Course Outline

Course Name Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Learning
Course Credit 3 Units
Pre-requisite None
Week 1 - 3 Nature of Language and Learning
 Definition of Language
 Nature of Language  What is Learning?
 Nature of Learning
 Language Acquisition vs Language Learning
 First Language Acquisition vs Second Language
Acquisition
Week 4 - 6 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning
Approaches
 Behaviorist theory
 Basic Language Learning
 Stages in Child Language Acquisition
 Cognitive Theory
 Social Interaction Theory
 Nature vs Nurture
Week 7 - 9 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and
Learning: The Functional Approaches
 Instrumental Function
 Regulatory Function
 Interactional Function
 Personal Function
 Representational/Informative Function
 Heuristic Function
 Imaginative function
Week 10 – 12 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and
Learning: Philosophies of Education
 How we view learning as teachers?
 Education Philosophies
 Idealism
 Realism
 Pragmatism
 Existentialism
Week 13 - 15 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and
Learning: Reading Approach
 Why reading is important in language
acquisition?
 Brief history of Reading Approach
 Reading Approach Theories of Language
(3 Main Theories of Language)
 Different Approaches in Teaching Reading
 The intensive and extensive reading approach
Week 16-18 Approaches to Language Teaching
 Purposes of Language Learning
Views on Language Teaching – Learning:
 Structural View of Language
 Functional View of Language
 Interactional View of Language
Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning
Course Description.

Language learning starts at birth. However, we wonder how children could possibly acquire language
as such a complex skill with very little experience of life. Rice, Bruehler, and Specker (2004) stated
that experiments have clearly identified an ability to distinguish syntactical shades of difference in very
young infants, although they are still at the prelinguistic stage. For example, children of three are able
to handle very complicated syntactical sentences, although they are unable to tie their own shoelaces.
So how do children learn to speak? This course will examine principles, factors, and contexts of
language acquisition and learning based on theories and research findings.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this course student should be able to:

1. To Identify various theories in first and second language acquisition.

2. To describe the stages of second language acquisition.
3. To differentiate between characteristics of language acquisition and language/learning
4. To understand the different approaches and functions of language acquisitions and learning.

Week 1 - 3. Nature of Language and Learning

Learning Objectives.

1. To define language and learning

2. To differentiate language learning from language acquisition.
3. To understand the nature of learning.

Discussion.

What is language?

Language is the process of exchanging of messages and creating meaning.

 Language Is part of culture.
Language is also intertwined with human biology. Characteristics of Human

Language

1. Language is a social tool.

2. Language must be learned.
3. The relationship between the sound of a language and their meaning is arbitrary
and dual.
4. Language has rules.
5. Language allows human to be creative.

Language acquisition vs Language Learning

Language is about communication and identity (Baker, 2000:26). We need language to transfer
and share information and to build relationships with the others. Bowen (1998) said that language is
called the symbolization of thought. It is a learned code, or system of rules that enables us to
communicate ideas and express wants and needs. Bowen further added that language falls into two
main divisions, receptive language (understanding what is said, written or signed) and expressive
language (related to speaking, writing or signing). Thus, language is simply defined by Richards et. al.
(1992, p. 196) as the system of human communication which consists of the structures arrangements
of sounds (or their written presentation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences,
utterances.

The process of perceiving language in an individual is by the processes of learning and

acquisition. Learning is a conscious process, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able
to talk about them. Whereas acquisition is a process by which children unconsciously acquire their
native/first language(s). In language acquisition, the focus is on communication or reception of a
message as opposed to syntax and grammar as is the case in language learning (Rice, Bruehler &
Specker, 2004). Ebert & Hawk (2003).

It is believed that the usual outcome of language acquisition is fluency, which is by no means
guaranteed in language learning.

Nature of Learning
1. Learning is a process.
2. Learning involves experiences and training of an individual which helps to change his
behavior.
3. Learning prepares the individual to adjust and adopt in the situations.
4. All learning is purposeful and goal oriented.
5. Learning is universal and continuous.
6. It is a continuous process and never- ending process that goes from womb to tomb.

7 Principles in Learning (Dumont et. al. 2010)

1. Learners at the center.

2. The social nature of learning.
3. Emotions are integral to learning.
4. Recognizing individual difference.
5. Stretching all students.
6. Assessment for learning.
7. Building horizontal connections.
First Language Acquisition vs Second Language Acquisition

The expected cry of a newborn baby is the first sign of human communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as a running parallel throughout a child’s life every day. She/he learns
to communicate through natural interactions with his/her environment. The process begins in the early
live of a human and requires a healthy start, sufficient opportunities, and exposure to a care giving
environment that allows the child’s innate predisposition to learn to communicate to functions (Rossetti,
2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world’s population today uses more than one language while being
connected to fundamental human activities. Bilingualism symbolizes the essential humanity of building
bridges between people of different color, creed, culture and language (Baker, 2000, p.5).

Baker (2000) stated children are born ready to become bilinguals and multilingual. They are like
“sponges”, as they sponges-up all languages provided by their environment and chances to interact
with people of different language backgrounds. They would pick-up any language without endangering
their own first language development. Lambert (1962) said that bilingual activity does not retard
intelligence (in Garcia, 1986).

To enhance children’s bilingualism, a lot of stimulations to language are essential. In some

situations, producing bilingual children is easy and natural, in others it can be a struggle. A lot of factors
affect the process, such as encouragements from both of the parents at home and the community. In
bilingual and multilingual community, there is a great need to master two or more languages for
operating daily activities successfully. Therefore, this situation strongly supports the children’s
bilingualism. Language engineering or shaping is important in families that judge bilingualism as a
challenge. This means that it is important that children’s attitudes towards their languages are
motivated and encouraged continuously. A variety of pleasurable environment for language growth is
very important.

Week 4 – 6. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Approaches

Learning Objectives.
1. To determine the theory of behaviorism
2. To understand the behaviorism theory in language acquisition and Learning.
3. To analyze the theory of behaviorist theory.

The Principle of Behaviorist Theory

Behaviorism is a learning theory that studies observable and measurable behavioral changes, which
result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner.

This theory stems from the work of Pavlov who studied animal behavior, and was able to condition a
dog to associate the ringing of a bell with food. Pavlovian conditioning is known as classical
conditioning.

Pavlov's premise was later developed by Thorndike, Watson and Skinner. Skinner introduced the
theory of operant conditioning (i.e., a behavior followed by a reinforcer result in an increased probability
of that behavior occurring in the future; a behavior followed by a punishment is weakened or
suppressed in the future).

Behaviorism in the classroom

Behaviorist techniques have long been applied in educational practices, especially in classroom and
behavior management.

The learning process, according to Behaviorism, places the teacher in a primary role wherein he or she
adjusts the learner's behavior and directs learning through drill and practice, through habit-breaking,
and punishment/reward.

Conversely, the learner's activity, be it thinking or doing, is confined to the framework of "behavior", and
is governed by the stimulus-response-reinforcement process.
Examples: In Behaviorism

1. Follow the instructions.

2. Take the test.
3. Get the reward.
4. Learn.

BEHAVIORIST THEORY ON LANGUAGE LEARNING AND ACQUISITION

Introduction

There are some basic theories advanced to describe how language is acquired, learnt and taught. The
behaviorist theory, Mentalist theory (Innatism), Rationalist theory (otherwise called Cognitive theory),
and Interactionism are some of these theories. Of these, behaviorist theory and mentalist theory are
mainly applicable to the acquisition of native languages while the rest can account for foreign language
acquisition. Yet, these four fundamental theories of language acquisition cannot be totally divorced
from each other, for "the objectives of second language learning are not necessarily entirely
determined by native language competence inevitably serves as a foil against which to set second
language learning." (H.H. Stem, .1983; 30). Mother Tongue and Foreign Language Learning

These five basic theories are, furthermore, very much complementary to each other, serving different
types of learners or representing various cases of language learning. They must not automatically
make us presume that first and second language learning are identical or alike processes, though
second language learning is strongly tied up with first language acquisition. Obviously, native language
growth must pave the way for foreign language growth. Then these five basic language learning
theories are fundamental pillars of language learning whose relevance to education is undeniable.

The Principle of the Behaviorist Theory

The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role models through
a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s environment
provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempts oral language or
imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts.
Thus, praise and affection become the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a
variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development, what about the
parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning
is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter &
Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include “learning the use and meaning of abstract
words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language
acquisition in humans” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).

The Background of the Behaviorist Theory

The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role models
through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s
environment provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempts oral
language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for
their efforts. Thus, praise and affection become the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is
scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development,
what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s
language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of
rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)?

Other cases against this theory include “learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of
novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans”
(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). Behaviorist theory, which is basically a psychological theory in its essence,
founded by J.B.Watson, is actually a theory of native language learning, advanced in part as a reaction
to traditional grammar. The supporters of this theory are Leonard Bloomfield, O.N. Mowrer,
B.F.Skinner, and A.W. Staats. Behaviorism was advanced in America as a new approach to
psychology in the early decades of the 20th-century by making a particular emphasis on the
importance of verbal behavior, and received a considerable trust from the educational world of
1950s.The major principle of the behaviorist theory rests on the analyses of human behavior in
observable stimulus-response interaction and the association between them. E.L.T. Thorndike was the
first behaviorist to explore the area that learning is the establishment of associations on particular
process of behavior and consequences of that behavior. Basically, "the behaviorist theory of stimulus-
response learning, particularly as developed in the operant conditioning model of Skinner, considers all
learning to be the establishment of habits as a result of reinforcement and reward" (Wilga Rivers, 1968,
73). This is very reminiscent of Pavlov's experiment which indicates that stimulus and response work
together. According to this category, the babies obtain native language habits via varied babblings
which resemble the appropriate words repeated by a person or object near him. Since for his babblings
and mutterings he is rewarded, this very reward reinforces further articulations of the same sort into
grouping of syllables and words in a similar situation. In this way, he goes on emitting sounds, groups
of sounds, and as he grows up he combines the sentences via generalizations and analogy (as
in*goed for went, *doed,for did,so on), which in some complicated cases, condition him to commit
errors by articulating in permissible structures in speech. By the age of five or six, or babblings and
mutterings grow into socialized speech but little by little they are internalized as implicit speech, and
thus many of their utterances become indistinguishable from the adults. This, then, obviously, means
that behaviorist theory is a theory of stimulus-response psychology. “Through a trial-and error process,
in which acceptable utterances are reinforced by comprehension and approval, and un acceptable
utterances are inhibited by the lack of reward, he gradually learns to make finer and finer
discriminations until his utterances approximate more and more closely the speech of the community in
which he is growing up (Wilga M. Rivers,1968; 73).
To put it in other words, children develop a natural affinity to learn the language of their social
surroundings whose importance both over language learning and teaching must never be
underestimated. In this respect behaviorist theory stresses the fact that "human and animal learning is
a process of habit formation. A highly complex learning task, according to this theory may be learned
by being broken' down into small habits. These are formed correct or incorrect responses, are
rewarded or, punished, respectively'. (Hubbard Jones and Thornton Wheeler, 1983; 326). Thus, it is
clear that the acquisition of learning in infancy is governed the acquisition of other habits.

Stages of Language Acquisition

Stages of Language Acquisition

There are four main stages of normal language acquisition: The babbling stage, the Holophrastic or
one-word stage, the two-word stage and the Telegraphic stage. These stages can be broken down
even more into these smaller stages: pre-production, early production, speech emergent, beginning
fluency intermediate fluency and advanced fluency. On this page I will be providing a summary of the
four major stage of language acquisition.

Babbling

Within a few weeks of being born the baby begins to recognize its mothers’ voice. There are two sub-
stages within this period. The first occurs between birth – 8 months. Most of this stage involves the
baby relating to its surroundings and only during 5/6 – 8-month period does the baby begin using its
vocals. As has been previously discussed babies learn by imitation and the babbling stage is just that.
During these months the baby hears sounds around them and tries to reproduce them, albeit with
limited success. The babies attempt at creating and experimenting with sounds is what we call
babbling. When the baby has been babbling for a few months, it begins to relate the words or sounds it
is making to objects or things. This is the second sub-stage. From 8 months to 12 months the baby
gains more and more control over not only it’s vocal communication but physical communication as
well, for example body language and gesturing. Eventually when the baby uses both verbal and non-
verbal means to communicate, only then does it move on to the next stage of language acquisition.

Holophrastic / One-word stage

The second stage of language acquisition is the holophrastic or one word stage. This stage is
characterized by one-word sentences. In this stage nouns make up around 50% of the infant’s
vocabulary while verbs and modifiers make up around 30% and questions and negatives make up the
rest. This one-word stage contains single word utterances such as “play” for “I want to play now”.
Infants use these sentences primarily to obtain things they want or need, but sometimes they aren’t
that obvious. For example, a baby may cry or say “mama” when it purely wants attention. The infant is
ready to advance to the next stage when it can speak in successive one-word sentences.

Two-Word Stage

The two-word stage (as you may have guessed) is made of up primarily two-word sentences. These
sentences contain 1 word for the predicate and 1 word for the subject. For example, “Doggie walk” for
the sentence “The dog is being walked.” During this stage we see the appearance of single modifiers
e.g. “That dog”, two-word questions e.g., “Mummy eat?” and the addition of the suffix –ing onto words
to describe something that is currently happening e.g. “Baby Sleeping.”

Telegraphic Stage

The final stage of language acquisition is the telegraphic stage. This stage is named as it is because it
is similar to what is seen in a telegram; containing just enough information for the sentence to make
sense. This stage contains many three- and four-word sentences. Sometime during this stage, the
child begins to see the links between words and objects and therefore over generalization comes in.
Some examples of sentences in the telegraphic stage are “Mummy eat carrot”, “What her name?” and
“He is playing ball.” During this stage a child’s vocabulary expands from 50 words to up to 13,000
words. At the end of this stage the child starts to incorporate plurals, joining words and attempts to get
a grip on tenses.
As a child’s grasp on language grows it may seem to us as though they just learn each part in a
random order, but this is not the case. There is a definite order of speech sounds. Children first start
speaking vowels, starting with the rounded mouthed sounds like “oo” and “aa”. After the vowels come
the consonants, p, b, m, t, d, n, k and g. The consonants are first because they are easier to
pronounce then some of the others, for example ‘s’ and ‘z’ require specific tongue place which children
cannot do at that age.

As all human beings do, children will improvise something they cannot yet do. For example, when
children come across a sound, they cannot produce they replace it with a sound they can e.g., ‘Thoap”
for “Soap” and “Wun” for “Run.” These are just a few examples of resourceful children are, even if in
our eyes it is just cute.

How do children learn to speak? Behavioural theory assumes that children imitate what they hear, and
thanks to continuous, positive reinforcement, children learn language through conditioning and habit
formation. Behaviourist theorists such as Skinner also claim that all errors during first language
acquisition are due to ‘bad habit formation,’ which, in due course, children correct as they hear and
imitate accurate speech. In contrast to behaviourists, ‘nativists,’ like Chomsky, believe that human
beings are born with an innate capacity for language development.

Deliberations continue between linguists regarding the importance of ‘nature’ over ‘nurture’ in
acquisition of language.
Language Acquisition as a Result of Nurture

Behaviourists propose that a child’s environment is the most important factor in first language
acquisition, and if a child is exposed to ‘rich language,’ then ‘good habit formation,’ and proper
language development will occur. It is possible that first language acquisition includes speech imitation,
but:
·
Children do not imitate everything they hear; they appear to be very selective and only reproduce
unassimilated language chunks. Therefore, their replications seem to be controlled by an internal
language-monitoring process.
·
 Children learn the basic rules of language at around the age of five; the behaviourist theory cannot
account for the speed that first language is acquired.
·
Children say things that are not adult imitations; in particular they use inflectional over generalizations
such as ‘goed,’ ‘putted,’ ‘mouses,’ and ‘sheep.’
· Children produce language structures that do not exist; you often hear, “Where I am?” instead of
“Where am I?”
· Children that acquire language from habit formation seem to memorize certain structures
prematurely. These phrases become lodged in their minds as unassimilated chunks of information that
they cannot incorporate into their own verbal expressions.

· Children produce many more sound-combinations than they hear, and understand many more than
they can produce.

· Children are exposed to language performance and not to language competence. Often, they are
exposed to “debilitated” language, yet, they manage to extract the language rules from these
utterances and speak correctly.

We are Wired to Acquire Language

“When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the ‘human essence,’ the
distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man.” (Noam Chomsky)

Unlike the behaviourist approach that does not take into consideration the child’s own cognitive
processes, the ‘Innateness Hypothesis’ proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky supports the idea that
language acquisition has a biological foundation. Facts that support this theory include the following:

· Children acquire language sounds in a certain sequence, and the first sounds that children learn are
those that are common to all world languages: a stop consonant followed by an open vowel: thus, a
child’s first utterances are usually those found in words for ‘mother’ and ‘father,’ sounds such as ‘pa,’
‘ma,’ ‘ba’ or ‘ta,’ as seen in French: maman, papa; Greek: mama, baba; Hebrew: eema, aba.

· Children tend to learn language in the same sequence, suggesting that universality of language exists
and the environment alone cannot be responsible for language acquisition.
·
Children acquire function words such as ‘or’ and ‘on’ and the less salient sounds connected to
possessives, pluralization and third person singular in a certain order. Interestingly, the plural ‘s’ and
other forms of ‘s’ are not all developed in unison.
Language Development: An Innate Neurological Process

For language development to occur, interaction has to take place; language cannot be acquired
passively. Although imitation and habit forming do have a role in language acquisition, children seem
predisposed to acquire speech and competency in language by being able to map language, possibly
onto what Noam Chomsky calls a ‘language acquisition device.’

Week 7 – 9. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:

The Functional Approaches

Learning Objectives.

1. To identify the different language approaches under functional approach

2. To understand the theory of Hallidays.
3. To discuss the theory of Hallidays and its importance in language acquisition and
learning

Discussion:

Several attempts have been made to catalogue the different functions of language, and to chart
child language development in terms of the increasing range of these functions to be found in the
growing child’s repertoire. Michael Halliday’s taxonomy is documented below: - Instrumental: Language
used to fulfil a need on the part of the speaker. Directly concerned with obtaining food, drink and
comfort.
 – Regulatory: Language used to influence the behavior of others. Concerned with
persuading / commanding / requesting other people to do things you want.
– Interactional: Language used to develop social relationships and ease the process of
interaction. Concerned with the phatic dimension of talk.
– Personal: Language used to express the personal preferences and identity of the
speaker. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Here I am!’ function – announcing oneself to the world.
– Representational: Language used to exchange information. Concerned with relaying or
requesting information.
– Heuristic: Language used to learn and explore the environment. Child uses language
to learn; this may be questions and answers, or the kind of running commentary that frequently
accompanies children’s play.
– Imaginative: Language used to explore the imagination. May also accompany playas
children create imaginary worlds, or may arise from storytelling.
Halliday’s Functions of Language

Function Examples Classroom

Experiences
Instrumental "I want to ..." Problem solving,
language is used to gathering materials,

role playing,
communicate preferences, persuading
choices, wants, or needs

Personal "Here I am ...."

language is used to Making feelings
express individuality public and
interacting with
others
 "You and me ...." Structured play,
"I'll be the cashier, dialogues and
Interactional language ...." discussions,
is used to interact and talking in groups
plan, develop, or
maintain a play or
group activity or social
relationship

Regulatory "Do as I tell you ...."

language is used to making rules in
"You need ...."
control games, giving
instructions,
teaching

Representational "I'll tell you."

Use language to explain "I know." Conveying
messages,
telling about the real
world, expressing a
proposition

Question and
"Tell me why ...."
Heuristic answer, routines,
"Why did you do inquiry and research
language is used to find
things out, wonder, or that?"
hypothesize
"What for?"

Imaginative "Let's pretend ...." Stories and

language is used to "I went to my dramatizations,
create, explore, and grandma's last rhymes, poems, and

entertain night." riddles, nonsense

and word play

How did you learn to speak your native language? Notice that this shouldn't be such a puzzling
question. We often ask questions such as, do you remember when you learned to tie your shoes, ride
a bike, and eat with a fork? Sometimes we can remember because a parent helped us learn how to do
these things.
 Now, since we always speak the language of our parents, they must have helped us learn to
speak our first language. But do you remember when your mother taught you the past tense? When
your father laid down the rules for passive sentences? We don't remember these important moments of
our childhood because they never occurred.

Our parents didn't teach us how to walk and they didn't teach us how to talk. Yet we learned
from them. How can this be? Certainly, there must have been a subtle, perhaps intuitive teaching
process that neither our parents nor we were aware of. We begin by imitating what we hear our parents
say as best we can, repeating random phrases. Our parents in subtle ways punish us for the childish
speech errors we make (by not responding, correcting the error, etc.) and reward correct phrases (by
responding positively). As our speech improves, our parents respond more positively and less
negatively. No?

First, let's examine the assumption that children begin speaking by trying to repeat what they have
heard their parents say. Have you ever heard a child say things like this:

Daddy go
He hitted me!
No eat cake
So, can I finish his eggs? Who did they hear utter such phrases? "Daddy go" is an attempt to express
'Daddy is going'. But if the child were merely trying to repeat this common phrase, choosing random
two-word combinations, he or she would also occasionally say "Daddy is" or simply "is going"? Yet
these two phrases do not occur as normal speech errors of children while "Daddy go" is a common
one.
Second, research shows that while mothers often respond to the semantic content of what their
children say ("No, that's not a doggie; it's a cow"), they very rarely respond to the grammatical status of
their children's phrases. Indeed, when parents do respond to speech errors, they most often respond
positively. Here are a few advanced errors from the history of my family. What do you think our
response was—correction or laughter (which I take to be a positive response)?
Mama, mama, there's a tree-knocker in the back yard!

It's raining, where is the umbrella?

Give me the beach-lookers! (binoculars)

In fact, parents themselves make grammatical errors when they speak. Despite the fact that children
don't know when their parents are speaking grammatically and when they are making errors, all
children grow up knowing (if not always speaking) the language perfectly.

So how do we learn to speak? Recall the example above, "He hitted me." Although hitted is not a word
children hear adults utter, it is wrong for an interesting reason: the verb, in a sense, has the "right"
ending on it for the past tense. In other words, the only way a child learning language could make such
an error is that he or she is learning a rule that derives past tense verbs from verb stems. What the
child hasn't mastered at this stage is the exceptions to the rule. Still, it shows that children look for and
learn grammatical rules from nothing more than the utterances they hear.

Notice also that the words in the erroneous phrases are all in the correct order. No child would say "go
Daddy" for "Daddy is going" or "cookie mommy" for "Mommy's cookie". By the time a child begins
putting two words together, he or she has already mastered the basic rules of syntax and applies them
correctly even in their erroneous speech. It takes the child a little longer to master the rules of
morphology, i.e., affixes and suffixes.

The evidence then indicates that children do, in fact, absorb a massive number of sentences and
phrases but rather than parrot them back, they abstract rules from them and create their own grammar
which they then apply to create new utterances they have never heard before. Over the years from 2-6,
when language is mastered, children constantly adjust their grammar until it matches that of the adult
speaker population.

This critical period between the ages of 2-6 suggests that first language learning, like walking, is an
innate capacity of human beings triggered by a level of development more than feedback from the
environment. Can I have it? That is, so long as a child hears a language–any language–when they
reach this critical period they will learn it perfectly. If this is true, any child not hearing language during
this period not only should not learn to speak but also should not be able to learn to speak. The ethical
implications of research on this question are obvious. However, there have been a few tragic non-
scientific bits of evidence that supports the innateness + critical period hypothesis.

The first bit of evidence comes from the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron, Victor. Victor is the name given
to a boy found roaming the woods of Averyon in southern France toward the end of September 1799.
He behaved like a wild animal and gave all indications that he had been raised by wild animals, eating
off the floor, making canine noises, disliking baths and clothes. He also could not speak. He was taken
in by Doctor Jean Marc Itard who had developed a reputation for teaching the deaf to speak. However,
after years of work, Itard failed to teach Victor to more than a few basic words without correct endings,
the indicators of grammar.

A similar event unfolded in Los Angeles in November 1970 when a 13-year-old girl was discovered
who had been isolated in a baby crib most of her life and never spoken to. She was physically
immature, but had difficulty walking and could not speak. Psychologists at UCLA spent years trying to
teach "Genie" (as they called her to protect her identity) to speak. While Genie did get to the point
where she could communicate, her speech never advanced beyond the kind of constructions we saw
in the first set of examples above, the point where the language explosion in normal children begins. In
other words, she could use words to the same extent as chimpanzees but could not manipulate
grammar, as indicated in the prefixes, suffixes and 'function' words missing in the first set of examples
above. At middle age she stopped talking altogether and was soon committed to a mental institution.
The evidence is not conclusive but, such as it is, it suggests that language is an innate capacity of
human beings which is acquired during a critical period between 2-6. After that period, it becomes
increasingly more difficult for humans to learn languages.

Week 10 – 12. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Learning: Philosophies of Education

Learning Objectives.

1. To recognize the common philosophies of education

2. To explain the involvement of philosophies of education in developing child’s language
acquisition and learning
3. To analyze the theories of language learning presented by experts.
Discussion.

Language. It’s all around us. It’s vital for our everyday existence.

And yet many of us find it challenging to pick up a new one.

The problem, we tell ourselves, is that we’re thinking too hard.

The solution, we say, is to be more like those kids that we once were when we learned our first
language. Simply absorbing things, the way kids do without really thinking about the language must
surely be our best bet, we convince ourselves.

But here’s the thing. We’re not kids anymore and we never will be again.

We’re not going to have the same opportunities as we did in our native language where we were in
constant contact with mothers, fathers and siblings who corrected our every mistake (though a
girlfriend or boyfriend might compensate). Nor do most of us want to spend 18 years of our lives
studying a language just to achieve high school level fluency.

We don’t need to abandon the lessons we’ve taken from childhood language learning, but we must
surely temper them with something else. And that thing is theory.

Theory, that most highly condensed form of thought based on principles and evidence, can help us as
adults to excel in language learning in ways that would otherwise not be possible.

Of course, learning about language learning theory in no way needs to occupy the bulk of your time. By
devoting just, a fraction of your time to theory right now, you’ll reap benefits far beyond getting in an
extra 10 minutes of studying. So, without further ado, let’s start at the beginning.

7 Great Theories About Language Learning

Theories of language learning have been bandied about since about as far back as one would care to
look. It may be surprising to know that the problems that philosophers in Ancient Greece and 16th
century France were concerned about are largely still relevant today.

To get a quick rundown of early language learning theory, let’s take a quick look at the ideas of three
brilliant philosophers who you’ve probably already heard of.

1. Plato’s Problem
The writings of Plato stretch all the way back to the beginnings of Western philosophical thought, but
Plato was already posing problems critical to modern linguistic discourse.

In the nature versus nurture debate, Plato tended to side with nature, believing that knowledge was
innate.

This was his answer to what has become known as Plato’s Problem, or as Bertrand Russell
summarizes it: “How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal
and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as they do know?” Being born with this knowledge
from the get-go would naturally solve this little quandary and consequently he viewed language as
innate.

2. Cartesian Linguistics, by Descartes

Centuries later, the French philosopher Descartes took a crack at linguistic philosophy. In his opinion,
language acquisition was a simple and easy process, barely worthy of his attention. Like Plato he
believed in the innateness of language because he thought it reflected the general rationality of human
beings.

But rather than Descartes himself, it was the rationalist movement that he symbolized and that was
thriving in the time period when he lived that was most important for linguistics. This “Cartesian”
movement, according to Chomsky (who we’ll get to later), noted the creativity involved in everyday
language and presented the idea that there were universal principles behind every language.

3. Locke’s Tabula Rasa

Most people familiar with Locke’s philosophy have heard of his concept of tabula rasa, or the blank
slate.
To state it briefly and in a simplified manner, this is the idea that all knowledge comes from outside
ourselves through sensory experience rather than through innate knowledge that we have at birth. This
naturally carried over to language theory with Locke rejecting the idea that there was an innate logic
behind language.

Obviously these theories don’t touch too much on the practical, everyday level of language learning.
They’re far less detailed and more philosophical than the modern scientific theories we’re used to. But
they have important implications. If Plato and the Cartesians are right, then the emphasis in language
learning must lie on what we already know, using our innate abilities to come to an understanding of
the particularities of a specific language. If Locke is right, then we must focus our attention on sensory
input, gaining as much external input as possible.

In the practical, everyday world, all of this can easily be done with FluentU. FluentU takes real-world
videos with familiar formats—like movie trailers, music videos, news and inspiring talks—and turns
them into personalized language lessons.

4. Skinner’s Theory of Behaviorism

In the middle of the 20th century, B.F. Skinner took Locke’s ideas of sensory input and ran with them.

According to behaviorism, a radical variant of which was put forward by Skinner, all behavior is no
more than a response to external stimuli and there’s no innate programming within a human being to
learn a language at birth.

What differentiates Skinner from those who came before him is the level of detail he went into when
connecting behaviorism and language learning. In his concept of what he called “operant conditioning,”
language learning grew out of a process of reinforcement and punishment whereby individuals are
conditioned into saying the right thing. For instance, if you’re hungry and you’re able to say “Mommy,
I’m hungry,” you may be rewarded with food and your behavior will thereby be reinforced since you got
what you wanted.

To put it another way, Skinner described a mechanism for language learning that hadn’t existed before
on the tabula rasa side of the language acquisition debate. What this means for us as language
learners, should his theory be even partially true, is that a process of conditioning must be achieved for
us to succeed. When we say the right thing, we must be rewarded. When we say something
incorrectly, that too must be made clear. In other words, we need feedback to succeed as language
learners.

5. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar

Around the same time as Skinner there came another linguistic powerhouse who would leave a lasting
impression on the field of linguistics. Namely, Noam Chomsky.

The theory that Chomsky proposed would be called Universal Grammar and it would assert nearly the
exact opposite of what Skinner had offered in his theory. Where Skinner saw all learning coming from
external stimuli, Chomsky saw an innate device for language acquisition. What Skinner understood to
be conditioning according to particular events Chomsky, understood to be the result of the universal
elements that structure all languages.

In fact, one of Chomsky’s major bones to pick with Skinner’s theory had to do with Plato’s problem, as
described above. After all, if Skinner is right, how is it that children can learn a language so quickly,
creating and understanding sentences they have never heard before?

Universal Grammar has been around for roughly a half a century by now, so it’s hardly the last word on
the subject. It has also received plenty of criticism. One critique that particularly concerns us is that it
may have little to do with learning a second language, even if it’s how we learn a first language. There
are certainly theories about applying this concept to organize syllabi for language learning, but this
seems unnecessarily complex for the average, independent learner.

In short, while Chomsky’s theory may be still be important in the linguistics field as part of an ongoing
discussion, it offers little help for learning a second language other than to provide you with the
confidence that the grammar for all languages is already inside your head. You just need to fill in the
particulars.

Over the past half century or so, a slew of other language learning theories have cropped up to try to
deal with the perceived flaws in Chomsky’s theory and to fill in the cracks for more specific areas of
language learning (i.e. areas of particular interest to us).
Next up are two theories that, while not the philosophical bombshells like the ones listed above,
arguably have more of a practical edge.
6. Schumann’s Acculturation Model
John Schumann’s Acculturation Model describes the process by which immigrants pick up a new
language while being completely immersed in that language.

This theory doesn’t deal with the process of language learning as we normally think of it (such as how
we acquire grammar or listening skills), but rather focuses on social and psychological aspects that
influence our success.

For instance, an immigrant is more likely to acquire their new target language if their language and the
target language are socially equal, if the group of immigrants is small and not cohesive and if there is a
higher degree of similarity between the immigrant’s culture and that of their new area of residence.

The obvious takeaway is that language learning is not an abstract subject like physics that can be
learned out of a book regardless of the world around you. There are sociological factors at play, and
the more we do to connect with the culture on the other end of our second language, the faster and
easier it will be for us to learn that language.

7. Krashen’s Monitor Model

Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model in fact consists of several distinct hypotheses which make up what is
probably the most cited theory in second language acquisition. There’s so much to take away from
Krashen’s theory that I’ll just let you peruse the link given for details and give a rundown of the
highlights here.

Language acquisition is subconscious and results from informal, natural communication.

Language learning is conscious and driven by error correction (more formal).

Grammar structures are acquired in a predictable order.

Language acquisition occurs with comprehensible input (i.e., hearing or reading things that are just
slightly above our current language level).
A monitor is anything that corrects your language performance and pressures one to “communicate
correctly and not just convey meaning” (such as a language teacher who corrects you when you make
a grammatical mistake).
It should be noted that this is just Krashen’s theory. While this theory is quite popular, there has been
criticism and direct contradiction of certain parts of it (particularly his idea about the predictable order of
grammar structures). Still, it’s useful to get ideas for language learning.

This theory suggests that we should both strive to increase our second language inputs (like by
watching video clips on Fluent and going through books for reading) and make sure we receive proper
error correction in one form or another.

As this selection of important theories should make clear, the subset of linguistics which deals with
language learning is both wide and deep.

Some of it is highly theoretical and complex and is most relevant to scholars of the field. Other parts
are extremely zoomed in and tell us highly specific details about how to learn a language.

Regardless, it’s all connected.

By understanding more bits and pieces of it all, you’ll gradually begin to understand yourself and your
own language learning process better than ever before.

The philosophy of education examines the goals, forms, methods, and meaning of education. The term
is used to describe both fundamental philosophical analysis of these themes and the description or
analysis of particular pedagogical approaches. Considerations of how the profession relates to broader
philosophical or sociocultural contexts may be included. The philosophy of education thus overlaps
with the field of education and applied philosophy.

For example, philosophers of education study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values
and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of
education as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational theory and practice.

Idealism
 Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origins go back to ancient India in
the East, and to Plato in the West. Its basic viewpoint stresses the human spirit as the most important
element in life. The universe is viewed as essentially non material in its ultimate nature. Although
Idealist philosophers vary enormously on many specifics, they agree on the following two points; the
human spirit is the most important element in life; and secondly the universe is essentially non material
in its ultimate nature. Idealism should not be confused with the notion of high aspirations that is not
what philosophers mean when they speak of Idealism. In the philosophic sense, Idealism is a system
that emphasizes the pre-eminent importance of mind, soul, or spirit. It is possible to separate Idealism
into different schools, but for our purposes we shall be content to identify only the most general
assumptions of the Idealists in metaphysics, epistemology, and value theory, without regard to the
idiosyncrasies of the various schools.

If we study the basic principles, Idealism puts forth the argument that reality, as we perceive it,
is a mental construct. It means that experiences are result of sensory abilities of the human mind and
not because reality exists in itself, as an independent entity. In the philosophical term this means that
one cannot know the existence of things beyond the realm of the intellect. Plato describes “reality” in
his Theory of Forms. For him the “Form” is actual substance of 'Things' which 'Formed' matter and
perceptible reality. Plato wants convey the message that matter is real and can be experienced as a
rational living entity; it is not a mere projection of consciousness. According to Knight (1998) Augustine
(354-430), Rene Descartes (1596-1650), George Berkeley and the German philosopher Immanuel
Kant and George William Hegel are the prominent names who represent idealism.

Berkeley and Kant have interpreted idealism in very different ways. Kant described idealism as
transcendent, whereas Berkeley called it 'immaterialism' which is commonly termed as subjective
materialism. George Berkeley says that the material world exists because there is a mind to perceive it
and that things which are not within the conceptual framework of the human mind cannot be deemed
real. Berkeley admits that objects exist, but their presence in the physical realm is as long as there is a
mind to perceive them. For this Berkeley has used a Latin phrase 'Esse est percipi' (to be perceived).
On the other hand, Kant is of the opinion that reality exists independently of human minds but its
knowledge is inherently unknowable to man because of sensory filters in our consciousness. These
filters slow down our ability to see the 'thing in itself'. Thus, our ultimate perception of things is always
through the mind's fixed frame of reference (Shahid, 2008).
Idealism and Curriculum

According to idealism the teacher is the symbol or model of good character, he is the masters of all sort
of knowledge, so the teacher has the central role in the teaching-learning (Singh, 2007). The teacher
has right to choose suitable content from the available literature and to teach. The student is a passive
receptor, who has to gain the knowledge transferred by the knowledge. The teacher certifies the
disciple at the successful completion of education as per the above given age levels (Singh).

Idealism and aim of Education

Plato says that to become a philosopher or king, a person has to go through all the processes of
education. He describes the aim of education as to drag every man out of the cave as far as possible.
Education should not aim at putting knowledge into the soul, but at turning the soul toward right desires
continuing the analogy (similarity) between mind and sight. The overarching goal of the city is to
educate those with the right natures; so that they can turn their minds sharply towards the Form of the
Good. The philosophers must return periodically into the cave (society) and rule there. Aristotle says
that education is essential for complete self-realization as he says, “The supreme good to which we all
aspire is the happiness. A happy man is the one who is educated. A happy man is virtuous, virtue is
gained through education.” Plato says that Education is for the individual’s personal betterment and
that of the society.

Idealism and Stages of Education

Plato has also divided the process of education into five major steps;
1. Age 7 to 18; study general mathematic, music, astronomy and so on,
2. Age 18 to 20; considers best for physical training,
3. Age 20 to 30; study of logic, knighthood, and mathematics
4. Age 30 to 35; study of dialectics
5. Age 35 to 50; practice of dialectics in various official affairs in the state
6. 50 years +; a person can become a philosopher or king as his tern comes.

Plato says that in each step the person is given with different sort of education. He suggests screening
those in each step who cannot perform well. The ones who can successfully pursue all the six stages
can be called philosophers who have the understanding of the form of good.
Idealism and Method of Teaching
Idealism is traditional philosophy of education in which teacher has central role who has to be role
model so that the students will adopt his model to become good citizen. In idealism the lecture method
is considered the most important one in which a delivers lecture and students listen to the teacher.
Teacher selects any topic or issue for teaching first he teaches the topic then asks the questions about
that topic. Students answer the asked questions, Teacher provides the feedback and students improve
themselves according to the teacher’s feedback. This is teacher centered approach therefore students
do not participate in a well manner and do not understand the taught content. This method of teaching
is not suitable for young or elementary level of students because they are not habitual for listening long
time. This method is only used for adults. Because their mind is mature and they can understand
easily. The second method that suits idealism the most is the Socratic Method in which the teacher
involves the students in learning activities. The teacher raises an issue and the students are
encouraged to discuss it in a dialogue form and reach to a conclusion.

Realism

If a tree falls in the woods and no one hears it, does it make a sound? You've probably heard that
question asked before and may have thought about it for a few minutes before coming to an answer.
Or you may have taken it as a silly question and laughed at it.

But the fundamental question behind that question is simple: is there a true reality, which exists outside
of human perception or is reality only what we perceive? Realism is a philosophy started by the ancient
Greek writer, Aristotle. It states that there is a true reality, and things exist whether humans perceive
them or not.

Educational realism is the belief that we should study logic, critical thinking, and the scientific method to
teach students to perceive and understand reality. As you might imagine, there is a heavy emphasis on
math and science, though the humanities can also be influenced by educational realism.

What does educational realism look like in a classroom? To figure that out, let's imagine a teacher,
Henry, who is trying to plan his curriculum for the upcoming school year. Henry is a realist and believes
that Aristotle was on the right path all those years ago. So how can Henry plan a year of learning to
help students perceive and understand reality?
The first thing that Henry, as a realist, is likely to do is to include lots of opportunities to study the
natural world. Realists believe that the job of schools is to teach students about the world around them.
This means that Henry wants to teach his students how to use logical processes to find truth in the
natural world.

For example, instead of teaching his students about gravity from a textbook, Henry might take them
outside and recreate Sir Isaac Newton's moment of clarity when he saw the apple fall. Henry can climb
a tree and drop objects of different masses to allow students to figure out how gravity and mass work
together.

Meaning of Pragmatism:

The word Pragmatism is of Greek origin (pragma, matos = deed, from prassein = to do).
But it is a typical American school of philosophy. It is intimately related with the American life and mind.
It is the product of practical experiences of life.

Pragmatism means action, from which the words practical and practice have come. The idealist
constructs a transcendental ideal, which cannot be realized by man. The pragmatist lays down
standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical people.

They face problems and try to solve them from practical point of view. Unlike idealists they live in the
world of realities, not in the world of ideals. Pragmatists view life as it is, while idealists view life as it
should be. The central theme of pragmatism is activity.

According to Existentialism:

Existence is always particular and individual—always my existence, your existence, his existence, her
existence. Existence is primarily the problem of existence (i.e., of its mode of being); it is, therefore,
also the investigation of the meaning of Being. That investigation is continually faced with diverse
possibilities, from among which the existent (i.e., the human individual) must make a selection, to
which he must then commit himself. Because those possibilities are constituted by the individual’s
relationships with things and with other humans, existence is always a being-in-the world—i.e., in a
concrete and historically determinate situation that limits or conditions choice. Humans are therefore
called, in Martin Heidegger’s phrase, Dasein (“there being”) because they are defined by the fact that
they exist, or are in the world and inhabit it.

Week 13 – 15. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning: Reading
Approach

Learning Objectives.

1. To define approach.
2. To understand why reading is important in language acquisition.
3. To determine the different reading approaches in language.

Discussion:

Approach describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.

Approach is a set of correlative assumption based on nature of language teaching and
language learning.
Approach is axiomatic.
Approach is not practical.

Why Reading is Important in Language Acquisition?

1. Reading offers a wide range of vocabulary and grammar; it essentially supports

and feeds the brain with the correct language structure.
2. As learning is facilitated with learning cues, reading helps the brain to remember
these language structures as the learner will connect an image to the world it represents.
3. Reading improves and develops your communication skills; it helps you learn
how to use the language creatively.
4. Reading is important because it is an active skill which involves referencing,
guessing, predicting, and etc.
 Reading Approach Brief History

1. Reading approach or reading method was first devise for English Learners in
India and French or German learners in the United States of America.
2. It has been advocated in England for pupils of inferior language-learning ability.
3. Reading approach is like GMT (Grammar, Translation, Melody), only grammar
necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught.

Reading Approach Theory of Language

 Reading approach is a way to start teaching beginning readers.

The Three Main Theories

1. Traditional Theory
2. Cognitive view
3. Metacognitive View

Different Approaches to Teaching Reading

Phonics Approach- Tries to create an association in the child minds between the ‘graphemes’ (written
symbols) and phonemes (sound) of language.

Described as bottom- up approach which build towards comprehension through a journey from the
smallest elements of the text.

Whole Language Approach

Focuses on comprehension from the outset, with children being given continuous texts to read in order
to build an understanding of vocabulary and meaning.

Identified as the top-down approach which places less emphasis on the rules and minute of language.
Reading Approach Types of Teaching Learning Activities

Skimming

It is an activity to read shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information.

Used to quickly identify the main idea of a text.
Done at the speed three to four times faster than normal reading.
This technique is useful when the students are seeking specific information rather that reading for
comprehension.
Works well to find dates, names, and places.

Scanning

A technique that often used when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary.
Involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Also used
when the reader first finds a resource to determine whether it will answer the questions.
The students look for the author’s used of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words,
first, second or next.

Extensive Reading/ Vocabulary Reading

A reading longer text, usually for pleasure.

Extensive reading is an approach to language learning, including foreign language learning, by the
means of a large amount of reading.
Extensive reading is the free reading of books and other written materials that is not too difficult nor too
easy.
Extensive reading will help the students to motivate them and enjoy reading and learning
independently.
The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning

1, It can provide comprehensible input.

1. It can enhance learner’s general language competence.
2. It increases the student’s exposure to the language.
3. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary.
4. It can lead to improvement in writing.
5. It can motivate learner to read.
6. It can consolidate previously learned language.
7. It helps to build confidence.
8. It encourages the exploitation of textual redundancy.
9. It facilitates the development of prediction skills.

Week 15 - 18. Approaches to Language Teaching

Learning Objectives.

1. To define language and language learning.

2. To analyze different views on language teaching and learning.
3. To detect the influence of the views on the language teaching methodology.

Discussion:

Language is a means of communication among human beings.

We communicate with each other using some meaningful sounds or symbolism a systematic way.

According to Aristotle, language is speech which is produced by human beings in order

Exchange their experiences, ideas, and emotions
Language Learning is a process by which we can develop our ability to use language for
communication to others.

Purposes of Language Learning

1. To develop the ability to understand and produced language.

2. To express functional activities.
3. To create and maintain social relations between / among people.

Views on Language Teaching-Learning

1. Structural View
2. Functional View
3. Interactional View

Structural View of Language

Structural view considers that language is a system of all systems.

It means that language is a linguistic system that has some subsystems such as;
Phonological units (e.g., phonemes)
Grammatical unit (e.g., sentences, phrases, clauses)
Grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements)
Lexical items (e.g., function words and content/structure words)
Each language has a finite number of such structural elements.

The structural view of language generates the language teaching-learning methods such as:

1. Audio-lingual method
2. Total physical response
 3. Silent way

Functional view of Language

As per the functional view, language is not only a linguistic system but also a means f doing things
Language is used to express our emotions, feelings, attitudes, etc.
Language involves our day-to-day functional activities or notions such as:

Inviting
Advising
Suggesting
Making an appointment
Apologizing
Asking for directions
Agreeing, disagreeing and etc.

This view language is also called communicative view.

Therefore, learning language is learning how to combine grammatical rules and vocabulary to express
our notions.

Methods in Teaching-Learning Functional Language Views

1. Functional- Notional Syllabuses

2. Communicative approaches
3. Natural approach
4. English for specific purposes

Interactional View of Language

According to interactional view, language is a means of creating and maintaining social relations or
social transactions between people.

REFERENCES

A. Books

Principles of Language and Learning Douglas Brown Principles and

Practice in second Language Acquisition by Krashen Stephen

Cruz, Neal. “As I See It: Philippine mythological monsters”. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
2008.

B. Electronic Research

https://edtechbooks.org/pdfs/print/language_acquisition/_language_acquisiti
on.pdf

http://angol.uni-miskolc.hu/wp-
content/media/2016/10/Principles_of_language_learning.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299657306_language_acquisi
tion_theories
https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~ycharles/klnl.pdfs

https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-24-s-2017.pdf