive scanning.

Frame is a compete set of horizontal scan lines and is made up of N individual

scan lines.
N is either 525 (North and South America and most of Asia) or 625 (Europe
and number of other countries).
Inside the display screen of the picture tube is coated with a light sensitive
phosphor which emits light when energized by the electron beam.
Brightness: It is the amount of light emitted which is determined by the power
in the electron beam at that instant.
During each horizontal (line) and vertical (frame) retrace period electron
beam is turned off to create an image on the screen level of power in the beam
is changed as each line is scanned.
In black-and-white picture tubes a single electron beam is used with a white-
sensitive phosphor but in color tubes it use three separate closely located
beams, and a 2-D matrix of pixels.
Each pixel comprises set of 3 related color-sensitive phosphors one each for
R,G, and B signals.
Phosphor triad is a set of 3 phosphors associated with each pixel.
Figure below. Shows a typical arrangement of the triads on each scan line in
theory each pixel represents an idealized rectangular area which is
independent of its neighboring pixels.

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Spot is a practical shape of each pixel which merges with its neighbors when
viewed from a sufficient distance a continuous color image is seen.
Television picture tubes are designed to display moving images persistence of
light/color produced by the phosphor is designed to decay very quickly so,
continuous refresh of thee screen is needed.
For moving image light signals associated with each frame change to reflect the
motion that has taken place during the time required to scan the preceding
frame. For a static/still image same set of light signals are used for each frame.
Frame refresh rate: must be high enough to ensure that the eye is not aware
the display is continuously being refreshed.
Flicker is caused by a low refresh rate caused by the previous image fading
from the eye retina before the following image is displayed.
To avoid Flicker a refresh rate of at least 50 times/s is required.
Frame refresh rate: determined by frequency of the mains electricity supply
which is either 60Hz in North and South America and most of Asia and 50 Hz in
Europe and a number of other countries.
Current picture tubes operate in analog mode i.e., amplitude of each of 3 color
signals is continuously varying as each line is scanned.
In case of Digital television digitized pictures are stored within the computer
memory color signals are in the digital form comprise a string of pixels with a
fixed number of pixels per scan line.
To display the stored image pixels that make up each line are read from
memory in time-synchronism with the scanning process and, converted into a
continuously varying analog form by means of DAC.
Video RAM: IS a separate block of memory used to store the pixel image. Area
of computer memory that holds the sting of pixels that make up the image the
pixel image must be accessed continuously as each line is scanned.
Graphics program: Are needs to write the pixel images into video RAM
whenever, either selected pixels or the total image changes.

Figure Shows the architecture of various steps involved used to create a high-

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level version of the image interactively using, either the keyboard or a mouse.
Display controller (frame/display/refresh buffer): A part of the program
interprets sequences of display commands converts them into displayed
objects by writing appropriate pixel values into the video RAM.
Video controller: A hardware subsystem that reads the pixel values stored in
the video RAM in time-synchronism with the scanning process converts for
each set of pixel values into equivalent set of R, G, and B analog signals for
output to the display.

Pixel depth:

It is defined as number of bits/pixel.

Determines the range of different colors that can be produced by a pixel.
Ex.: 12 bits - 4 bits per primary color - yielding 4096 different colors and 24 bits
- 8 bits per primary color - yielding in excess of 16 million colors.
Eye cannot distinguish such a range of colors so, in some instances a selected
subset of this range of colors been used.
For the above following steps are followed:
Selected colors in the subset are then stored in the table.
CLUT (Color Look-Up Table) is a table where each pixel value is used as an
address to a location within the table (color look-up table, CLUT) which,
contain the corresponding 3 color values.
Ex.: if each pixel is 8 bits and the CLUT contains 24 bit entries, then, CLUT had
24 bit entries will provide a subset of 256 (28) different colors selected from
the palette of 16 million (224) colors.
Advantage: amount of memory required to store an image can be reduced
significantly.

Aspect ratio:

It is the ratio of screen width to screen height.

It is used to determine number of pixels/scanned line and number of
lines/frame of a display screen.
In current television tubes aspect ratio is 4/3 of older tubes (on which the PC
monitors are based) and is 16/9 for the wide-screen television tubes.
Standards for color television
1. US: NTSC (National Television Standards Committee)
 NTSC: uses 525 scan lines/frame some lines carry information
and some lines carry control all lines - are not displayed on the

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screen.
Europe: 3 color standards exists:
1. PAL: of UK
2. CCIR: of Germany
3. SECAM: of France
 PAL, CCIR, SECAM uses 625 scan lines some lines carry
information and some lines carry control all lines are not
displayed on the screen.
Number of visible lines/frame = vertical resolution in terms of pixels i.e., 480
for NTSC monitor and 576 with the other 3 standards.
Figure below. Shows diagrammatic form of square lattice structure.

To produces a square picture avoiding distortion on the screen with 4/3 aspect
ratio it is necessary for displaying a square of (N X N) pixels to have :
1. 640 pixels (480 * 4/3) per line, with an NTSC monitor
2. 768 pixels (576 * 4/3) per line, with a European monitor
Memory requirements to store a single digital image can be high, vary between
307.2 Kbytes for an image displayed on a VGA screen with 8bits/pixel through
to approximately 2.36Mbytes for a SVGA (Super VGA) screen with 24 bits/pixel
as shown in the table below.
Standar Resolution Number of Memory/frame
d colors (bytes)
VGA 640 x 480 x 8 256 307.2kB
XGA 640 x 480 x 8 64k 614.4kB
1024 x 768 x 8 256 786.432kB
SVGA 800 x 600 x 16 64k 960kB
1024 x 768 x 8 256 786.432kB
1024 x 768 x 24 16M 2359.296kB

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Computer monitors of expensive computes since are not based on television

picture tubes 4/3 aspect ratio for need not to constrain.
Ex.: 1280 X 1024 X 24 may have the refresh rate as high as 75 frames/sec for
sharp image.

Problem: Derive the time to transmit the following digitized images at both
64kbps and 1.5Mbps.
A 640 x 480 x 8 VGA – compatible
images, A 1024 x 768 x 24 SVGA-
compatible images

Solution:

The size of each image in bits is:

VGA = 640 x 480 x 8 = 2.457600 Mbits
SVGA = 1024 x 768 x 24 = 18.874368 Mbits

Time to transmit each image is:

At 64kbps: VAG = 2.4576 x 106 / 64 x 103 = 38.4 sec
SVGA = 18.874368 x 106 / 64 x 103 = 294.912 sec

At 1.5Mbps: VAG = 2.4576 x 106 / 1.5 x 106 = 1.6384 sec

SVGA= 18.874368 x 106 / 1.5 x 106 = 12.5829 sec

Digital cameras and scanners:

Figure above. Shows atypical arrangement used to capture and store a digital
image produced by a scanner or a digital camera (a still-image camera or a
video camera).

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It is assumed captured image is transferred to the computer directly as it is

produced or as with digital cameras set of digitized images can be stored
within the camera itself then, downloaded into the computer at a later time.
Image capture within the camera/scanner using solid-state device known as
Image sensor. It is a 2-D grid of light-sensitive cells known as photosites.
Each photosites stores the level of intensity of the light that falls on it when the
camera shutter is activated.
CCD (Charge-Coupled Device): a widely used image sensor comprises of an
array of photosites on its surface operates by converting the level of light
intensity that falls on each photosite into an equivalent electrical charge.
The level of charge (i.e., light intensity) are stored at each photosite position is
read out then, it is converted into a digital value using an ADC.
With Scanners CCD like technique is used except the image sensor, comprises a
single line of photosites exposed in time-sequence with the scanning operation
and each row of stored charges are read out and digitized before the next scan
occurs.
For color images color associated with each photosite and hence the pixel
position is obtained in 3 methods as shown in the figure below:

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 Method 1: Surface of each photosite coated with either R, G, or B

filter so, that its charge is determined only by the level of R, G, and B
lights that falls on it. Coatings are arranged on the 3 X 3 grid structure
as in Figure above then, color associated with each photosite/pixel
determined by the output of photosite R, G, and B together with each of
its 8 immediate neighbors. The levels of two other colors in each pixel
are estimated by interpolation procedure involving all 9 values.
 Application: most consumer-friendly cameras.

 Method 2: It involves use of 3 separate exposures of a single image

sensor 1st through a Red filter, 2nd through a Green filter, and 3rd
through a Blue filter. Color associated with each pixel position is then,
determined by the charge obtained with each of 3 filters - R, G, and B.
 Application: used primarily with high-resolution still-image
cameras in locations such as photographic studios where,
cameras can be attached to a tripod but cannot be used with
video cameras since, 3 separate exposures are required for each
image.

 Method 3: uses 3 separate image sensors one with all photosites

coated with a red filter, 2nd with a green filter, 3rd with a blue filter. A
single exposure is used with the incoming light split into 3 beams each
of which exposes a separate image sensor.
 Application: in professional-quality-high-resolution still and
moving image camera as they are more costly owing to use of the
3 separate sensors and associated signal processing circuits.

Each image/frame once, captured and stored on the image sensor(s), then
charge stored at each photosite location is read and digitized.
Using CCD set of charges on the matrix of photosites are read a single row at a
time.
Each of the photosites are read on a row by row basis.
Once in readout register the charge on each photosite position is shifted out,
amplified and digitized using ADC.
Low-resolution image (640 X 480 pixels) and pixel depth of 24 bits - 8 bits each
for R, G, and B amount of memory required to store each image is 921600
bytes.
If output of this is directed to computer bit-map can be loaded straight into the
frame buffer ready to be displayed.
If required to store within the camera multiple images of this size need to be
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stored prior to them being output to a computer.

set of images are stored in an IC memory either on:
1. removal card
2. fixed within camera
Once within the computer, software can be used to insert digital image(s) into a
document, sent it by e-mail and so on or photo-editing software can be used to
manipulate a stored image. Ex.: to change its size or colors.
Numbers of file formats are used to store sets of images. One of the most
popular is a version of the TIFF called TIFF for electronic photography
(TIFF/EP).
Audio:

Definition1: sound within the range of human hearing.

Definition2: Audio is sound within the acoustic range available to humans.
An audio frequency is an electrical alternating current within the 20 to 20,000
hertz range that can be used to produce acoustic sound.
Two types of audio signals:
1. Speech signal: used in a variety of interpersonal applications like
telephony, video telephony.
2. Music-quality audio used in applications such as CD-on-demand and
broadcast television.
Audio can be produced:
1. Naturally by means of microphone generates a time-varying analog
signal audio signal encoder take analog signals, convert them into digital
form to store signals in the memory of the computer and to transmit
them over a digital network, at the destination audio signal encoder
convert them back into analog form as audio output devices are
analogous in nature.
2. Synthesizer Create audio in the digital form can be readily stored in
the computer memory output.
BW of a typical speech signal is from 50Hz to 10kHz thus sampling rate of
20ksps (2 X 10 kHz) is used for speech.
BW of a typical music signal is from 15Hz to 20kHz thus sampling rate of
40ksps (2 X 20 kHz) is used for speech.
Number of bits/sample must be chosen such that, quantization noise generated
by the sampling process is at an acceptable level relative to the minimum signal
level.
Tests have shown that linear (equal) quantization intervals for audio require
use of minimum of 12 bits/sample and for music 16 bits/sample.

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Applications involving music stereoscopic (stereo) sound is utilized (thus 2

such signals must be digitized) this result in bit rate doubles that of a monaural
(mono) signal.
In practice both these sampling rate used and number of bits/sample less than
these values.
For speech: BW of the network used in many interpersonal applications is
often less than BW of source signal so, lower sampling rate with fewer
bits/sample is needed.
For music: sampling rate is lowered to reduce the amount of memory required
to store the particular passage of music.

PCM speech:

 Interpersonal applications involving speech uses PSTN for communication

purpose.
 Initially PSTN operated with analog signal throughput, the source speech
signal being transmitted and switched (routed) unchanged in its original
analog form progressively older analog transmission circuits were replaced by
digital circuits.
 The above was carried out over a number of years and because of the need to
interwork between earlier analog and newer digital equipments during the
transition period design of digital equipment was based on operating
parameters of the earlier analog network.
 BW of the speech circuit in this network was limited to 200Hz through to 3.4
kHz. Nyquist rate is 6.8 kHz due to poor quality of the band limiting filters used
meant that a sampling rate of 8kHz was required to avoid aliasing.
 To minimize the resulting bit rate:
1. 7 bits/sample were selected for use in North America and Japan with bit
rate of 56 kbps.
2. 8 bits/sample in Europe (both including a sign bit) with bit rate of 64kbps.
 PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) is a digitization procedure and the
international standard relating to this is ITU-T Recommendation G.711.
 Figure below. Shows circuits that make up a PCM encoder and decoder
consisting of compressor (encoder) and expander (decoder) circuits.

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 Uses linear quantization intervals where quantization intervals are equal

irrespective of the magnitude of the input signal same level of quantization
noise is produced.
 Effect of above is that noise level is the same for both low amplitude (quite)
signals and high amplitude (loud) signals.
 Ear more sensitive to noise on quite signals than it is on loud signals. To reduce
the effect of quantization noise with 8 bits/sample, in a PCM system
quantization intervals are made non-linear (unequal) with narrower
intervals used for smaller amplitude signals than, for larger signals these can be
achieved by compressor and at the destination, the reverse operation by the
expander circuits overall operation is known as companding.
 Figures below. Shows input/output relationship of both circuit’s characteristic
curve for compression - compression characteristics and characteristic curve
for expansion
- expansion characteristics.

 Prior to input signal being sampled and converted into a digital form by ADC, it
is passed through compression circuit, which effectively compresses the
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amplitude of the input signal.

 Level of compression and hence, quantization intervals increases as the
amplitude of the input signal increases resulting compressed signal is passed
through ADC which performs linear quantization of the compressed signal.
 At the destination each received codeword is first fed into a linear DAC Analog
output from the DAC is then, passed to the expander circuit which perform the
reverse operation of the compressor circuit.
 Modern systems perform compression and expansion operations digitally
same principles are applied.
 2 different compression-expansion characteristics are in use:
1. µ-law: used in North America and Japan.
2. A-law: used in Europe and some other countries.

CD-quality audio:

 Discs used in CD players and CD-ROMs are digital storage devices for
stereophonic music and more general multimedia information streams.
 CD-DA (CD-digital audio) standard associated with these devices.
 Music has an audible BW of from 15Hz through 20 kHz. So, minimum sampling
rate is 40ksps.
 In the standard actual rate used is higher this rate because of following reasons:
1. Allow for imperfections in the band limiting filter used.
2. So that resulting bit rate is then, compatible with one of the higher
transmission channel bit rates available with public networks.
 Sampling rate used one of is 44.1ksps means, signal is sampled at 23
microsecond intervals.
 High number of samples can be used since; BW of a recording channel on a CD
is large.
 Recording of stereophonic music requires 2 separate channels - so, total bit
rate required is double that for mono.
 Hence, bit rate/channel = sampling rate x bits/sample
= 44.1 x 103 X 16
= 705.6 kbps (for
mono) Total bit rate = 2 X 705.6 = 1.411 Mbps
(for stereo)
 CD-ROMs also uses same bit rate which, are widely used for distribution of
multimedia titles. To reduce the access delay multiples of this rate are used
within a computers.
 Not feasible to interactively access a 30s portion of a multimedia title over a
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64kbps channel with 1.5Mbps channel the time is high for interactive purposes.

Problem: Assume the CD-DA standard is being used, derive:

I. The storage capacity of a CD-ROM to store a 60 minute multimedia title.
II. the time to transmit a 30 second portion of the title using a
transmission channel of bit rate: a. 64kbps b. 1.5Mbps
Solution:
i. The CD-DA digitization procedure yields a bit rate of 1.411Mbps. Thus, storage
capacity for 60 minutes is =
= 1.411 x 60 x 60Mb
= 5079.6Mbits or 634.95 Mbytes
ii. One 30 second portion of the title =1.411 x 30 = 42.33
Mbits Thus time to transmit this data :
At 64kbps = ( 42.33 x 106 ÷ 64 x 103)
= 661.4 sec
At 1.5kbps = ( 42.33 x 106 ÷ 1.5 x 106)
= 28.22 sec

Synthesized audio:

Once digitized any form of audio can be stored within a computer, amount of
memory required to store a digitized audio waveform can be very large even
for relatively short passages.
Synthesized audio can be defined as sound generated by electronic signals
of different frequencies. Sound can be synthesized by the use of sound
synthesizers. The synthesizers use different programmed algorithms to
generate sound to different waveform synthesis.
Synthesized audio is often hence, used in multimedia applications since, the
amount of memory required to be between two and three orders of magnitude
less that required to store the equivalent digitized waveform versions.
It is much easier to edit synthesized audio and mix, several passages together.
Figure below. Shows components that make up audio synthesizer.

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The 3 main component are:

1. Computer, with various application programs.
2. Keyboard, based on that of a piano.
3. Set of sound generators.
Pressing a key on the keyboard of a synthesizer has similar effect of pressing a
key on the keyboard of a computer in asmuch as for each key that is pressed a
different codeword known as a message with a synthesizer key board is
generated and read by the computer program.
Messages indicate things such as which key on the keyboard has been pressed
and the pressure applied.
Control panel contains a range of different switches and sliders that
collectively allow the user to indicate to the computer program additional
information such as the volume of the generated output and selected sound
effects to be associated with each key.

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Storage interface allows sequence of messages including those associated with

the control panel relating to a particular piece of audio to be saved on
secondary storage such as a floppy disk.
There are programs to allow the use to edit a previously entered passage and if
required, to mix the several store passages together. Synthesizer then, ensures
that the resulting integrated sequence of messages are synchronized and
output to the sound generators to create the merged passage.
Other possible input instruments other than (piano) keyboard are electric
guitar type, all of which generate messages similar to those produced by the
keyboard.
To discriminate between different possible sources a standardized set of
messages have been defined for both input and for output to the corresponding
set of sound generators defined in the standard known as MIDI (Music
Interface Digital Interface).
MIDI is a data communications protocol that describes a means for music
systems and related equipment to exchange information and control signals.
MIDI is not audio signal.
MIDI define the format of the standardized set of messages used by both
synthesizer and the connectors, cables, and by electrical signals used to connect
any type of device to the synthesizer.
Format of message consists of a status byte which defines particular event that
has caused the message to be generated, followed by number of data types
which collectively define a set of parameters associated with the event.

Data Type N
Status Byte Data Type 1 Data Type 2

MIDI Message Format

Ex.: event is a key being pressed on the board and typical parameters would
then be the identity of the key, pressure applied, and so on.
There can be a variety of instrument types used for input and output. It
necessary to identify type of instrument that generated the event so that, when
a corresponding message is output to the sound generators appropriate type of
sound is produced.
Different types of devices have a MIDI codes associated with them.
Ex.: piano has a code of 0 and violin has a code of 40.
Some codes have been assigned for specific special effects such as, sound from
a cannon and applause from an audience.
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Passage of audio produced from the synthesizer consists of a very compact

sequence of messages each comprising of bytes which can be played by
sequencer program directly heard by the composer or, saved in a file on a
floppy disk.
Typically, in many interactive applications involving multimedia pages
comprising text and a passage of music, a synthesizer is first used to create the
passage of music which, is then saved in the file. Author of pages links the file
contents to the text at the point where music to be played.
Sound card needed in the client computer to interpret the sequence of
messages and to generate the appropriate sounds since, the music is in the
form of a sequence of MIDI messages.
Sound generators use either:
1. FM synthesis techniques or
2. Wavelet synthesis by using samples of sound produced by a real
instruments.

MIDI Audio:

Definition: A protocol that enables computers, synthesizers, keyboards, and

other musical devices to communicate with each other.
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a communications standard
developed in the early 1980s for electronic musical instruments and
computers.
It allows music and sound synthesizers from different manufacturers to
communicate with each other by sending messages along cables connected to
the devices.
MIDI provides a protocol for passing detailed descriptions of a musical score,
such as the notes, the sequences of notes, and the instrument that will play
these notes.
MIDI data is not digitized sound; it is a shorthand representation of music
stored in numeric form.
Digital audio is a recording, but MIDI is a score.
The first depends on the capabilities of your sound system, the other on the
quality of your musical instruments and the capabilities of your sound system.
A MIDI file is a list of time-stamped commands that are recordings of musical
actions (the pressing down of a piano key or a sustain pedal, or the movement
of a control wheel or slider). When sent to a MIDI playback device, this results
in sound.
A concise MIDI message can cause a complex sound or sequence of sounds to

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play on an instrument or synthesizer; so MIDI files tend to be significantly

smaller (per second of sound delivered to the user) than equivalent digitized
waveform files.
The process of creating MIDI music is quite different from digitizing existing
recorded audio.
MIDI music is quite different from digitizing existing recorded audio. If you
think of digitized audio as analogous to a bitmapped graphic image (both use
sampling of the original analog medium to create a digital copy), then MIDI is
analogous to structured or vector graphics (both involve instructions provided
to software to be able to re-create the original on the fly).
For digitized audio you simply play the audio through a computer or device that
can digitally record the sound. To make MIDI scores, however, you will need
notation software (Figure A), sequencer software (Figure B), and a sound
synthesizer (typically built into the software of multimedia players in most
computers and many handheld devices). A MIDI keyboard is also useful for
simplifying the creation of musical scores.

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Rather than recording the sound of a note, MIDI software creates data about
each note as it is played on a MIDI keyboard (or another MIDI device)—which
note it is, how much pressure was used on the keyboard to play the note, how
long it was sustained, and how long it takes for the note to decay or fade away.
Ex.: This information, when played back through a MIDI device, allows the note
to be reproduced exactly. Because the quality of the playback depends upon
the end user’s MIDI device rather than the recording, MIDI is device dependent.
The sequencer software quantizes your score to adjust for timing
inconsistencies (a great feature for those who can’t keep the beat), and it may
also print a neatly penned copy of your score to paper.
An advantage of structured data such as MIDI is the ease with which you can
edit the data.
Scenario: Let’s say you have a piece of music being played on a honky-tonk
piano, but your client decides he wants the sound of a soprano saxophone
instead. If you had the music in digitized audio, you would have to re-record
and redigitize the music. When it is in MIDI data, however, there is a value that
designates the instrument to be used for playing back the music. To change
instruments, you just change that value.
Instruments that you can synthesize are identified by a General MIDI
numbering system that ranges from 0 to 127 as shown in the table below

Video:

Definition: Correlated sequence of images with respect to time.

Futures in range of multimedia application.
1. Entertainment: broadcast television and vcr/ dvd recordings;
2. Interpersonal: video telephony and video conferencing;
3. Interactive: window containing short video clips.
The quality of video required, however varies considerably from one
application to another.
Ex.: in case of video telephony, a small window on the screen of a PC is
acceptable while for a movie, a large screen format is preferable.
In practice there is not just a single standard associated with video but
set off standards each targeted at a particular video application.
All the different standards are based on basic principles that are associated
with Broadcast television.

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Broadcast television:

A color picture/image is produced from varying mixtures of the three primary

colors red, green and blue. The screen of the picture tube is coated with a set of
three different phosphors one for each color, each of which is activated by a
separate electron beam.
The three electron beams are scanned in unison across the screen from left to
right with a resolution of either 525 lines (NTSC) or 625 lines
(PAL/CCIR/SECAM). The total screen contents are then refreshed at a rate of
either 60 or 50 frames per second respectively, the rate being determined by
the frequency of the mains electricity supply used in the different countries.
The computer monitors uses the same picture tubes as those in broadcast
television receivers and hence operate in a similar way.
The three digitized color signals that make up a stored picture/image are read
from the computer memory in time-synchronism with the scanning operation
of the display tube and, after each complete scan of the display, the procedure
repeats so producing a flicker-free color image on the screen.
Practically Broadcast television operates slightly different than the above
logic
in terms of :
1. Scanning sequence used
2. Choice of color signal

Scanning Sequence:

It is necessary to use a minimum refresh rate of 50 times per second to avoid

flicker, but to produce a smooth motion, a refresh rate of 25 times per second is
sufficient.
In order to minimize the amount of transmission bandwidth that is required to
broadcast the television signal, the characteristic of the eye is exploited by
transmitting the image/picture associated with each frame in two halves.
Each is known as a field, the first comprising only the odd scan lines and the
second the even scan lines.
The two fields are then integrated together in the television receiver using a
technique known as interlaced scanning, the principles of which are shown
in Figure below
1. In a 525-line system each field comprises 262.5 lines out of which 240
are visible.
2. In a 625-line system each field comprises 312.5 lines out of which 288
are visible.

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Each field is refreshed alternately at 60/50 fields per second and hence the
resulting frame refresh rate is only 30/25 frames per second.
In this way, a refresh rate equivalent to 60/50 frames per second is achieved
but with only half the transmission bandwidth.

Color signals:

To support backward compatibility, the received signals associated with a

color television broadcast had to be such that they could be used by an existing
(unmodified) monochrome (black-and-white) television set to produce the
same picture in high-quality monochrome also a color television had to be able
to produce black-and-white pictures from monochrome broadcasts..
For above reasons a different set of color signals from R, G, and B were selected
for color television broadcasts.

Property of Color Source That The Eye Make of Are:

1. Brightness: It represents the amount of energy that stimulates the eye and
varies on a gray scale from black (lowest) through to white. It is independent of
the color of the source.
2. Hue: It represents the actual color of the source, each color has a
frequency/wavelength and the eye determines the color from that.
3. Saturation: this represents the strength or vividness of the color.

Term luminance is used to refer to the brightness of a source.

Term chrominance is used to refer to the hue and saturation, because they
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are concerned with its color.

A range of colors can be produced on a television display screen by varying the
magnitude of the three electrical signals that energize the red, green, and blue
phosphors.
If the magnitude of the three signals are in the proportion 0.299R+ 0.587G+
0.114B
then white color is produced on the display screen.
the luminance of a source is only a function of the amount of white light it
contains, for any color source its luminance can be determined by summing
together the three primary components that make up the color in this
proportion i.e.,
Here
 Ys = amplitude of the luminance signal.
 Rs, Gs, and Bs = magnitudes of the three color component signals that
make up the source.
From above analysis:
 Luminance signal is a measure of the amount of white light it contains; it
is the same as the signal used by a monochrome television.
 Two other signals, the blue chrominance (Cb), and the red chrominance
(Cr) are then used to represent the coloration hue and saturation of the
source.
 hue and saturation of the source are obtained from the two color difference
signals:

And

 As Y signal has been subtracted in both cases, above contain no brightness

information.
 As Y is a function of all three colors, then G can be readily computed from
these two signals.
 In this way, the combination of the three signals Y, Cb, and Cr contains all
the information that is needed to describe a color signal while at the same
time being compatible with monochrome televisions which use the
luminance signal only.

Chrominance Components:

 All color television systems use this same basic principle to represent the
coloration of a source; there are some small differences between the two
systems in terms of the magnitude used for the two chrominance signals.

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 The reason for the above is due to the constraint that the bandwidth of the
transmission channel for color broadcasts must be the same as that used for
monochrome.
 Thus, in order to fit the Y, Cb and Cr signals in the same bandwidth, the three
signals must be combined together for transmission. The resulting signal is
then known as the composite video signal.
 If the two color difference signals are transmitted at their original magnitudes,
the amplitude of the luminance signal can become greater than that of the
equivalent monochrome signal. This leads to a degradation in the quality of the
monochrome picture and hence is unacceptable.
 Solution:
1. To overcome this effect, the magnitude of the two color difference sign
are both scaled down.
2. Since they both have different levels of luminance associated with them,
the scaling factor used for each signal is different.
 The two color difference signals are referred to by different symbols in each
system:
 PAL system: Cb, and Cr are referred to as U and V respectively, scaling factors
used for the three signals are:
 NTSC system: two color difference signals are combined to form two different
signals referred to as I and Q, scaling factor used are:

Signal bandwidth:

 The bandwidth of the transmission channel used for color broadcasts must be
the
 same as that used for a monochrome broadcast.
 Thus, for transmission, the two chrominance signals must occupy the same
bandwidth as that of the luminance signal.
 Most of the energy associated with the luminance signal is in the lower part of
its frequency spectrum.
 Thus, in order to minimize the level of interference between the luminance and
two chrominance signals following steps are followed:
1. The chrominance signals are transmitted in the upper part of the
luminance frequency spectrum using two separate subcarriers.
2. To restrict the bandwidth used to the upper part of spectrum, a smaller
bandwidth is used for both chrominance signals.
3. Both of the two chrominance subcarriers have the same frequency they
are 90 degrees out of phase with each other.

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4. Each is modulated independently in both amplitude and phase by the

related chrominance signal.
 Using this technique, the two signals can use the same portion of the
luminance frequency spectrum.
 The baseband spectrum of a color television signal in NTSC systems is
shown in Figure below.

 NTSC system: the eye is more responsive to the I signal than the Q signal.
Hence to maximize the use of the available bandwidth while at the same
time minimizing the level of interference with the luminance signal, the I
signal has a modulated bandwidth of about 2MHz and the Q signal a
bandwidth of about I MHz.
 The baseband spectrum of a color television signal in PAL systems is shown
in Figure below.

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 PAL system: the larger luminance bandwidth about 5.5 MHz relative to 4.2
MHz allows both the U and V chrominance signals to have the same modulated
bandwidth which is about 3 MHz.
 As show in the figures above, the audio/sound signal is transmitted using one
or in separate subcarriers which are all just outside of the luminance signal
bandwidth. Typically, the main audio subcarrier is for mono sound and the
auxiliary subcarriers are used for stereo sound.
 When above signals are added to the baseband video signal, the composite
signal is called the complex baseband signal.

Digital video:

 In most multimedia applications the video signals need to be digital form since
it then becomes possible to store them in the memory of the computer and to
readily edit and integrate them with other media type.
 For transmission reasons the three component signals have to be combined for
analog television broadcasts, with digital television it is more usual to digitize
the three component signals separately prior to transmission.
 The above is done to enable editing and other operations readily performed.
 Since the three component signals are treated separately in digital
transmission, in principle it is possible simply to digitize the three RGB signals
make up the picture.
 Disadvantage of this approach:
 Same resolution in terms of sampling rate and bits per sample must be
used three signals i.e., RGB.
 Visual perception of the eye is less sensitive for color than it is for luminance
this means that the two chrominance signals can tolerate a reduced resolution
relative to that used for the luminance signal.
 Thus by using luminance and two color difference signals instead of the RGB
signals we can achieve significant saving in terms of:
1. Resulting bit rate.
2. Transmission bandwidth.
 Digitization of video signals has been carried out in television studios for many
years like to perform conversions from one video format into another.
 To standardize this process: The International Telecommunications Union
Radiocommunications Branch (ITU-R) formerly known as the Consultative
Committee for International Radiocommunications (CCIR) defined a
standard for the digitization of video pictures known as Recommendation
CCIR-601.

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 A number of variants of this standard have been defined for use in other
application domains such as digital television broadcasting, video telephony,
and videoconferencing. Collectively these are known as digitization formats.
 They all exploit the fact that the two chrominance signals can tolerate a
reduced resolution relative to that used for the luminance signal.

4:2:2 Format:

 This is the original digitization format used in television studios.

 Noninterlaced scanning is used.
 The three component (analog) video signals from a source in the studio can
have bandwidths of up to 6 MHz for the luminance signal and less than half
this for the two chrominance signals.
 To digitize these signals, it is necessary to use band-limiting filters of 6 MHz for
the luminance signal and 3 MHz for the two chrominance signals with a
minimum sampling rate of 12MHz (12 Msps) and 6 MHz respectively.
 In the standard, however, a line sampling rate of 13.5 MHz for luminance and
6.75 MHz for the two chrominance signals was selected, both of which are
independent of the particular scanning standard - NTSC, PAL and so on being
used.
 The 13.5MHz rate was chosen since it is the nearest frequency to 12 MHz
which results in a whole number of samples per line for both 525 and 625
line systems.
 The number of samples per line chosen is 702 and can be derived as follows:

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o In both cases, a sampling rate of 13.5MHz yields:

o In practice, the number of samples per line is increased to 720(for

luminance) by taking a slightly longer active line time which results in a
small number of black samples at the beginning and end of each line for
reference purposes. The corresponding number of samples for each of
the two chrominance signals is set at half this value; that is, 360
samples per active line.
o This result in 4Y samples for every 2Cb and 2Cr, samples which is the
origin of the term 4:2:2, the normally indicating the digitization is based
on the R, G, B signals.
o The number of bits per sample was chosen to be 8 for all three signals
which correspond to 256 quantization intervals.
o The vertical resolution for all three signals was also chosen to be the
same, the number being determined by the scanning system in use;
1. With 525-line system (NTSC): 480 lines (number of active/visible lines).
2. With 625-line system (PAL) : 576 lines (number of active/visible lines).

 Frame refresh rate selected:

1. With 525-line system: 60Hz
2. With 625-line system: 50Hz
 Since each line is sampled at a constant rate (13.5 and 6.75 MHZ) with a fixed
number of samples per line (720 and 360), the samples for each line are in a
fixed position which repeats from frame to frame. The samples are then
said to be orthogonal and the sample method orthogonal sampling.
 the sampling positions for each of the three signals relative to a rectangular
grid are as shown in Figure below:

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Problem: Derive the bit rate and the memory requirements to store each
frame that result from the digitization of both a 525 and 625 -line system
assuring a 4:2:2 format. Also find the total memory required to store a 1.5 hour
movie/video.
Solution
525-line system: The number of samples per line is 720 and the number of visible lines
is
480. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance {C b and Cr)
signals are:
Y= 720 x 480
Cb= Cr= 360 x 480
Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 13.5 MHz for Y and 6.75 MHz for both Cb
and Cr all with 8 bits per sample.
Thus,
Bit rate = 13.5 x 106 x8 + 2 (6.75 x 106 x 8) = 216Mbps.
Memory required: Memory required per line = 720 x 8 + 360 x 8 + 360 x 8
= 11520 bits or 1440 bytes
Hence memory per frame, each of 480 lines = 480 x 11520
= 5.5296Mbits or 69l.2kbytes
And memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 60 frames per second:
= 691.2 x 60 x 1.5 x 3600kbytes
= 223.9488Gbytes

625-line system: The number of samples per line is 720 and the number of visible lines
is
576. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance {Cb and Cr)
signals are:

Y = 720 x 576
Cb= Cr = 360 x 576
Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 13.5 MHz for Y and 6.75 MHz for both Cb
and Cr all with 8 bits per sample.
Thus,
Bir rate = 13.5 x 106 x8 + 2 (6.75 x 106 x 8) = 216Mbps.
Memory required: Memory required per line = 720 x 8 + 2 (360 x 8)
= 11520 bits or 1440 bytes
Hence memory per frame, each of 576 lines = 576 x 11520
= 6.63555Mbps or 829.44kbytes
and memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 50 frames per second:

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= 829.44 x 50 x 1.5 x 3600kbytes

= 223.9488Gbytes

4:2:0 format
 Derivative of the 4:2:2 format and is used in digital video broadcast
applications.
 Gives good picture quality.
 Uses the same set of chrominance samples for two consecutive lines.
 Interlaced scanning is used since it is intended for broadcast applications.
 Due to the absence of chrominance samples in alternative lines is origin of the
term 4:2:0.
 The position of the three sample instants per frame are as shown in Figure below.

 Thus it has same luminance resolution as the 4:2:2 format but half the
chrominance resolution:
 525 line system:
 625 line system:
 Bit rate in both the system with this format is:
 Above value is the worst-case bit rate since it includes samples during the
retrace times when the beam is switched off.
 To avoid flicker effects with the chrominance signals, the receiver uses the
same chrominance values from the sampled lines for the missing lines.
 With large-screen televisions, flicker effects are often reduced further by the
receiver storing the incoming digitized signals of each field in a memory buffer.

Problem: Derive the bit rate and the memory requirements to store each
frame that result from the digitization of both a 525 and 625-line system

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assuring a 4:2:0 format. Also find the total memory required to store a 1.5 hour
movie/video. 8 marks

Solution
525-line system: The number of samples per line is 720 and the number of visible lines
is
480. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance {Cb and Cr)
signals are:
Y= 720 x 480
Cb= Cr= 360 x 240
Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 13.5 MHz for Y and 3.375MHz for both Cb
and Cr all with 8 bits per sample.
Thus,
Bit rate = 13.5 x 106 x 8 +2 (3.375 x 106 x 8) = 162Mbps.

Memory required:
Memory required per frame for Y = 720 x 480 x 8 = 2.7648 Mbits
Memory required per frame for 360 x 240 x 8 x 2 = 1.3824 Mbits
Total Memory required per frame = Y + Cb + Cr
= 2.7648M + 1.3824M
= 4.1472 Mbits or 518.4 kbytes

And memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 60 frames per second:

= 518.4 kbytes x 60 x 1.5 x 3600
= 167.961 Gbytes

625-line system: The number of samples per line is 720 and the number of visible lines
is
572. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance {Cb and Cr)
signals are:
Y = 720 x 576
Cb= Cr = 360 x 288
Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 13.5 MHz for Y and 3.375 MHz for both Cb
and Cr all with 8 bits per sample.
Thus,
Bit rate = 13.5 x 106 x8 + 2 (3.375 x 106 x 8) = 162Mbps.
Memory required:
Memory required per frame for Y = 720 x 576 x 8 = 3.317 Mbits
Memory required per frame for 360 x 288 x 8 x 2 = 1.65Mbytes
Total Memory required per frame = Y + Cb + Cr

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= 3.317M + 1.65M
= 4.967 Mbits or 620.875 kbytes

And memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 50 frames per second

= 620.875 k x 50 x 1.5 x 3600
=167.961 Gbytes

HDTV formats:

 There is a number of alternative digitization formats associated with high-

definition television (HDTV).
 The resolution of those which relate to the older 4/3 aspect ratio tubes can be
up to 1440 x 1152 pixels and the resolution of those which relate to the newer
16/9 wide- screen tubes can be up to 1920 x 1152 pixels.
 In both cases, the number of visible lines per frame is 1080.
 Both use either the 4:2:2 digitization format for studio applications or the
4:2:0 format for broadcast applications.
 The corresponding frame refresh rate is either 50/60Hz with the 4:2:2 format
or 25/30 Hz with the 4:2:0 formats.
 The resulting worst case bit rates are four times the values derived in the
previous two sections and proportionally higher for the wide-screen format.

SIF format:
 Has been found to give a picture quality comparable with that obtained with
video cassette recorders (VCRs).
 It uses half the spatial resolution in both horizontal and vertical directions as
that used in the 4:2:0 format a technique known as subsampling.
 Uses half the refresh rate as that used in the 4:2:0 format known as temporal
resolution.
 Thus frame refresh rate is:
 For 525-line system: 30Hz
 For 625-line system: 25Hz
 Thus total resolution
is:
o 525 line system:
o 625 line system:
 The worst-case bit rate in both systems with this format is:
 At the receiver, the missing samples are estimated by interpolating between
each pair of values that are sent.
 This digitization format is known as 4:1:1.
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 Intended for storage applications, progressive (non-interlaced) scanning is

used.
 The positions of the three sampling instants per frame are as shown in Figure

below

Problem: Derive the bit rate and the memory requirements to store each
frame that result from the digitization of both a 525-line system assuring a
4:1:1 format. Also find the total memory required to store a 1.5 hour
movie/video.

Solution
525-line system: The number of samples per line is 360 and the number of visible lines
is
240. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance {C b and Cr)
signals are:
Y= 360 x 240
Cb= Cr= 180 x 120
Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 6.75 MHz for Y and 1.6785MHz for both Cb
and Cr all with 8 bits per sample.
Thus,
Bit rate = 6.75 x 106 x 8 + 2 (1.6785 x 106 x 8) = 81Mbps.
Memory required:
Memory required per frame for Y = 360 x 240 x 8 = 691.2 kbits
Memory required per frame for 180 x 120 x 8 x 2 =345.6 kbits
Total Memory required per frame = Y + Cb + Cr
= 691.2 k + 345.6 k
= 1.0368 Mbits or 129.6 kbytes

And memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 60 frames per second:

= 129.6 k x 60 x 1.5 x 3600
= 41.9904 Gbytes

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625-line system: The number of samples per line is 720 and the number of visible lines
is
572. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance {C b and Cr)
signals are:
Y = 360 x 288
Cb= Cr = 180 x 144
Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 6.75 MHz for Y and 1.6785MHz for both Cb
and Cr all with 8 bits per sample.
Thus,
Bit rate = 6.75 x 106 x 8 + 2 (1.6785 x 106 x 8) = 81Mbps.
Memory required:
Memory required per frame for Y = 360 x 288 x 8 = 829.44 kbits
Memory required per frame for 180 x 144 x 8 x 2 = 144.72 kbits
Total Memory required per frame = Y + Cb + Cr
= 829.44 k + 144.72 k
= 974.16 kbits or 121.77 kbytes

And memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 50 frames per second

= 121.77 kb x 50 x 1.5 x 3600
=32.8779 Gbytes
CIF:

 Common intermediate format (CIF) has been defined for videoconferencing

applications.
 It is derived from the SIF.
 Uses a combination of the spatial resolution used for the SIF in the 625-line
system the temporal resolution used in the 525-line system.
 Thus spatial resolution is:
 Uses a temporal resolution of 30 Hz.
 Progressive scanning is employed.
 The position of the sampling instants per frame is the same as for SIF is shown
below and hence the digitization format is 4:1:1.

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 The worst-case bit rate is the same as that of SIF and is given by:
 We can deduce from this, to convert to the CIF, a 525-line needs a line-rate
conversion and a 625-line system a frame-rate conversion.
 a number of higher-resolution derivative the CIF have also been defined since
there are a number of different types of videoconferencing applications
including those that involve a linked set of desktop PCs and those that involve
a linked set of videoconferencing studios.
 Most desktop applications use switched circuits, a typical bit rate used is a
single 64 kbps ISDN channel. For linking videoconferencing studios, however,
dedicated circuits are normally used that comprise multiple 64 kbps channels.
 As the bit rate of these circuits is much higher typically four or sixteen 64 kbps
channels then a higher-resolution version of the basic CIF can be used to
improve the quality of the video.

QCIF:
 The quarter CIF (QCIF) format has been defined for use in video telephony
applications.
 It is derived from the CIF.
 Uses half the spatial resolution of CIF in both horizontal and vertical directions.
 The temporal resolution is divided by either 2 or 4 fold of CIF.
 Spatial resolution is:
 Temporal resolution is either 15 or 7.5 Hz.
 The worst-case bit rate with this format is:

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 The positions of the three sampling instants per frame are as shown in Figure
below and, as we can see, it has the same 4:1:1 digitization format as CIF.

 A QCIF is intended for use with video telephony application involves a single
switched 64 kbps channels.
 In addition, there are lower-resolution versions of the QCIF which are
intended for use in applications that use lower bit rate channels such as that
provided by a modem and the PSTN.
 These lower-resolution versions are known as sub-QCIF or S-QCIF and is
given
 Here the sampling matrix appears sparse, in practice, only a small screen (or a
small window of a larger screen) is normally used for video telephony and
hence the total set of samples may occupy all the pixel positions on the screen
or window.

PC video:
 Number of multimedia applications that involve live video, use a window on
the screen of a PC monitor for display purposes.
 Ex.: desk video telephony, videoconferencing, and also video-in-a-window.
 for multimedia applications that involve mixing live video with other
information on a PC screen, the line sampling rate is normally modified in
order to obtain the required horizontal resolution like 640 (480 x pixels per
line with a 525-line PC monitor and 768 (576 x 4/3) pixels per with a 625-line
PC monitor.
 To achieve the necessary resolution with a 525-line monitor, the line sampling
rate is reduced from 13.5 MHz to 12.2727MHz while for a 625-line monitor,
the line sampling rate must be increased from 13.5 MHz to 14.75 MHz

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 In the case of desktop video telephony and videoconferencing, the video

signals from the camera are sampled at this rate prior to transmission and
hence can be displayed directly on a PC screen. In the case of a digital
television broadcast a conversion is necessary before the video is displayed.
 It is to be remembered that all PC monitors use progressive scanning rather
than interlaced scanning

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