FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS

GENERAL BASIC QUESTIONS

1. What is fluid?
It is a substance that deforms continuously for a small amount of shear force also
whereas solids cannot deform with a small amount of shear force and thereby they
can't come under fluids.

2. What is the Density?

It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the substance to the volume of the
substance. It is denoted by ρ.
ρ =m/v
Units = Kg/m3

3. What is a Specific weight or Weight Density?

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the substance to the weight of the
substance. It is also the reciprocal of density. It is denoted by ‗γ’.

4. What is Specific Gravity?

It is defined as the ratio of the density of any fluid to the density of the reference
fluid. It is denoted by ―S‖.
Sliq = ρ(any fluid)/ρ(water)

5. What is Specific Volume?

It is the reciprocal of Density which is defined as the ratio of Volume of the body
to its unit mass. It is denoted by (ν)
Specific Volume(ν)= Volume of the body/unit mass.
Units of Specific Volume is m3/Kg

6. What is Bulk Modulus?

It is defined as the ratio of direct stress acting on a body to the volumetric strain. It
is denoted by K.
K = direct stress / volumetric strain

7. What is an Ideal Fluid?

It is a fluid having all ideal properties like no viscosity, no surface tension,
incompressible, irrotational, etc.if this condition is satisfied then it is called an
ideal fluid.
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8. What is Viscosity?
It is the property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance for the movement
of one layer over the other and it is because of Cohesion I .e.attraction between the
two layers.
If the attraction between the two layers increases, resistance increases, and thereby
the viscosity also increases.

9. What is Newtonian Fluid?

The fluid which follows the Newtonian equation is called the Newtonian fluid and
which does not follow is called a non-Newtonian fluid.
Newtonian Equation(τ) = µ(du/dy) = µ(dv/dy)

10. What is Surface Tension?

It is the property of the liquid surface film to exert tension. It is the force required
to maintain unit length in equilibrium and it is represented by σ.

11. What is Pressure?

It is defined as the ratio of force acting on a body to its unit area. It is denoted by
‗P‘
Note:
 The pressure acting on Water droplet= 4σ/d
 The pressure acting on Soap Bubble= 8σ/d
 The pressure acting on a liquid jet= 2σ/d

12. What is Capillarity?
The rise or fall of fluid in a capillary tube is due to the molecular forces of
attraction among the molecules and the glass wall is called capillarity action.

13. What are the different types of non-newtonian fluids?

The different types of non-newtonian fluids are
Pseudoplastic
For example, Milk, blood, paper pulp solution, liquid cement, etc.
Bingham plastic
For example, Drilling mud, sewage sludge, toothpaste, etc.
Thixotropic Fluids
For these fluids, viscosity increases with an increase in time hence they will be
called shear thickening fluids.
Rheophatic fluids
For these Fluids, the viscosity decreases with the lapse of time.

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14. What is Steady flow?
If all the properties do not change with respect to time then the flow is said to be a
steady flow.
∂P/∂t = 0.

15. What is Unsteady Flow?

If even a single parameter changes with respect to time then the flow becomes an
unsteady flow.
∂P/∂t ≠0.

16. What is Rotational or Irrotational flow?

If the fluid particles rotate about their mass center while moving forward the flow
is said to be a rotational flow otherwise it is irrotational flow.

17. What is the Path Line?

It is a line traced by a single particle over its entire journey is called a path line.
Ex. Observing only one particle direction throughout the flow.

18. What is the Streak Line?

The instantaneous picture of the position of all the particles at any instant of time is
called a streak line.
For example, Rocket Propulsion,cigarette smoke etc.

19. What is the Continuity Equation?

It depends upon conservation of mass and it is defined as the mass flow rate at
entering of the cross-section is equal to the mass flow rate at the exit.
A1V1 = A2V2

20. What is Vorticity?

It is defined as the ratio of Circulation to Area of Cross-section.
Vorticity= Circulation / Area
As,Circulation= 2*Wz*Area
Therefore,Vorticity= [ 2*Wz*Area]/Area
Vorticity= 2*Wz

21. What is the Potential Function?

It is a function of space and time defined such that negative derivative with respect
to any direction will give the component of velocity in that direction. It is
represented as Φ.
-[ ∂Φ/∂x]= u ; -[ ∂Φ/∂y]= v ; -[ ∂Φ/∂z]= w
The negative sign indicates that the flow is always in the direction of decreasing
potential.
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22. What is the Stream Function?
It is a function of space and the time defined such that the derivative with respect
to any direction will give the component of velocity at right angles in
Counterclockwise direction. It is denoted by υ.
[∂υ/∂x]=v ; [ ∂υ/∂y]= -u

23. What are the instruments used to measure the discharge, velocity, specific
gravity, and humidity?
 Venturi meter, Rotometer, and Orifice meter were used to measure the Flow
rate or discharge.
 Pitot tube and the Current meter is used to measure the velocity of the
flowing liquid.
 Hotwire Anemometer is used to measure the turbulent velocity fluctuations
in the fluid.
 The hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity.
 A hygrometer is used to measure the humidity.

24. What is the water hammering effect?
During valve closure, the momentum of flowing fluid will get disturbed and a
pressure wave will generate and travels in an opposite direction with acoustic
speed (C) with an audible sound (knocking) by hitting the walls called as
Hammering effect.

25. What is the Archimedes Principle?

Whenever an object was immersed either completely or partially, it will be lifted
up by a buoyant force(FB)whose magnitude will be equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body called as Archimedes principle.
The FB acts vertically upward through the center of buoyancy. The center of
buoyancy is a center of gravity for displaced volume.
T = FB –W

27. What is Bernoulli's Equation?

Bernoulli's equation is based on the law of conservation of energy. It is defined as
the sum of Potential energy head, Pressure energy head and Kinetic velocity
energy head is constant when the liquid is flowing from one end to another end in a
tube or pipe.
Z + (P/ρg ) + V2/2g = Constant
Here,
Z - Potential energy head
P/ρg - Pressure energy head
V2/2g - Kinetic velocity energy head
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28. What is the Total Energy Line?
Ans. It is a line representing total available energy excluding losses is the total
energy line.
Total Energy Line= (Z + (P/ρg ) + V2/2g)
The total energy line will be horizontal for ideal flow and for real fluid it always
slopes downwards.

29. What is the Hydraulic Gradient Line?

It is a line representing total available Piezometric energy. The hydraulic gradient
line may rise or fall in the direction of flow.
Z + (P/ρg )= Piezometric line

30. What is Velocity Head?

Ans. It is the difference between Total energy line and Hydraulic gradient line.
Velocity head = Total energy line ~ Hydraulic gradient line
V2/2g = (Z + (P/ρg ) + V2/2g) ~ (Z + (P/ρg )
Differentiate between real fluids and ideal fluids?
Ans: A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as ideal
fluid while the fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid.
What is a venturimeter?
Ans: It is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid flowing
through pipe.
What is a notch?
Ans: A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a
small channel or a tank.
Differentiate Between the Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow?
Answer:
Uniform Flow: The flow is defined as uniform flow when in the flow field the
velocity and other hydrodynamic parameters do not change from point to point at
any instant of time.
Non-Uniform Flow: When the velocity and other hydrodynamic parameters
changes from one point to another the flow is defined as non-uniform flow.

What Is The Difference Between The Unsteady Uniform Flow And Steady
Uniform Flow?
Answer :
Unsteady uniform flow - changes with time.
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Steady uniform flow - does not change with time.

State continuity equation?

Ans: For a fluid flowing through a pipe at all the cross section, the quantity of fluid
per second is constant.
What are the methods of describing fluid motion?
Ans: The fluid motion is described by two methods. They are lagrangian method
and eulerian method.
Where the notches are used?
Ans: Notches are usually used in tanks or small channels.
What is a weir?
Ans: Weir is a concrete structure placed in an open channel over which the flow
occurs.
Viscosity

 Viscosity is the physical property that characterizes the flow resistance of

simple fluids.
 Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of its offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity:
 Newton‘s viscosity law‘s states that, the shear stress between adjacent fluid
layers is proportional to the velocity gradients between the two layers.
 The ratio of shear stress to shear rate is a constant, for a given temperature
and pressure, and is defined as the viscosity or coefficient of viscosity.
 What are Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids ?

Newtonian Fluid:

A fluid, whose viscosity does not change with the rate of deformation or shear
stain (V/Y), is called Newtonian fluid.

A fluid which obeys Newton‘s law of viscosity is termed as Newtonian fluid.

Non-Newtonian Fluid:

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A fluid, whose viscosity changes with the rate of deformation or shear stain (V/Y),
is called Non-Newtonian fluid.

A fluid which does not obey Newton‘s law of viscosity is termed as Non-
Newtonian fluid.

EXPERIMENT
MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
1.What is viscosity of fluid?
Ans:Viscosity of a fluid is defined as the resisatnce offered by the fluid to its motion. It
represents the fluidity of the liquid.
2.What is the relationship between viscosity and fluidity?
Ans:Viscosity is the inverse of fluidity. Fluidity expresses the easiness with which the fluid
flows.
3.State the Newton‘s law of viscosity?
Ans: The Newton‘s law of viscosity state that ―the shear stress between two layers of fluid is
proportional to velocity gradient‖.
4.Differentiate between Newtonian and non-newtonian fluids.
Ans:Fluids that obey newton‘s law of viscosity are called Newtonian fluids. On the other hand, if
the fluids donot exihibit the linear relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient then
such fluids are known as non-newtonian fluids.
5. Give some examples of newtonian fluids.
Ans: Water,Air, Mercury,Glycerine,Kersosene
6.Give some examples of non-newtonian fluid.
Ans: Paints,Blood,Gelatin,Milk.
7.When the temperature of the fluid is increased,what happens to its viscosity?
Ans: With the increase in temperature, the viscosity of liquid decreases. With the increase in
temperature , the viscosity of gas increases.
8.Name the different viscometers to measure viscosity of fluids.
Ans: Redwood Viscometer,Saybolt‘s viscometer,Engler Viscometer, Thomas-Stormer
Viscometer.

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 EXPERIMENT
STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define the centre of Buoyancy.
Ans:The centre of buoyancy is the point of application of Buoyant force, which is the centoid of
the displaced volume of the fluid.
2. How do you define the buoyant force?
Ans:Buoyant force ,is an upward fluid pressure exerted on a body that is immersed in a fluid
either fully (like submarines,airplanes,balloons, etc) or partially like ship.
3.Whatis magnitude of buoyant force?
Ans:The magnitude of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid of volume equal to
the volume of the body immersed. This buoyant force reduces the net weight of the body.
4.Define the metacenter.
Ans: The point of intersection of line of action of the buoyant force with the axis of the body is
known as metacentre.
5.What is metacentric height?
Ans:The distance between the centre of gravity and the metacenter is called metacentric height.
6.State the principle of floatation.
Ans:The buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body
and is directed vertically upwards.
7.Who invented the principle of buoyancy?
Ans:Archimedes invented the principle of buoyancy.

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 EXPERIMENT
HYDROSTATICS FORCE ON FLAT SURFACES / CURVED SURFACES
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
1.What do you mean by centre of pressure?
Ans: The centre of pressure is he point of application of total pressure force on the surface
immersed in the liquid. The centre of pressure always lies below the centre of gravity. It
coincides with centre of gravity of horizontal surfaces.
2.What are the uses of location of centre of pressure?
Ans:The centre of pressure is required to locate the position of centre of pressure ,which is
required in the stability analysis of hydraulic structures.
3.Name some examples of application of centre of pressure.
Ans: Stability analysis of gravity dams, finding forces on sluice gates, design of water retaining
structures etc.
4.What do you mean by total pressure?
Ans: Total pressure is the resultant fluid pressure acting on a surface immersed in liquid or
surface in contact with liquid.
5.what is a pressure diagram?
Ans: A pressure diagram is the graphical representation of pressure variation acting on any
surface in contact with the liquid.

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 EXPERIMENT
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
1.What is Bernoulli‘s equation?
Ans:Bernoullis equation is an energy equation which states that the total energy of fluid per unit
weight remains constant. The total energy includes potential energy,pressure energy and kinetic
energy .Itis given by
(p/ɤ) + (V2/2g)+ Z = Constant
2. How Bernoulli‘s equation is modified?
Ans:The modified Bernoulli‘s equation includes the energy loss in the direction of flow. If
section 1 and section 2 are two arbitrary sections considered in the direction of flow , then the
modified Bernoulli‘s equation is written as
(p1/ɤ) + (V12/2g)+ Z1 =(p2/ɤ) + (V22/2g)+ Z2+ hL
3.What is the practical application of bernoulli‘s equation?
Ans:Bernoulli‘s equation is useful in analyzing all fluid flow problems. Examples are flow
through pipes and open channels.
4. what do you mean by piezometric head?
Ans: It is the potential head and pressure head at any section of flow. It is given by Z+(p/ɤ).
5.Practically, the total head does not remain constant throughout the flow ,why?
Ans: The total head or energy of the fluid decreases in the direction of flow due to energy loss.
6. Define HGL and TEL.
Ans: Hydraulic Grade line (HGL) is the line representing the sum of potential energy and
pressure energy in the direction of flow. The slope of HGL is known as hydraulic gradient. The
total energy line (TEL) represents the total energy in the direction of flow. The slope of TEL is
known as energy gradient.

What does Bernoulli's theorem state?

The Bernoulli equation simply states that total energy per unit mass of flowing
fluid, at any point in the subsurface, is the sum of the kinetic, potential, and fluid-
pressure energies and is equal to a constant value.

What are the practical applications of Bernoulli's equation?

airflow along the wing of an airplane: note the condensation over the upper part of
the wing, where the higher flow speeds corresponds to a lower pressure and thus

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lower temperature. One of the most interesting applications of the Bernoulli
equation, is the flight of aeroplanes.
How is Bernoulli's principle used in everyday life?
One of the most dramatic everyday examples of Bernoulli's principle can be
found in the airplane, which stays aloft due to pressure differences on the surface
of its wing; but the truth of the principle is also illustrated in something as
mundane as a shower curtain that billows inward. ...

How do you prove Bernoulli's equation?

We also assume that there are no viscous forces in the fluid, so the energy of any
part of the fluid will be conserved. To derive Bernoulli's equation, we first
calculate the work that was done on the fluid:
dW=F1dx1−F2dx2=p1A1dx1−p2A2dx2=p1dV−p2dV=(p1−p2)dV.

What are the limitations of Bernoulli's Theorem?

The velocity of liquid particles in the center of a pipe is maximum and gradually
decreases towards the wall of the pipe due to friction. so only the mean velocity of
the liquid should be taken into account because the velocity of liquid particles is
not uniform.

When can you use Bernoulli's equation?

You should only use Bernoulli's equation when ALL of the following are true:
Along a Streamline - Bernoulli's equation can only be used along a streamline,
meaning only between points on the SAME streamline. mixed jets, pumps, motors,
and other areas where the fluid is turbulent or mixing.

What is Bernoulli's principle in simple terms?

Bernoulli's principle is an idea of fluid dynamics. It says that as speed of the fluid
increases, pressure decreases. ... A higher pressure pushes (accelerates) fluid
toward lower pressure. So any change in a fluid's speed must be matched by a
change in pressure (force).

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What are the live examples of Bernoulli's Theorem?
An example of Bernoulli's principle is the wing of an airplane; the shape of the
wing causes air to travel for a longer period on top of the wing, causing air to
travel faster, reducing the air pressure and creating lift, as compared to the distance
traveled, the air speed and the air pressure experienced beneath the ...

Can you use Bernoulli's equation for turbulent flow?

Secondly, turbulent flows are inherently unsteady, and thirdly, it is not possible to
identify streamlines in a turbulent flow, because they all get tangled up in the
highly complex mixing eddies. So, no, you cannot use Bernoulli's Equation for a
turbulent flow.

What are the assumption of Bernoulli's Theorem?

the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc...) at any
point cannot change with time, the flow must be incompressible – even though
pressure varies, the density must remain constant along a streamline; friction by
viscous forces must be negligible.

Define the term hydraulic gradient?

Ans: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head and datum head
of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.
Define the term total energy line?
Ans: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and
kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.

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 EXPERIMENT
VENTURIMETER
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 What is the use of Venturi meter?
Ans: A Venturi meter is the device used to measure or determine the rate of flow or discharge of
fluid through a pipe.
Q2 What is the basic principle on which Venturi meter works?
Ans: The Venturi meter works on the principle of developing the pressure difference in the
direction of flow by decreasing the cross-sectional area of the flow and the measurement
of this pressure difference enables the determination of the flow through the pipe.

Q3 Explain the construction of Venturi meter.

Ans: The venturi meter consists of convergent cone of smaller length, cylindrical throat and the
larger divergent cone. Convergent cone tapers from the original pipe diameter to the throat
size, whereas the divergent cone enlarges from throat size to the original pipe size.
Q4 What is the range of included angle of the convergent and divergent cones?
Ans: Convergent angle = 21° and divergent angle = 5° to 15°.

Q5 What is the length of the convergent cone?

Ans: Length of convergent cone approximately equal to 2.7(D — d) where D is the diameter of
pipe and d the diameter of throat.

Q6 Whether the convergent cone is longer or divergent cone? Why?

Ans: The convergent cone is shorter than the divergent cone. The convergent cone is made
shorter to reduce the loss of energy due to acceleration. Similarly the divergent cone is
made longer so as to cause the gradual retardation of the fluid and eliminate flow
separation. This decreases the energy loss due to formation of eddies.

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Q7 At what distance from the throat and convergent cone pressure taps are provided?

Ans: The pressure tappings are made one at just upstream of the inlet section and the other in
the middle of the throat.

Q8 Can pressure taps be provided between throat and divergent cone? Why?

Ans: No. Because in the divergent cone flow separation occurs and pressure measurement will
not vield the discharge measurement.

Q9 What is meant by flow separation?

Ans: Flow separation is the departure of the flow from the boundary due to sudden divergence
and increase in the flow area or due to deviation.

What is Venturimeter used for?

Venturimeters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging section
of pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop
from which the flowrate can be deduced. They have been in common use for many
years, especially in the water supply industry.

What are the parts of Venturimeter?

A Venturimeter consists of four parts:

 Cylindrical Inlet Section.

 Conical convergent Section.
 Cylindrical throat and.
 Conical divergent outlet.

How does a Venturimeter work?

A Venturi Meter is a device that allows flow rates through pipes to be calculated
by measuring the difference in pressure created by a contraction in a pipe. When
the flow goes through the contraction it must speed up, and so the pressure must
drop

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What is the difference between Venturimeter and Orificemeter?
A venturi meter can be used to measure the flow rates of all incompressible fluids
(gases with low pressure variations, as wells as liquids), whereas an orifice meter
is generally used for measuring the flow rate of liquid.

What is the principle of Venturimeter?

The principle of venturimeter is that when a fluid flows through the
venturimeter, it accelerates in the convergent section and decelerates in the
divergent section, resulting in a drop in the static pressure followed by a pressure
recovery in the flow direction.

Why diverging section of Venturi is long?

Separation of the flow is usually a bad thing. ... so the diverging angle of the
diverging section of the venturi is kept so small to reduce the probability of flow
separation and hence keeping the pressure recovering efficiency as high as
possible.
Why is a Venturimeter more accurate than an orifice meter?
Lower flow rate reduces the accuracy of orifice plates. Higher flow rates in high
quality orifice plates gives increased accuracy. Venturimeter are widely used for
high flow rates. They can handle 25-50% more flow rate than an orifice.

Why Cd value is high in Venturi meter?

In Venturi meter losses are less so coefficient of discharge is higher whereas in
orifice meter due to no convergent and divergent cones there are more losses and
hence its coefficient of discharge is less. In venturi meter losses are low due to
steamline shape of the diffuser and the pressure gradient is not abrupt as ...

Why does pressure decrease in divergent Venturimeter?

The venturimeter is always used in a way that the upstream part of the flow takes
place through the short conical portion while the downstream part of the flow
through the long one. ... Subsequently, a decrease in the velocity and an increase
in the pressure takes place in course of flow through the divergent part.

How is Venturimeter CD calculated?

It is the ratio of actual flow rate to the theoretical flow rate. For a well designed
venture the constant CD is about 0.98 for pipe diameters of 2 to 8inches and about
0.99 fro larger sizes. Where CD is the coefficient of discharge for venturimeter.

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What is head loss in Venturi meter?
The head loss across a venturi meter is usually between 10% and 20% of Δh.
This percentage decreases for larger venturis and as the flow rate increases.
Venturi discharge measurement error is often within ±0.5% to ±1% of the true
flow rate value.

EXPERIMENT
ORIFICEMETER
VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 What is the use of orifice meter?
Ans: The orifice meter is used to measure the discharge through a pipe and is used when the
space for fitting a Venturimeter is not sufficient.
Q2 What is the range of orifice diameter?
Ans: The diameter of orifice may vary from 0.2 to 0.85 times pipe diameter (usually 0.5 times).
Q3 Define the vena contracta.
Ans: Vena contracta is a cross-section at which the flow area is minimum. The stream lines at
Vena contracta will be parallel to each other and normal to the flow area.
Q4 Where does the vena contracta form in the orifice meter?
Ans: Immediately at the downstream of the orifice plate nearly at a distance one half of the
diameter of the orifice the vena contracta occurs.
Q5 What is the basic difference between Venturi meter and orifice meter?
Ans: In Venturi meter the reduction in flow area is gradual, whereas in the case of orifice meter,
it is abrupt. Due to this greater loss of energy occurs in the case of orifice meter than a
venturi meter.
Q6 What is the advantage of orifice meter as compared with Venturi meter?
Ans: The orifice meter is used when the space for fitting a Venturi meter is not sufficient.
Q7 Define the coefficient of velocity and coefficient of contraction.
Ans: Coefficient of velocity (Cy): It is the ratio of actual velocity to the theoretical velocity.
Coefficient of contraction (C;): It is the ratio of cross-sectional area of jet at venancontracta to
the cross-sectional area of the orifice.
Q8 Where is the position of pressure tap on the upstream side of the orifice meter? Why?
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Ans: The pressure tapping on the upstream side of the orifice plate is provided at the section
where the effect of convergent of flow area is insignificant.
Q9 Where will be the pressure tap on the downstream side of orifice meter?
Ans: On the downstream side the pressure tapping is provided immediately after the orifice
plate.
Q10 What are the other flow measuring devices used in pipes?
Ans: Flow nozzle (nozzle meter), rotameter. and elbow meter are other flow measuring devices
used in pipes.

What is meant by orifice meter?

An orifice meter is a piece of equipment used to measure the flow rate of a gas or
a fluid.

What is the function of orifice meter?

Orifice meter: is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. This also work
on the same principle as that of venturimeter. It consists of flat circular plate which
has a circular hole, in concentric with the pipe.

What is the difference between Venturimeter and orifice meter?

A venturi meter can be used to measure the flow rates of all incompressible fluids
(gases with low pressure variations, as wells as liquids), whereas an orifice meter
is generally used for measuring the flow rate of liquid.

Where is orifice meter used?

Orifice meter: is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. This also work
on the same principle as that of venturimeter. It consists of flat circular plate which
has a circular hole, in concentric with the pipe.

What is the use of an orifice?

The orifice plate is a metal disc with a concentric hole in it, which is inserted into
the pipe carrying the flowing fluid. Orifice plates are simple, cheap, and available
in a wide range of sizes. In consequence, they account for almost 50% of the
instruments used in industry for measuring volume flow rate.

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Why is Vena Contracta formed in orifice?
The reason for the phenomenon vena contracta is that the fluid streamline cannot
abruptly change direction, streamlines are unable to closely follow the sharp angles
in orifice, nozzle, and pipe. When fluid passes through the orifice, the gradual
contraction of fluid takes place.

What are the advantages and limitations of orifice plates?

Advantages and disadvantages of orifice plate

 Simple in construction, the standards for construction and calibration are

readily available.
 They are cheap; their price does not increase dramatically with size.
 Easy to install and remove.
 They are efficient and reliable for many years.
 Available in many materials.

What is CC CV CD?
 Coefficient of discharge (Cd) = Coeff. of flow/velocity (Cv) x Coeff of
contraction (Cc). ... of flow/velocity (Cv) , you will be able to calculate
coeff of discharge (Cd), once Cc is known. Obviously Cc changes
depending on the shape of the jet at vena contract however a value between
0.61 - 0.64 is usually accepted.

Why actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge?

The reason why Cd values are always less than 1 is because the actual discharge
will always be less than the theoretical discharge idealized by Toricelli. This is
so due to the effect of surface tension and friction from the external fluid.

Can the coefficient of discharge be greater than 1?

Plug in a coefficient for energy losses through turbulence and you have your
formula. But you can see indeed that your coefficient can never be greater than
one, because that would mean that you end up with more energy than you started
with.

What is main disadvantage of orifice meter?

Disadvantages of orifice meter:

It requires the flow of axial velocity vectors. It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.
Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid. The
range of measurement of viscosity limits of fluids.

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 EXPERIMENT
IMPACT OF JET ON FLAT VANE AND CURVED VANE
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 State the impulse-momentum equation.
Ans: The impulse of the resultant force is equal to the change in momentum of the body. It is
given by SF = ρQ(V2 – V1), where SF is the sum of the forces, ρ is the mass density of fluid,
Q the discharge, V2 the final velocity of flow and V1; the initial velocity of flow.
Q2 Define the impulse and momentum.
Ans: Impulse is defined as the product of force and time. Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity.
Q3 What are the applications of vanes?
Ans: Vanes are used in turbines and pumps fixed on the rotor.
Q4 Define efficiency?
Ans: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power expressed
inpercentage.

What is the application of impact of jet?

Impact of jet is used to rotate the turbine namely Pelton wheel in the generator.
The water jet is applying force tangential to the wheel. The tangential forces of
water jet generate moment or torque on the wheel to its maximum value and
therefore increase the mechanical energy of Pelton wheel.

What is impact of jet in fluid mechanics?

Impact of jets For liquid coming out of a pipe, a nozzle fitted at the end of the
pipe increases the velocity of the liquid. The liquid coming out of the nozzle is in
the form of a jet. If a flat plate or a vane is placed in jet's path, it will exert a force
on the plate or vane.

What is jet velocity?

The exit velocity of the drilling fluid after it accelerates through bit nozzles. See:
bit nozzle, exit velocity.

19
What is impact of jet in fluid mechanics?
Impact of jets For liquid coming out of a pipe, a nozzle fitted at the end of the
pipe increases the velocity of the liquid. The liquid coming out of the nozzle is in
the form of a jet. If a flat plate or a vane is placed in jet's path, it will exert a force
on the plate or vane.

What is the application of impact of jet?

Impact of jet is used to rotate the turbine namely Pelton wheel in the generator.
The water jet is applying force tangential to the wheel. The tangential forces of
water jet generate moment or torque on the wheel to its maximum value and
therefore increase the mechanical energy of Pelton wheel.

What is the use of nozzle?

A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used
to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used
to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the
stream that emerges from them.
How does nozzle size affect velocity?
The larger nozzle diameter gives more mass of fluid to be carried. It is also related
to the momentum energy generated that when the fluid velocity s constant with
increasing fluid mass so the momentum gets larger then the jt plunges deeper. ...
The depth of bubble penetration also increased with increasing jet velocity.

20
 EXPERIMENT
FLOW VISUALIZATION (REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT)
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
1.Define the Reynolds number.
Ans: The Reynolds number Re,is defined as the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force.
2.What is the importance of Reynolds number?
Ans: The Reynolds number is used to classify the low as laminar, transitional or turbulent.
3.What is critical velocity of flow?
Ans:The velocity of flow at which the flow changes from one type to another is called critical
velocity.
4. What is the value of Reynlods number for laminar flow in (i) pipes (ii) Channels?
Ans:The Reynolds number for laminar flow (i) in pipes Re<2000, (ii) in channels Re<500.
5.Give the value of Reynolds number for the flow to be (a)laminar flow (b) transitional flow
and (c) turbulent flow in pipes.
Ans:For flow through pipes (a) laminar flow –Re<2000,(b) Transitional- Re= 2000-4000 (c)
turbulent-Re>4000
6.Which liquid has more viscosity, water or oil?
Ans: Oil has more viscosity than water.

21
What is Reynolds number ?

Reynolds Number is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force . Re = ρvL/μ

How the characteristics of a flow is determined?

By Reynolds Number .
If Re <2000 then the flow is laminar .
if 2000 <Re<4000 then the flow is transient and
if Re>4000 then the flow is turbulent .

How do you perform a Reynolds experiment?

Test Procedure of Reynolds experiment is as follows:

1. Fill the tank with water and leave it for some time as the water in the tank
should come to rest.
2. Now fill the reservoir with a dye (generally potassium permanganate
solution) which is nothing but colored fluid. ...
3. Record the temperature of water.

How does Reynolds number effect flow?

The Reynolds number (Re) helps predict flow patterns in different fluid flow
situations. At low Reynolds numbers, flows tend to be dominated by laminar
(sheet-like) flow, while at high Reynolds numbers flows tend to be turbulent. ...
Reynolds numbers are an important dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics.

What is the significance of Reynolds number?

The dimensionless Reynolds number plays a prominent role in foreseeing the
patterns in a fluid's behavior. The Reynolds number, referred to as Re, is used to
determine whether the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent.

Where is Reynolds number used?

The Reynolds number is used to study fluids as they flow. The Reynolds
number determines whether a fluid flow is laminar or turbulent. Flowing fluids
normally follow along streamlines. If a flow is laminar, fluids will move along
smooth streamlines.

22
What is the value of Reynolds number for streamline flow?
It is called the Reynolds number and is denoted by the symbol (Re). From a host
of experimental measurements on fluid flow in pipes, it has been found that the
flow remains calm or "streamline" for values of the Reynolds number up to
about 2000. For values above 4000 the flow has been found to be turbulent.

What Reynolds number is laminar flow?

It is also found that a flow in a pipe is laminar if the Reynolds Number (based on
diameter of the pipe) is less than 2000 and is turbulent if it is greater than 4000.

What is inertial force in Reynolds number?

Concisely, the inertial force of a fluid is the driving force that is directly
proportional to the rate of Reynolds number. Of course, the viscous force is a
resistance that would decrease the velocity and Reynolds number of a fluid flow.

How do you know if its laminar or turbulent flow?

For practical purposes, if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is
laminar. If it is greater than 40000, the flow is turbulent. Flows with Reynolds
numbers between 2000 and 4000 are sometimes referred to as transitional flows.

What is an example of laminar flow?

A different example of laminar flow occurs everyday inside of you. Blood
flowing throughout your body is flowing laminarly. One last example of laminar
flow is syrup, or honey, flowing out the nozzle. Because the liquid is so thick, or
viscous, the Reynolds number indicates that the flow is very laminar.

What does laminar mean?

: arranged in, consisting of, or resembling laminae.

23
 EXPERIMENT
MOUTHPIECE
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 What is the mouthpiece? What are different types of mouthpieces?
Ans: A short tube of length 2 to 3 times its diameter fitted to a circular opening of the
samediameter in the side of a vessel for discharging the fluid is called a mouthpiece.
Classification
(i) Based on the shape—Cylindrical, convergent, divergent and convergent-divergent.
(it) Based on the position—Internal (re-entrant or Borda's) and external.
(itt) Based on the discharge conditions—Running free and running full (only in case ofinternal
mouthpiece).
Q2 What is the difference between an orifice and a mouthpiece?
Ans: An orifice is just an opening provided in the tank, whereas a mouthpiece is a short pipe.The
discharge carrying capacity of mouthpiece is more than that of an orifice.
Q3 What are the uses of the orifice and mouthpiece?
Ans: The orifice and mouthpiece are used to empty the vessels and tanks. The orifice is also
used in lock gates.
Q4 What is the value of Cc at the outlet of the mouthpiece running full?
Ans: Value of Cc = 1 at the outlet of mouthpiece running full.
Q5 What is the effect of increase in the head over the emerging jet through a mouthpiece?
Ans: The increase in head over the mouthpiece decreases the pressure at vena contracta. If
thepressure reduces below the absolute value, then the jet starts vaporizing and the flowbecomes
unsteady. The further increase in head results into the separation of jet from thesurface of the
mouthpiece and the mouthpiece behaves as an orifice. Consequently, thedischarge coefficient is
reduced.
Q6 What is the advantage of a mouthpiece over an orifice?
Ans: The discharge coefficient of a mouthpiece is larger than that of an orifice.
Q7 Under what condition does the mouthpiece run full?
Ans: When the length of the internal mouthpiece is more than the diameter of the
mouthpiece,then the jet coming out will occupy the full area of the flow.
Q8 When does the mouthpiece act as an orifice?
Ans: When the head over the mouthpiece is sufficiently large to separate the jet from the
mouthpiece surface, the mouthpiece acts as an orifice.
Q9 What is Borda‘s mouthpiece? What is the other name for it?
24
Ans: This is an internal mouthpiece. It is also called Re-entrant mouthpiece.

What is orifice and mouthpiece?

An orifice is an opening made in the side or bottom of tank, having a closed
perimeter, through which the fluid may be discharged. A mouthpiece is short tube
fitted to a same size circular opening provided in a tank so that fluid may be
discharged through it.

What are different types of Mouth Pieces?

 External Mouthpiece: An external mouthpiece consists of a short length of

pipe fitted externally, to the orifice. ...
 The Convergent Mouthpiece: This is a mouthpiece whose area decreases
towards its outlet. ...
 The Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece: ...
 Re-Entrant or Borda's Mouthpiece or Internal Mouthpiece:

Why the discharge through an orifice is increased by fitting a standard short

tube to it?
The discharge through an orifice is increased by fitting a short length of pipe to
the outside known as external mouthpiece. The discharge rate is increased due to
a decrease in the pressure at vena contracta within the mouthpiece resulting in an
increase in the effective head causing the flow.

Why Vena Contracta is formed?

Explanation. The reason for this phenomenon is that fluid streamlines cannot
abruptly change direction. In the case of both the free jet and the sudden pipe
diameter change, the streamlines are unable to closely follow the sharp angle in the
pipe/tank wall.

Why actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge?

The reason why Cd values are always less than 1 is because the actual discharge
will always be less than the theoretical discharge idealized by Toricelli. This is
so due to the effect of surface tension and friction from the external fluid.

What Is Coefficient Of Contraction?

25
Answer :
Coefficient of contraction is the ratio of area of jet at vena contracta to the area of
orifice.
The typical value may be taken as 0.64 for a sharp orifice (concentric with the flow
channel). The smaller the value, the more effect the vena contracta has.

Define co-efficient of velocity of jet?

Ans: It is defined as the ratio between the actual velocity of a jet of liquid at vena-
contracta and the theoretical velocity of jet.

Define co-efficient of contraction of orifice meter?

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of the area of the jet at vena-contracta to the area of
the orifice.

30. What is vena-contracta?

Ans: It is a section at which the stream lines are straight and parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the plane of the orifice.

Why Cd of orifice is less than mouthpiece?

In Venturi meter losses are less so coefficient of discharge is higher whereas in
orifice meter due to no convergent and divergent cones there are more losses and
hence its coefficient of discharge is less.In venturi meter losses are low due to
steamline shape of the diffuser and the pressure gradient is not abrupt as ..

26
 EXPERIMENT
DETERMINATION OF Cd FOR V- NOTCH
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 Define notch and explain its classifications.
Ans: Notch is an opening provided in the side of a tank or channel to measure the rate of flow.
The surface of the liquid will be below the top edge of the notch.
Classification:
(i) Based on the shape—Rectangular, triangular (I), Trapezoidal, Cippoletti, parabolic,
stepped notch
(ii) Based on the end condition—Notch without end contraction and notch with end
contraction.
(ii1) Based on the crest—Sharp crested and beveled notch.
Q2 Define the coefficient of discharge, Cd. What is its significance?
Ans: Coefficient of discharge, Cd, is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical
discharge. The value of Cd is always less than 1 as the actual discharge will be less than
theoretical discharge due to losses. Hence, Cd expresses the amount of loss.
Q3 Why a triangular notch (V-notch) is preferred over a rectangular notch for measuring
low discharge?
Ans: For low discharges, the head over the triangular notch is considerable than a rectangular
notch, which gives the accurate measurement of discharge.
Q4 Explain the advantages of triangular notch over rectangular notch.
Ans: The advantages of triangular notch over rectangular notch are:
(a) For low discharges, the head over the triangular notch is considerable than a
rectangular notch, which gives the accurate measurement of head and discharge and
reduce the measurement error.
(b) The formula for V-notch is simpler as it involves the measurement of head only (if it is
a right angled notch).
(c) The coefficient of discharge is fairly constant.
(d) The ventilation is not required.
(e) The head due to velocity of approach may be ignored without much error.
27
Q5 Under what conditions you prefer triangular notch?
Ans: For low discharges, the triangular notch is preferred than a rectangular notch.
Q6 If 10% of error is made in the measurement of head over the triangular notch, what is
the corresponding error in computed discharge?
Ans: The error in discharge corresponding to 10% error in the measurement of head is 25%.
Q7 What is the meaning of calibration?
Ans: Calibration indicates the determination of coefficient of discharge, Cd, of a measuring
device. It also represents the standardization of the device.

What is a notch?
A notch is essentially a cut-out, at the top, of a part of the screen display. ... This
makes the phone an even better productivity device, since the extra display space
can be particularly useful with apps such as document editors, or sharing screen
space among two apps.

How will you find out actual discharge?

16. KV Actual discharge = Actual area at B × Actual velocity at B = Cc × Cu A
2gH( ) we see that the relationship between the coefficients is Cd = Cc × Cu To
determine the coefficient of discharge measure the actual discharged volume from
the orifice in a given time and compare with the theoretical discharge.

Which device is used to measure the discharge from Channel?

The most common device for measuring discharge through channels is a weir.

Where are notches used?

A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above
the free surface. These notches are used to measure discharge of open channel
flows, by passing or placing or constructing them across the stream.

What are the types of notches?

Classification of Notches:

 The Rectangular Notch:

 The Triangular Notch or V-Notch:
 The Trapezoidal Notch:
 The Cippoletti Weir:
 Submerged Weir:
 Anicut or Raised Weir or Barrage:
 Broad Crested Weir:
 Ogee Weir
28
  What do you think where can we use this V notch experiment?
 These notches are used to measure discharge of open channel flows, by
passing or placing or constructing them across the stream. Notches are
generally used for measuring discharge in small open channels or laboratory
flumes.
What are the advantages of a triangular notch over a rectangular notch?
A triangular notch gives much more accurate results in low discharge conditions,
as compared to the conventional rectangular notch. Also, only one reading (the
head) is required to calculate the discharge rate, making calculations much easier.
However, it cannot handle large volumes of flow rate accurately.
What is the use of V notch?
It is used to meter flow of water in the channel, by measuring the head of water
over the v notch crest. The v notch weir is especially good for measuring a low
flow rate, because the flow area decreases rapidly as the head over the v notch gets
small.
What is calibration of V notch?
A v notch weir is simply a 'v notch' in a plate that is placed so that it obstructs an
open channel flow, causing the water to flow over the v notch. ... It is used to
meter flow of water in the channel, by measuring the head of water over the v
notch crest.
Why is V notch used for small discharge?
The basic principle is that discharge is directly related to the water depth above
the crotch (bottom) of the V; this distance is called head (h). The V-notch design
causes small changes in discharge to have a large change in depth allowing more
accurate head measurement than with a rectangular weir.
Can the coefficient of discharge be greater than 1?
Plug in a coefficient for energy losses through turbulence and you have your
formula. But you can see indeed that your coefficient can never be greater than
one, because that would mean that you end up with more energy than you started
with.

What is the difference between notch and weir?

29
 Experiment
IMPACT OF FREE JETS
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 State the impulse-momentum equation.
Ans: The impulse of the resultant force is equal to the change in momentum of the body. It is
given by SF = ρQ(V2 — V1), where SF is the sum of the forces, ρ the mass density of fluid, Q
the discharge, V2 the final velocity of flow and V1 the initial velocity of flow.
Q2 Define the impulse and momentum.
Ans: Impulse is defined as the product of force and time. Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity.
Q3 What are the applications of vanes?
Ans: Vanes are used in turbines and pumps fixed on the rotor.
Q4 Define efficiency?
Ans: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power expressed in percentage.
Q5 State the impulse-momentum equation.

Ans: The impulse of the resultant force is equal to the change in momentum of the body. It is
given by SF = ρQ(V2 — V1), where SF is the sum of the forces, ρ the mass density of fluid, Q
the discharge, V2 the final velocity of flow and V1 the initial velocity of flow.
Q6 Define the impulse and momentum.
Ans: Impulse is defined as the product of force and time. Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity.
Q7 What are the applications of vanes?
Ans: Vanes are used in turbines and pumps fixed on the rotor.
Q8 Define efficiency?
Ans: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power expressed in percentage.

30
 Experiment
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 Define a pump.
Ans: A hydraulic machine used to convert mechanical energy to hydraulic energy is called a pump.
Q2 How are pumps classified?
Ans: Pumps are classified as centrifugal pumps (rotodynamic pumps) and reciprocating pumps
(positive displacement).
Q3 What is the difference between a pump and a turbine?
Ans: A pump is the inverse of a turbine. Pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy,
whereas a turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Q4 How does the centrifugal pump work?
Ans: The centrifugal pump works on the principle that when a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate by
an external force, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and themcentrifugal head is
impressed that enables it to raise the liquid to higher levels.
Q5 Define the static head, manometric head, suction head and delivery head.
Ans: Static head (Hs): The sum of the suction head and delivery head is called static head.
Hs = hs+ hd.
Manometric head (Hm): The head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.
Suction head (hs): The vertical height of the centerline of the centrifugal pump above the water surface in
the sump.
Delivery head (hd): The vertical distance from the centerline of the centrifugal pump to the water surface
in the tank to which the water is to be delivered.
Q6 What is priming of a pump?
Ans: Priming is the process of removing the air from the suction pipe; pump casing and delivery pipe up
to delivery value by filling it with the liquid which is to be pumped.
Q7 How are pumps primed?
Ans: Priming of the pumps is done manually (for small pumps), using air pumps or steam ejectors(for
large pumps) or by self priming. In manual operation, the liquid is poured through a funnel until the entire
air is removed which is ensured by observing expelling of water through the air vent. In case of large
pumps, steam ejectors are connected at delivery end, which sucks the air and liquid is filled in all parts.
Q8 Explain the self-priming.
Ans: Domestic pumps are provided with arrangements that facilitate them to prime automatically
when started.

31
Q9 What is the minimum starting speed of a centrifugal pump? What is its significance?
Ans: It is the minimum speed with which the centrifugal pump has to start in order to develop the
necessary centrifugal force that is required to deliver the liquid. Because the pressure rise in the impeller
has to be greater than or equal to the manometric head for lifting of the liquid. Otherwise, the centrifugal
pump fails to lift the liquid.
Q10 What is the expression for specific speed for a centrifugal pump?
Ans: Specific speed for a centrifugal pump is given by , Ns= N √Q/H m3/4 where N is the speed of pump,
the discharge and, Hm the manometric head.
Q11 What is the difference between pumps in series and pumps in parallel?
Ans: Pumps in series are used for discharging the same quantity of water for larger heads, whereas
pumps in parallel are used for higher discharges under same head.
Q12 What is the use of non-return valve?
Ans: A non-return valve is provided in the suction pipe, which does not allow the water to flow
back when the pump stops working.

32
 Experiment
PELTON WHEEL TURBINE
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 What is a turbine?
Ans: A turbine is a hydraulic machine which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Q2 Define the impulse turbine.
Ans: The impulse turbine works on the impulsive force exerted by the jet of water that strikes the buckets,
which are fixed on the rotor.
Q3 How are turbines are classified?
Ans: Turbines are classified as given below:
(a) Based on the action of water flowing through the turbine runner—Impulse (Pelton
wheel turbine) and reaction turbines (Francis and Kaplan turbines).
(b) Based on the main direction of the flow of water in the runner—Tangential flow (Pelton
wheel turbine), radial flow, axial flow (Kaplan turbine) and mixed flow turbine (Modern
Francis turbine).
(c) Based on the head and quantity of water—High head and low discharge (Pelton wheel
turbine), medium head and discharge (Modern Francis turbine) and low head and high
discharge turbines (Kaplan turbine).
(d) Based on specific speed—Low (Pelton wheel turbine), medium (Francis turbine) and
high specific speed turbines (Kaplan turbine).
(e) Based on the axis of disposition—Horizontal axis and vertical axis turbine.
Q4 How does an impulse differ from a reaction turbine?
Ans: An impulse turbine works on the principal of impact. It is used for high head and low discharge
conditions. Fluid enters tangentially to the axis of rotation. The specific speed of turbine is very low.
Pelton wheel turbine is an example.
Reaction turbine works on the reactive force exerted on the vanes as a result of conversion of pressure
energy of the water as it flows between runner vanes. The entry of water into the turbine is in mixed
mode. Reaction turbines are used for medium head and medium discharge. (Francis turbine) or for low
head and high discharge (Kaplan turbine) conditions. The specific speed of turbines is either medium or
low.
QS5 Whether Pelton wheel turbine is impulse turbine or reaction turbine?
Ans: Pelton wheel turbine is an impulse turbine.
Q6 Is draft tube is used in Pelton wheel turbine? If not, why?
Ans: The draft tube is not used in the case of Pelton wheel turbine. Because the pressure inside the
turbine casing as well as at exit is atmospheric, hence, draft tube is not required for Pelton wheel turbine.

33
Q7 What is a penstock?
Ans: Penstock is a pipe that conveys water from reservoir to the turbine casing.
Q8 Define the hydraulic efficiency, mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency and overall efficiency.
Ans: Hydraulic efficiency (hy): The ratio of the power developed by the runner to the net power supplied
by the water at the entrance of the turbine. The two powers differ by the hydraulic losses.
Mechanical efficiency (yy): Ratio of the power available at the turbine shaft to the power developed by
the runner. The two powers differ by mechanical (bearing friction) losses.
Volumetric efficiency (hy): The ratio of the quantity of water actually striking the runner and the quantity
of water supplied to the turbine.
Overall efficiency (hg): The ratio of the power available at the turbine shaft to the power supplied
by the water at the entrance to the turbine.
All above efficiencies are related as: hg =hphyylry.
Q9 On what principle does the Pelton wheel turbine work?
Ans: The total potential energy possessed by the water is converted into kinetic energy when the jet
strikes the buckets of the Pelton wheel, which is used to rotate the buckets.
Q10 What is the specific speed of a turbine?
Ans: The specific speed of a turbine Ny is defined as the speed of a turbine, which is identical in shape,
geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate openings, etc., with that of actual turbine but of such a size
that it will develop unit power when working under unit head.
Q13 What are the uses of unit quantities?
Ans: Unit quantities are used to study the behaviour of the turbines working under varying conditions.
Q15 What is the jet ratio?
Ans: The ratio of the pitch diameter of the runner wheel to the jet diameter is known as jet ratio.
Q16 Is the Pelton wheel turbine tangential flow turbine or radial flow turbine?
Ans: Pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow turbine.
Q17 What is the function of spear in Pelton wheel turbine?
Ans: The spear is used to control the inflow of water into the turbine.
Q18 Define the breaking jet.
Ans: It is the jet provided to stop the Pelton wheel turbine. The breaking jet releases the jet of water that
strikes on the back side of the buckets.

34
 VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 Define a reaction turbine with some examples.
Ans: Reaction turbine works on the reactive force exerted on the vanes as a result of conversion of
pressure energy of the water as it flows between the runner vanes. Examples are Francis turbine and
Kaplan turbine.
Q2 Under what conditions are reaction turbines used?
Ans: Reaction turbines are used for medium head and medium discharge (Francis turbine) or for
low head and high discharge (Kaplan turbine) conditions.
Q3 What is the radial flow turbine?
Ans: A turbine in which the entry and exit of water is along the radial direction is known as radial
flow turbine.
Q4 What is the value of water pressure at the outlet of a reaction turbine?
Ans: The pressure at the outlet of a reaction turbine is below atmospheric that is vacuum or
negative pressure.
Q5 Define the draft tube. What are its uses? Which are the different shapes of draft tubes?
Ans: Draft tube is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area, which connects
the runner exit to the tail race. It converts the negative pressure of water at the exit of the turbine to
atmospheric pressure. Different shapes are: (i) Straight divergent tube, (ii) Moody spreading tube, (iii)
Simple elbow tube and (iv) Elbow tube having circular cross-section at inlet and rectangular section at
outlet.
Q6 What is cavitation? How do you prevent it?
Ans: Cavitation is the phenomenon of removal or erosion of pipe material or formation of cavities when
vapour bubbles formed at low pressure zones burst at regions of high pressure due to condensation.
Cavitation can be prevented by maintaining the absolute pressure head at any location not to fall below
2.5 m of water. Also, the surfaces of impeller, casing and other parts are coated by materials like
aluminium, bronze or stainless steel.
Q7 What do you mean by governing of turbines?
Ans: Governing is synchronizing the speed of the turbine runner with the speed corresponding to
the output load requirement.
O8 State the uses of characteristic curves.
Ans: To study the behaviour of the turbines under varying operating conditions, the characteristic
curves are used.

35
 Experiment
KAPLAN TURBINE
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
Q1 Under what conditions are Kaplan turbines used?
Ans: Kaplan turbine is used for low head and high discharge conditions. Also, the specific speed
of Kaplan turbine is very high (more than 340).
Q2 How is a Kaplan turbine different from a Francis turbine?
Ans: Kaplan turbine is used for low head and high discharge, whereas Francis turbine is used for medium
head and medium discharge condition. In addition, Kaplan turbine is a propeller type turbine with axial
flow, whereas Francis turbine in mixed flow turbine.
Q3 What is the speed ratio of Kaplan turbine?
Ans: The speed ratio of Kaplan turbine is 0.7.
Q4 Define the boss or hub.
Ans: The boss is a part of the Kaplan turbine connected at the end of the shaft on which the runner
vanes are attached.
Q5 What is the difference between Kaplan turbine and propeller turbine?
Ans: In Kaplan turbine the vanes are adjustable, whereas in propeller turbines the vanes are fixed.
Q6 Is the Kaplan turbine radial flow turbine or axial flow turbine?
Ans: Kaplan turbine is an axial flow turbine.

36
 EXTRA VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Each term of Bernoulli's equation has units of

a)N b) Nm/s (c) Nm/kg (d) Nm/N
Answer:D

2. The range for coefficient of discharge for a Venturimeter is

(a) 0.6 to 0.7 b) 0.7 to 0.8 (c) 0.8 to 0.9 (d) 0.95 to 0.99
Answer:D

3. When is Bernoulli's equation applicable between any two points in a flow field?
(a) The flow is steady. compressible and irrotational
(b) The flow is unsteady, incompressible and irrotational
(c) The flow is steady, incompressible and rotational
(d) The flow is steady, incompressible and irrotational
Answer:D

4. The force exerted by a liquid jet impinging normally on a flat plate is maximum when
(a) the plate is stationary
{b) the plate is moving away from the jet with a velocity equal to that of the jet velocity
(c) the plate is moving away’ from the jet with a velocity less than the jet velocity
(d) None of these
Answer:A

5. When a liquid jet of cross-sectional area 'a' and velocity V strikes a flat plate inclined at an
angle Ɵ to the direction of jet. the force exerted by the jet in the direction normal to the plate
is

Answer: a

6. The discharge over a triangular notch having angle 2Ɵ is

Answer: a

7. Which of the following is used for the measurement of rate of flow in open channel such as
flow of water in river?
(a) Notches (b) Weir
(c) Orifices (d) Mouthpieces

37
Answer:b

8. The coefficient of discharge Cd, in terms of Cv and Cc is

a) Cd=Cv/Cc b) Cd=Cc X Cv c) Cd=Cc/Cv (d) None of these
Answer: b

9. The coefficient of discharge of an orifice is always

(a) less than coefficient of contraction.
(b) greater than coefficient of contraction
(c) equal to coefficient of contraction
(d) greater than coefficient of velocity
Answer: a

10. A reservoir containing water has two orifices of the same size at depths of 4m and 9m
below the free surface of water, The ratio of discharges through these orifices is
(a) 4:9 (b)9:4 (c) 2:3 (d) 16:81
Answer : c

11. A fluid jet discharging from a 50 mm diameter orifice has a diameter of 40 mm at its vena
contracta. If the coefficient of velocity is 0.98, the coefficient of discharge for the orifice
will be
(a) 0.98 x (0.8)2 (b) (0.8)2/0.98
(d )0.98 x (1.25)2 (d) (1.25)2/0.98
Answer: a

12. The coefficient of discharge of a mouthpiece is

(a) less than that of orifice {b) more than that of orifice
(c) equal to that of orifice (d) dependent on the type of mouthpieces.
Answer:b

13. A mouthpiece having maximum coefficient of discharge is

(a) external mouthpiece
b)internal mouthpiece
(c) convergent-divergent mouthpiece
(d) None of these
Answer:c

14. Bernoulli‘s principle is derived from which of the following?

a) Conservation of mass
b) Conservation of energy
c) Newton‘s law of motion
d) Conservation of momentum
Answer: b
15. The total energy line lies over the hydraulic gradient line by an amount equal to the
a) pressure head
b) velocity head
c) pressure head + velocity head
d) pressure head - velocity head

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 Answer: Option b

16 Which among the following is the formula for Force when it strikes the plate?
a) pav2
b) pav
c) pav3
d) 0.5 pav

Answer: a

17. The Reynolds number is used when the following force is predominant

a) Gravitational force
b) Viscous force
c) Surface tension force
d) Compressibility force

Answer: Option b

Fluid Mechanics Laboratory(III-semester A-1 and A-2; AY 2020-21 Odd semester)

Objective Questions

1. Bernoulli’s theorem deals with the law of conservation of

(a) mass (b) momentum (c) energy (d) concentration

Answer:C

2. All the terms of energy in Bernoulli's equation have dimension of

(a) mass (b) energy (c) length (a) work

Answer: C

3. Bernoulli’s equation relates

(a) various forms of mechanical energy

(b) various forces involved in fluid flow

(c) torque to change in angular momentum

(d) various forces with change in momentum

Answer:A

4. Each term of Bernoulli's equation has units of

a)N b) Nm/s (c) Nm/kg (d) Nm/N

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Answer:D

5. In the most general form of Bernoulli’s equation each term represents

(a) energy per unit mass {b) energy per unit weight

(c) energy per unit volume (d) None of these

Answer:B

6. A stagnation point is a point in fluid Now where

(a) total energy is zero (b) pressure is zero

(c) velocity of flow is zero {d) total energy is maximum

Answer: C

7. Bernoulli equation can be derived from

(a) momentum balance only:

(b) energy balance only

(c) either momentum balance or energy balance

d) conservation of mass only

Answer:C

8. Pitot tube is used for the measurement of

(a) flow {b) velocity at a point

(c) discharge (d) pressure

Answer:B

9. The range for coefficient of discharge for a venturimeter is

(a) 0.6 to 0.7 b) 0.7 to 0.8 (c) 0.8 to 0.9 (d) 0.95 to 0.99

Answer:D

10. A venturimeter is a device used to measure

(a) pressure in a fluid (b) velocity at a point

(c) flow rate (d) temperature of the fluid

Answer:C

11. Which of the following instrument is used to measure flow by application of Bernoulli’s

theorem:

(a) Venturimeter {b) Orificemeter (c) Pitot tube (d) All of these

Answer:D

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12. When is Bernoulli's equation applicable between any two points in a flow field?

(a) The flow is steady. compressible and irrotational

(b) The flow is unsteady, incompressible and irrotational

(c) The flow is steady, incompressible and rotational

(d) The flow is steady, incompressible and irrotational

Answer:D

13. A horizontal water jet with a velocity of 10 m/s and cross-sectional area of 10 sq.mm strikes

a flat plate held normal to the flow direction, The density of water is 100 kg/sq.m, The total

force on the plate due to the jet is.

(a) 0.1N b)1 N (c) 10 N (d) 100N

Answer:B

14. The force exerted by a liquid jet impinging normally on a flat plate is maximum when

(a) the plate is stationary

{b) the plate is moving away from the jet with a velocity equal to that of the jet velocity

(c) the plate is moving away’ from the jet with a velocity less than the jet velocity

(d) None of these

Answer:A

15. A circular jet of water impinges on a vertical flat plate and bifurcates into two circular jets

of half the diameter of the original, After hitting the plate

(a) The jets move at equal velocity which is twice of the original velocity

{b) The jets move at equal velocity which is 3 times of the original velocity

(c) Data given is insufficient to calculate velocities of the two outgoing jets

(d) The jets move at equal velocity which is equal to the original velocity.

Answer: C

16. When a liquid jet of cross-sectional area 'a' and velocity V strikes a flat plate inclined at an

angle Ɵ to the direction of jet. the force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion of jet is

Answer:b

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17. When a liquid jet of cross-sectional area 'a' and velocity V strikes a flat plate inclined at an

angle Ɵ to the direction of jet. the force exerted by the jet in the direction normal to the plate

is

Answer: a

18. The discharge over a rectangular notch is

Answer: a

19. The discharge over a triangular notch having angle 2Ɵ is

Answer: a

20. An error of 1% in the measurement of head in a rectangular notch causes an error of

(a) 0.5% in the discharge (b) 1.0% in the discharge

(c) 1.5% in the discharge (d) 2.5% in the discharge

21. An error of 1% in the measurement of head m a V-notch causes an error of

(a) 0.5% in the discharge {b) 1.0% in the discharge

(c) 1.5% in the discharge (d) 2.5% in the discharge

Answer : c

22. A Cipolletti weir has a side slope of

(a) 1 horizontal: 2 vertical {b) 1 horizontal: 4 vertical

(c) 1 vertical: 2 horizontal {d) 1 vertical: 4 horizontal

Answer: b

23. Which of the following is used for the measurement of rate of flow in open channel such as

flow of water in river?

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(a) Notches (b) Weir

(c) Orifices (d) Mouthpieces

Answer:b

24. The coefficient of discharge Cd, in terms of Cv and Cc is

a) Cd=Cv/Cc b) Cd=Cc X Cv c) Cd=Cc/Cv (d) None of these

Answer: b

25. The coefficient of discharge of an orifice is always

(a) less than coefficient of contraction.

(b) greater than coefficient of contraction

(c) equal to coefficient of contraction

(d) greater than coefficient of velocity

Answer: a

26. A reservoir containing water has two orifices of the same size at depths of 4m and 9m

below the free surface of water, The ratio of discharges through these orifices is

(a) 4:9 (b)9:4 (c) 2:3 (d) 16:81

Answer : c

27. A fluid jet discharging from a 50 mm diameter orifice has a diameter of 40 mm at its vena

contracta. If the coefficient of velocity is 0.98, the coefficient of discharge for the orifice

will be

(a) 0.98 x (0.8)2 (b) (0.8)2/0.98

(d )0.98 x (1.25)2 (d) (1.25)2/0.98

Answer: a

28. The coefficient of discharge of a mouthpiece is

(a) less than that of orifice {b) more than that of orifice

(c) equal to that of orifice (d) dependent on the type of mouthpieces.

Answer:b

29. A mouthpiece having maximum coefficient of discharge is

(a) external mouthpiece

b)internal mouthpiece

43
(c) convergent-divergent mouthpiece

(d) None of these

Answer:c

44