French Et Al-1999-Geoarchaeology

GEA(Wiley) RIGHT BATCH
Soil Erosion, Agricultural Terracing and

Site Formation Processes at Markiani,
Amorgos, Greece: The
Micromorphological Perspective
C.A.I. French1 and T.M. Whitelaw2
1
Department of Archaeology, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ, United Kingdom
2
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, WC1H 0PY,
United Kingdom
Soils and sediments of a terraced slope at an Early Bronze Age site on the Aegean island of
Amorgos were examined micromorphologically to determine the nature and amount of ero-
sion on the slope during the past 5000 years, and how this had affected the formation of the
surviving archaeological record. The deposits forming representative terraces were examined,
as was the postdepositional sequence overlying the site, and a palaeosol preserved beneath
terrace retaining walls at the break of slope. The buried, preterrace system “red soil” was a
reworked red palaeosol, much affected by downslope erosion processes, which probably
commenced with clearance associated with the Early Bronze Age occupation of the site.
Examination of this soil suggested that there were at least two premodern phases of use of
the hillside. 䉷 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
During surface investigations at the Early Bronze Age site of Markiani on the
island of Amorgos in the Cyclades (Figure 1), it became apparent that downslope
erosion had drastically modified the surface distribution of artefactual materials, a
process itself affected by the extensive construction of agricultural terraces across
the site. It was anticipated that the application of micromorphological techniques
(after Courty et al., 1989) could significantly enhance our understanding of the
erosion processes involved, as well as the disturbance processes related to the
construction, use, and subsequent decay of the relict agricultural terracing. There-
fore, the principal focus of this study has been to attempt to identify the soil trans-
formations associated with the periods of use of the site, and with the creation,
use, and collapse of the agricultural terraces on the slope. The research has con-
tributed to an understanding of the creation and modification of the surface distri-
bution of artefacts at the site, and has produced information about the poorly short
understood prehistoric environment and land-use of the Cycladic islands. standard
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 14, No. 2, 151– 189 (1999)

䉷 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0883-6353/99/020151-39
GEA(Wiley) LEFT BATCH
FRENCH AND WHITELAW
short
Figure 1. (a) Location of Amorgos; (b) location of Markiani; (c) site topography and profile locations.
standard
152 VOL. 14, NO. 2

EROSION, TERRACING, SITE FORMATION PROCESSES AT MARKIANI, GREECE
Following discovery and initial investigation in 1985, the site at Markiani was
subjected to detailed surface investigation in 1987 and excavation during 1988 –
1990, by a collaborative team from the universities of Ioannina, Athens, and Cam-
bridge, from 1987 to 1990 (Marangou, 1994:470 – 471; Davis, 1992:752 – 753). The
final publication of those investigations is in progress (Marangou et al., in prepa-
ration), while the present article reports on subsequent research undertaken to
assist in understanding issues of site formation and postdepositional modifications
of the archaeological record.
The site at Markiani is one of many small Early Bronze Age sites known from
the island (Marangou 1984, 1994). It was first occupied late in the first phase of the
Cycladic Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000 – 2800 B.C.), documented by ceramics of the
later Grotta-Pelos Group (Renfrew, 1972:152 – 169, 526 – 528, 1984; Doumas, 1977:
15 – 18). In all, four prehistoric occupation phases have been identified at the site,
the latest characterized by material of the Kastri Group, late in the Early Bronze
Age (Renfrew, 1972:172, 533 – 534; Sotirakopoulou, 1993; Manning, 1995:51 – 63, 81 –
86), approximately 2350 – 2200 B.C.
Later use of the site is represented by material ranging from the Geometric
through the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods (ca. 800 B.C. – A.D. 500),
principally recovered through surface collection, but also represented in the su-
perficial levels of many of the excavation trenches. After this, use of the site appears
to be limited to the system of agricultural terraces (cultivation ceased during the
1960s), while at present the slopes around the site are grazed by sheep and goats,
with small folds on the summit of the hill.
SITE FORMATION STUDIES AT MARKIANI

The site is situated on a small knoll, above the precipitous southern cliffs of the
island (Figures 1 and 2). One of the principal aims of the analysis of the surface
material from the site has been to study the effects of downslope erosion on the
movement and modification of archaeological materials. In a geomorphically active
environment such as the southern Aegean, where intensive surface surveys are
taking on an increasingly significant role in archaeological interpretation (Cherry,
1983, 1994; Rutter, 1993; Cherry et al., 1991a; Jameson et al., 1994; Cavanagh et al.,
1996; Wells and Runnels, 1996; Mee et al., 1997; Shelmerdine, 1997), it is imperative
that we develop methods for identifying and interpreting the processes responsible
for the generation and modification of the characteristics of surface archaeological
assemblages. Because of its extreme topographic relief, Markiani provides an ex-
cellent opportunity for such methodological research, but an understanding of the
archaeological formation processes is also necessary for the substantive interpre-
tation of the history and nature of occupation at the site itself.
Approximately 9000 sherds were collected from 707 survey units, distributed
over 25 ha of slope at Markiani, constituting a 1.6% sample of the surface of the
site. Initial analysis suggests that the ceramics have dispersed erosion, from an short
occupation area of only ca. 0.25 ha, on the top and upper southern slope of the site standard
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 153

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Figure 2. View looking west across the slope at Markiani: (A) gentle terraces at base of slope;
(B) summit of hill.
(Figure 1[c]). While the basic outline of the history of site use could be ascertained
from the available archaeological data, too little work has been done on the down-
slope erosion of archaeological materials to enable detailed inferences about the
processes responsible for the creation of the present surface distribution of ceram-
ics, or the original depositional patterns of archaeological materials on the site
(Kirkby and Kirkby, 1976; Davidson, 1976; Rick, 1976; Stein and Rapp, 1978; Thor-
nes and Gilman, 1983; Reid and Frostick, 1985; Rosen, 1986; Wilkinson and Duhon,
1990; James et al., 1994; Wainwright, 1992). The exploratory study of the site and
slope sediments reported here was undertaken to provide sedimentological infor-
mation to aid in the interpretation of the erosion history of the site, and to con-
tribute to our understanding of the nature and effects of terrace construction on
the slope deposits and the archaeological materials embedded within them.
METHODS
Detailed examination of the slope, undertaken during and after the surface col-
lection, enabled the identification of a number of exposures across the site where
archaeological excavation or terrace wall collapse had exposed sediments which
could be investigated without further damage to slope stability. Prospection of the
main area of terraces on the slope beneath the site was undertaken with the fol- short
lowing aims in mind: standard
154 VOL. 14, NO. 2

Figure 3. Schematic profile of slope and sample sections at Markiani.
1. identification of old land surfaces and in situ palaeosols;

2. assessment of the consistency or variation up- and downslope of the sediment
composition of the terraces; and
3. investigation of the postabandonment modification of the site deposits.
Five profiles were selected as either the most representative and/or best preserved
exposures suitable for recording and sampling for micromorphological analysis
(Figures 1[c] 3 and 10). In particular, there were three major sets of contexts which
justified further investigation. These were:
1. the preterrace soil profile, examined in Profiles 2 and 3;
2. the deposits comprising the terraces, examined in Profiles 4 and 6; and
3. the deposits accumulating within and on top of the Early Bronze Age struc- short
tures on the hilltop site as exposed in Trench I.5 (as Profile 7). standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Table I. A summary of the main characteristics of the features examined at Markiani.
Preterrace soil Terraces Excavation Sequence

2 and 3 6 4 7/1,2,3 7/4,5
10– 30% stone 40– 55% stone 40– 70% stone 10– 20% stone
70– 90% soil 45– 60% soil 30– 60% soil 80– 90% soil
20– 30% pores 30% pores 30% pores 15– 50% pores 25% pores
Well-developed Poor to moderate peds Poor peds to vughy Vughy
peds
Clay loam Sandy loam Clay loam Silty clay
loam
1 fabric 1 fabric 1 fabric 1 fabric
⬍2% organics ⬍10% organics 5– 10% organics ⬍8% organics
Abundant dusty Abundant dusty clay Abundant dusty clay
clay
All fabric reddened Dusty clay void linings Dusty clay void linings
Interpretation:
Reworked red soil with two Eroded soil and stones Post-occupation erosion and deposition
phases of disturbance post-Bronze Age erosion and terrace
and erosion construction
The soil blocks were impregnated and made into “mammoth” thin sections (after
Murphy, 1986) at the Geo-Archaeology Laboratory, Department of Archaeology,
Cambridge. The thin sections were analyzed using a Leitz polarizing microscope
and described using the terminology of Bullock et al. (1985). Table I is a summary
of the results, and the detailed descriptions are given in the Appendix.
RESULTS OF THE MICROMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES

The Preterrace Soil
Archaeological Context
At the lowest extent of the distribution of archaeological materials are a series
of broad terraces, while below this, small collapsing terraces continue down to the
sea. The terraces are supported by now-collapsing or overgrown walls, 0.5 – 2.0 m
in height, creating wide cultivation surfaces (Figure 2). In the recent past, these
would have been tilled by animal-drawn scratch-ploughs; access for donkey or mule
is indicated by an abandoned threshing floor among the terraces. The change in
slope represented by these shallow, broad terraces, in the otherwise steep and
rocky slope, has acted as a sediment trap, witnessed by the dearth of surface ar-
chaeological materials on the lower slopes down to the sea.
The archaeological materials on these terraces are predominantly post-Bronze
Age — almost entirely Hellenistic in date. This may represent material eroded down-
slope from the concentration of similar material on the hilltop, but given the rela-
tively good preservation of the sherds, at least some of this material probably rep- short
resents an area of localized activity (such as cultivation), on what would in the standard
156 VOL. 14, NO. 2

past also have been the most easily worked section of the slope. Cultivation could
have been undertaken without the construction of terraces, though when the rest
of the slope was terraced in the more recent past, this area was also, removing
stones from the fields as well as creating a level and more stable cultivation surface.
Relatively few Early Bronze Age sherds were recovered this far downslope, and
most are small and heavily abraded. The densities of obsidian, contemporary with
and eroding from the same deposits as the Early Bronze Age ceramics, are signif-
icantly higher, indicating, as on other early prehistoric sites in the Cyclades (Whi-
telaw, 1991b), the preferential survival of obsidian during weathering and down-
slope movement, whereas relatively low-fired Early Bronze Age ceramics
comminute, abrade, and eventually disintegrate with movement downslope. This
would have been exacerbated on these terraces, if the prehistoric sherds were
exposed to a period of early historic as well as more recent cultivation.
Very few archaeological materials are visible in the exposed sections where ter-
race walls have collapsed. While too few for any effective quantitative comparison,
the low density visible in vertical section is compatible with the low density of
material visible on the surface. The absence of any clear deposition or sedimen-
tation levels within the fills behind the terraces suggests that (at least at the front
of the terraces) the soil has been thoroughly mixed in the construction of the
terraces, rather than representing a complex erosion or build-up sequence. Helle-
nistic as well as Early Bronze Age sherds are found through the whole vertical
exposure.
At two points among the terraces, it was possible to identify exposed probable
palaeosols directly underlying the base of the terrace walls (Profiles 2 and 3). No
sherds were found in these exposures, though given the low density of sherds in
any of the lower slope fills, this cannot be taken as necessarily documenting a pre-
Early Bronze Age date for these palaeosols. These levels predate the terraces they
underlie, differ visually from the overlying terrace fills, and could potentially rep-
resent sediments accumulating before the significant deposition of cultural mate-
rials on the slope.
Profile Description
At the base of Profiles 2 and 3, a preterrace soil was found to be preserved and
exposed beneath the lowermost stones of the terrace retaining walls (Figure 4).
This soil consisted of two horizons. The upper, thinner (ca. 80 – 100 mm) horizon
was a pale to medium brown silty clay loam with common small (⬍20 mm) stones.
It exhibited a poorly developed, small, irregular blocky ped structure (Figures 5
and 6). The lower, thicker (ca. 200 – 350 mm) horizon was a pinkish-red to orangey-
red clay loam which exhibited a similar soil structure, with an even mix of small
stones (⬍10 mm) and occasional larger stone inclusions (⬍100 mm) (Figure 5).
All thin sections from the main, lower horizon of this soil exhibited similar char-
acteristics. The matrix is a clay loam containing almost equal proportions of sand short
(30%), silt (30%), and clay (40%). It exhibits a moderately well developed, small to standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
short
Figure 4. The in situ red soil below the retaining wall, at profile 3. Trowel is 15 cm. standard
158 VOL. 14, NO. 2

Figure 5. Photomicrograph of the red soil of Profile 3, illustrating the irregular to subangular blocky
ped structure and the common occurrence of small limestone fragments (white, coarse sand size). Cross-
polarized light. Frame width ⫽ 4 mm.
medium, sub-angular blocky ped structure, which is evident both in the field as
well as in thin section (Figure 5). The soil is relatively porous with many biological
aggregates (20 – 45%) and contains very little organic matter (⬍1%), and the whole
matrix is reddened as a result of impregnation with amorphous iron (but not burnt)
(Figure 6). The clay fraction is dominated by nonlaminated “dusty” (or impure)
clay, which is evenly distributed throughout the whole fabric, both in the ground-
mass and in the voids.
Interpretation
The unsampled upper horizon is essentially a more friable and browner version
of the underlying horizon that was examined in thin section. It is probably more
organic, and therefore could be considered as an A-type horizon. This suggests that
there was no appreciable preterrace truncation of this soil.
The lower horizon, with its distinctive structure, reddening and enrichment with
clay and iron, probably represents a red Mediterranean soil. Red soils and in par-
ticular, terra rossa, are believed to have been characteristic of this part of the
Mediterranean prior to clearance and intensive agricultural practices (Bridges, short
1978:67 – 70; Zangger, 1992). standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Figure 6. Photomicrograph of the fine fabric of the red soil of Profile 3, with a fragment of oriented
clay subsoil in the top left corner. Plane-polarized light. Frame width ⫽ 4 mm.
Thus, these two horizons would appear to represent an in situ soil preserved in
“pockets” on the slope and beneath the much later terrace construction, although
it is not necessarily the original and unmodified preagricultural soil.
The substantial impure clay fraction in this palaeosol deserves further comment.
In this soil profile, it occurs both within the groundmass as an integral part of the
soil fabric and in the interpedal void space. “Dusty” or impure clay is composed of
a mixture of microcontrasted silt particles and minute fragments of organic matter
(Macphail, 1987). This type of illuvial clay is particularly characteristic of disturbed
soils (Slager and van de Wetering, 1977). This may be indicative of an earlier phase
of incorporation of fines as a result of the disturbance of a bare soil, associated
rain splash and/or slope wash erosion and the consequent addition of fines, and
within-soil mass movement of fines. On the other hand, the dusty clay lining the
void space suggest a subsequent phase of illuviation of fines down-profile (Mac-
phail, 1992; Kwaad and Mücher, 1977). Consequently, there may be two preterrace-
construction phases of disturbance and illuviation of fines. In addition, the fact that
this soil exhibits no sign of any recent illuvial movement of fines suggests that this
soil ceased to receive fine material once it was buried by the sediments later re-
worked in the construction of the terraces.
Both phases of illuviation suggest that there was considerable erosion of open short
and often bare slopes prior to the establishment of the terrace system. It is probable standard
160 VOL. 14, NO. 2

that this illuvial dusty clay deposition was caused by rainsplash and localised slo-
pewash erosion of fine textured, bare soils and within-soil, down-profile, mass
movement of the dislodged fine material (Kwaad and Mücher, 1979). A rare torren-
tial rainstorm would have been sufficient to cause mass-movement of soil down-
slope (Clark and Small, 1982:35 – 40), very much like a mudslide. By implication it
may be suggested that this bare soil was associated with past agricultural or pas-
toral use. Thus this soil was already much modified by gradual colluvial accumu-
lation by the time it was buried by terrace wall construction.
The origin and formation of terra rossa is an extremely complex issue. There
are three major types (after van Andel, 1998, 1996; Heilmann, 1972; Limbrey, 1975;
Spaargaren, 1979):
1. original terra rossa formed by the in situ dissolution of limestone in karst
landscapes and characterized by amorphous iron oxides and hydroxides, with
the clay fraction dominated by kaolinite;
2. reworked red soils, which are generally noncalcareous and with up to 25%
aeolian content, often formed as a result of hillwash processes; and
3. red fan deposits which are colluvial/alluvial deposits derived from terra rossa,
or uplifted and dissected from flysch deposits.
Limbrey (1975:205) generalizes that terra rossa soil profiles occur on hard lime-
stones and other calcareous rocks, and are composed of a reddish brown A horizon
and a strong reddish brown to red textural B (or Bt) horizon (Limbrey, 1975:205).
This Bt horizon exhibits a strong blocky ped structure with marked illuvial clay
coatings in the inter- and intra-aggregate pore space. The leaching in these soils
leads to intense clay migration, with the characteristic reddening or rubifaction,
indicating no more than seasonal drying sufficient to cause the dehydration of iron
oxides. Furthermore, Limbrey (1975:204 – 205, 211) regards these red soils as relict
survivals of probable interglacial age, formed under various types of deciduous and
evergreen forest.
There is no doubt that this red soil at Markiani formed as a result of leaching,
deposition of amorphous iron, and clay migration down profile. As most of the
illuvial clay in thin section is clearly of nonlaminated dusty type, there has been
much within-soil mass movement of fine material, probably associated with dis-
turbance and erosion of the original soil. Thus, although the soil present beneath
the terraces at the base of Profiles 2 and 3 would appear to exhibit the terra rossa
characteristics set out by Limbrey (1975), they bear a much closer resemblance to
van Andel’s definition of reworked red soils (van Andel, 1998). Moreover, there is
no reason to think that this kind of intense clay illuviation, erosion and slumping
could not have occurred within the postglacial period; there is no need to invoke
a much greater age for this soil. Unfortunately, it is difficult to ascertain the tem-
poral range of this reworked red soil, or indeed to link its formation directly with
the site’s occupation in the Early Bronze Age. It most probably developed subse-
quent to deforestation of the slope and the illuviation events were associated with short
preterrace, agricultural or pastoral phases of use of the hillside. standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Archaeological Implications
It would seem plausible to suggest that the erosion documented in this profile
was initiated with cultivation and grazing on and immediately around the site at
Markiani, following its establishment late in the first phase of the Early Bronze Age,
ca. 2900 B.C. While systematic, intensive, regional surface survey has not been
undertaken on Amorgos, extensive exploration during the past century (Tsountas,
1898; Dümmler, 1886; Marangou, 1984, 1994) has documented widespread occu-
pation throughout the island during the Early Bronze Age, with several sites within
about 1 km of Markiani. It cannot be certain that these are the closest contemporary
sites to Markiani, but similar patterns of intersite spacing in the Early Bronze Age
have been revealed where intensive surveys have been undertaken on other Cy-
cladic islands (Cherry, 1982; Érard-Cerceau et al., 1993).
The relatively small population of the site at any time during the Early Bronze
Age is unlikely to have required cultivation (and therefore terrace construction) on
the steep slope below the site. Rather, fields are likely to have been situated on the
gentle slopes immediately to the north, leading toward what were, until recently,
well-watered valleys draining north (S. Giannakos, personal communication, 1992).
However, cultivation at the top of the slope, dumping of refuse downslope from
the site, and grazing in the vicinity of the site, would all be likely to cause clearance
and erosion on the slope below the site.
Excavated deposits with ceramics of the first two phases of occupation at Mar-
kiani are limited, and the small and abraded condition of the sherds may indicate
that occupation of the site during the earlier part of the Early Bronze Age was
episodic rather than continuous. This may have resulted in several short-term cy-
cles of clearance and partial regeneration of the natural vegetation on the slope.
Equally, the limited extent of the site in the early phases might also mean that the
earliest occupation extensive enough to have a significant impact on the local en-
vironment was not until later in the Early Bronze Age (phases III and IV: ca. 2700 –
2200 B.C.).
The preservation of an A-Bt horizon profile at the top of this exposure indicates
that little, if any, of the original profile has been truncated by the construction of
the terraces. The fills behind the terraces, comparable to the fills sampled in Profiles
4 and 6, probably represent a reworking of sediments which had accumulated
above the palaeosol. The degree of development of the red soil indicates that these
overlying sediments resulted from deposition episodes substantially later than the
stabilization of the earlier deposit. The two phases of illuviation identified micro-
scopically could either predate, or relate to these proposed later depositional epi-
sodes. Given the time which must have elapsed for the development of the structure
visible in the palaeosol, the proposed later episodes of sedimentation should relate
to later utilization or partial clearance and destabilization of the slope, potentially
tying in with the Geometric to Roman use of the site.
While the interpretation of this soil is somewhat speculative, given the present short
state of our understanding of the soil and vegetation history of most of the southern standard
162 VOL. 14, NO. 2

Aegean, let alone our limited understanding of settlement history on Amorgos, the
sedimentary evidence of this profile, associated with a well-documented occupa-
tional sequence on the site, allows a more direct linkage between human behavioral
processes and their potential impacts on the landscape through vegetation change
and erosion, than is usually possible in regional environmental studies. In this
sense, the micromorphological analysis of this profile opens up possibilities for
environmental and land-use research which were not originally anticipated, but
which deserve to be explored further.
The Terrace Deposits

Although numerous exposures of terrace deposits were examined up- and down-
slope, they appeared to exhibit remarkable uniformity in terms of sediment com-
position. Accordingly, four spot samples were taken from two different terraces on
different parts of the slope, out of 10 profiles studied in the field. These were
selected from clean profiles that were available at locations where whole sections
of terrace wall had collapsed or been removed, revealing the face of the profile
behind. These flank the outskirts of the main distribution of archaeological mate-
rials, one profile at the base of the main slope (Profile 4), and one to the west
(Profile 6) (Figure 1[c]), principally because the terraces on the central slope are
considerably overgrown, and the collapsing faces have usually been worn back by
goat trampling.
The composition of the sediments comprising the terraces is quite different from
the buried soil, but remarkably uniform among the terraces studied and sampled.
In the field, the terrace deposits exhibited a poorly developed, irregular to sub-
rounded, blocky ped microstructure. The sediments comprise pale pinkish brown
silty clay loam with variable amounts of stone inclusions of different sizes in hor-
izontal and random orientations.
The midslope terraces below the site, but above the sediment trap of the shallow
terraces considered above, are all small, 1.5 – 4.0 m in width, usually retained by
walls 1.0 – 2.0 m high. Bedrock is sometimes exposed at the upslope edge of the
cultivation surface, and the retaining walls are sometimes, at least for part of their
length, built on bare rock. The terraces are all of relatively short lateral extent, 4.0
up to 20.0 m, broken up by exposures of bedrock or large detached boulders. Many
of these terraces will not have been accessible for animals to draw a plough, and
will most likely have been cultivated by hand using a mattock or spade. As with
plough cultivation, soil turning during cultivation will have been limited to the
upper 10 – 15 cm of the deposit.
The Archaeological Service Representative who assisted us in collecting the soil
samples, Mr Simos Giannakos, had, in the past, cultivated terraced fields several
hundred meters southwest of those under study. As he explained, the usual method short
of construction of a terrace was to cut back slightly into the slope, build a wall standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Figure 7. Photomicrograph of the poorly developed structure of the terrace make-up of Profile 4,
with the peds and quartz grains outlined by amorphous iron oxides. Plane-polarized light. Frame
width ⫽ 4 mm.
against the small escarpment formed, and then fill up behind the wall with earth
cut from the rear of the terrace — or cut away to form the seating for the next
terrace wall above.
Description
The most striking visual characteristic of the sediment is the amount, size, and
variety of stone evenly mixed, but poorly sorted, throughout the matrix; the stone
content varies in quantity from about 40% to 70% of the whole matrix. The remain-
ing soil size fraction ranges in quantity from about 30% to 60% of the matrix, and
is composed of a porous (30%), orangey/reddish brown sandy (clay) loam to loam.
In general, the soil component contains more fine sand and coarse silt, and much
less clay than in the buried soil. It exhibits a poorly developed irregular to suban-
gular blocky ped microstructure (Figure 7). There is a relatively minor organic
matter component to the fine groundmass (Figure 8), but it is three to four times
greater than in the reworked red soil in Profiles 2 and 3. There are also a few soil
faunal excrements within the void space, and the whole fabric is highly biologically
reworked. short
All of the slides contain a variety of different clay coatings within the soil fraction. standard
164 VOL. 14, NO. 2

Figure 8. Photomicrograph of the very fine organic component within the fine groundmass of the terrace
make-up of Profile 4. Plane-polarized light. Frame width ⫽ 4 mm.
Nonlaminated dusty clay (15%) with poor to moderate birefringence is the most
common, with relatively minor amounts (5%) of similar impure clay “lining” the
interpedal voids and channels (Figure 9). In addition, there were rare (⬍2%) frag-
ments of “clean” yellow clay within the groundmass exhibiting strong birefringence
which are probably eroded fragments of bedrock (schist/mudstone) rather than
pure clay coatings (R. Macphail, personal communication, 1995).
Interpretation
The makeup of the terraces exposed by Profiles 4 and 6 is dominated by one
fabric composed of poorly sorted stone and an organic sandy clay loam to loam
with poor soil structure. This is a mixture of soil material derived from the mass
movement downslope and illuviation of fines (silt and clay), as well as higher ve-
locity erosion responsible for the incorporation of limestone pebbles and rocks, all
subject to considerable mixing by soil faunal activity. There are also minor com-
ponents such as eroded subsoil material, and past and present material derived
from rainsplash and hill-wash.
The clay component suggests that there were three types of erosion occurring
at different times:
short
1. Minute, clay-sized, eroded fragments of the subsoil: These may be associated standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Figure 9. Photomicrograph of successive, laminated, pure and dusty clay infills of an interpedal channel
typical of all the terrace make-up deposits examined, which has been subject to some removal. Plane-
polarized light. Frame width ⫽ 4 mm.
with the physical/chemical weathering of exposed (through sheet erosion)

areas of subsoil.
2. Illuvial, nonlaminated dusty clay, well integrated with the groundmass, which
is indicative of soil disturbance and probably the erosion of the original soil
associated with rainsplash, within-soil mass movement and the mass move-
ment of fines downslope: These are probably the same erosional processes
that had earlier affected the reworked red palaeosol.
3. The nonlaminated dusty clay as “linings” of the void spaces suggests that more
recent illuviation of fines has occurred, but which has also resulted from rain-
splash erosion of fines from a bare and exposed soil surface, such as present
on these slopes today.
Unlike the lower, broader terraces, there is nothing to suggest that the upper
slopes of the site were ever cultivated in antiquity, though there was sufficient soil
disturbance in places upslope to cause subsoil and soil erosion downslope. The
Early Bronze Age sherds on the surface and incorporated in the terrace fill, given short
their edge abrasion, are likely to have been eroded from the site above, and the standard
166 VOL. 14, NO. 2

Figure 10. View of the scarp of Trench I.5 at the summit of the site, looking west. The retaining wall
has been mostly removed from the front of the terrace at the left, and the bedded plane of small stones
marking the top of the Early Bronze Age fills is visible descending to the left, halfway up the section.
Height of soil section ⫽ 108 cm.
same seems likely for the later historical material. The terrace walls themselves
reveal no evidence for earlier foundations or phases of rebuilding.
The absence of any clear preterrace deposits on the main slope may be a function
of the steeper slope and shallower soils, such that all deposits have been reworked
in the construction of the terraces, or those that survive do so only in small pockets
in the rock, buried beneath the terrace fills. In contrast, the sediment trap formed
by the lower, broader terraces, may have been much more effective at retaining
deep slope deposits that did not need to be reworked so completely in the con-
struction of the recent terraces.
Trench I.5 Archaeological Sequence

The final suite of samples was taken from a column in the scarp of the excavation
trench near the summit of the hill (Figure 10). While archaeological deposits have
only been preserved in shallow hollows in the rock on the eroded top of the hill,
relatively well-preserved deposits, principally of the final phase of occupation, are
preserved immediately south of the summit on a shelf bounded and stabilized by short
rock outcrops. standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
These samples constitute a sequence within and above the structures represent-
ing the final phase of occupation at the site late in the Early Bronze Age. No higher
levels representing the historical use of the site were preserved in this trench, but
there is late material in the plough-zone and on the surface, primarily of Hellenistic
date, representing a disturbed superficial level.
Occupation of the site extended onto this natural rock-bounded terrace, below
and to the south of the summit of the hill, by the third phase of occupation, ca.
2700 – 2400 B.C. There is no sign of a sudden or violent destruction of the phase IV
structures, and no complete vessels were found in situ on the house floors. The
site appears to have been abandoned (ca. 2200 B.C.), and the structures left to
collapse naturally.
The sampled section (Figure 10) comes from within a room or perhaps a small
enclosed yard. The lowest levels sampled sit on top of the final occupation floor,
but below the preserved tops of the surrounding walls, and so represent collapse
debris and sediments washed into the ruins, probably from similar deposits on the
exposed summit of the hill, immediately to the north.
This fill appears to have stabilized with a layer of small- to medium-sized rocks
and sherds, lying bedded downslope to the south, at the level of the preserved tops
of the walls. This layer represents deflation of concentrated debris forming a lag
deposit which capped the debris of the abandoned site (Figure 10). This would
have provided an effective guard against further natural erosion, particularly coun-
tering the erosive effects of rainsplash. Bounded downslope by rock outcrops, the
deposits would also have been stabilized against mass downslope slump.
In a trench immediately to the east, a wall from the later reoccupation of the site
(Hellenistic or Roman) lay exposed on the surface of the terrace. The two courses
of the wall sit on, but do not cut into, the lag deposit that seals the Early Bronze
Age collapse fill. In the sampled exposure there is likewise no evidence that later
occupation interfered with the earlier deposits or exposed them to further erosion.
In the sampled exposure, the Early Bronze Age walls, fill, and deflated surface
are directly covered by an undifferentiated fill, retained by the wall fronting the
terrace, itself founded directly on bedrock (Figure 10).
Description
Within the excavated area, the main upstanding section which survived to a
height of 1.08 m in Trench I.5/space 1 appeared to have the best potential for soil/
sediment information directly related to the abandonment of the site. The surface
of the terrace is level, well-compacted, and slightly deflated. It was last cultivated
several decades ago and, until excavation, provided one of the main access routes
for sheep and goats from the slope to the shelters immediately above, on the sum-
mit of the hill.
The sampled profile exhibited the following stratigraphy from top to bottom short
(Figure 10): standard
168 VOL. 14, NO. 2

0 – 0.45 terrace buildup of a pale brown silty clay loam with common, ir-
regularly oriented stones (⬍80 mm);
0.45 – 0.60 similar sediment, but with abundant, large (100 – 250 mm) slabs of
schist and other medium and small stones and sherds, bedded
downslope;
0.60 – 0.85 similar sediment with common, irregularly oriented medium stones
(⬍80 mm);
0.85 – 1.08 similar sediment with occasional small stones (⬍20 mm) exhibiting
some horizontal bedding; and
1.08⫹ (m) as yet unexcavated, but could reveal several cms of in situ floor
makeup and earlier occupation deposits resting directly on bed-
rock.
The profile was sampled at the following intervals: 0.10 – 0.20, 0.26 – 0.40, 0.66 – 0.80,
0.80 – 0.94, and 0.94 – 1.06 m (below present terrace surface).
Interpretation
Samples 1 and 2 (0.10 – 0.20 and 0.26 – 0.40 m): This material, largely under-
lying the superficial ploughzone, is a golden to reddish brown, dense and well
mixed, sandy clay loam to loam which exhibits a poorly developed irregular to
subangular blocky ped structure. It contains abundant nonlaminated dusty clay
throughout the groundmass and few very fine fragments of organic matter.
This illuvial dusty clay fabric is suggestive of an eroding bare soil, accumulating
by rainsplash and slopewash erosion. It exhibits some structural development that
suggests that it has been undisturbed for some time, even though it is undoubtedly
associated with relatively recent terrace construction, and in its upper levels, cul-
tivation in the recent past.
Sample 3 (0.66 – 0.80 m): This material is very similar to that observed in the
above two samples, although it is much more porous (or vughy). This profile could
be the result of the incorporation of relatively large amounts of organic matter
which has since been destroyed by oxidization. This horizon might represent the
decay of occupation debris or postabandonment vegetation, combined with sedi-
ment derived from the hill-top through downslope erosion processes.
Samples 4 and 5 (0.80 – 0.94 and 0.94 – 1.06 m): Both samples are a fine, clay
loam with an intergrain channel and very porous microstructure. The fine ground-
mass is dominated by very abundant nonlaminated dusty clay, as well as occasional
zones of amorphous calcium carbonate.
These features suggest that both samples represent a downslope accumulation
of eroded fine material and much organic debris, now largely oxidized, leaving a
very open, vughy structure. In summary, it is suggested that this profile represents
the following sequence of events:
1. postabandonment building collapse, sediment inwash, and organic accumu- short
lation (1.08 – 0.85 m); standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
2. accumulation of eroded soil material from the highest levels of the former site
(0.85 – 0.60 m);
3. further collapse of surviving stone walls of former structures, followed by
rainwash and deflation (0.45 – 0.60 m); and
4. the deliberate buildup of material in terrace construction (0.45 – 0 m).
The observations on the sediments correspond well with the archaeological un-
derstanding of the contexts of the samples, and the processes responsible for the
formation of the deposits. Because of the limited horizontal exposure and incom-
plete preservation, it is not clear whether the samples come from within a roofed
space, or immediately adjacent to roofed rooms, in a small open court. The deposits
described under 1 and 2 above comprise the collapse debris from the structures,
probably including considerable soil incorporated as water-proofing layers in the
make-up of flat roofs. The high organic content of these levels may derive from
debris left on the occupation surface when the structures were abandoned,
branches, brush, or reeds from roof construction (Cameron, 1972; Shaw, 1973:221 –
222), material dumped from neighboring occupation areas, if this set of rooms went
out of use before the final abandonment of the community, or may represent the
accumulation of organic litter from vegetation colonizing the nutrient-rich deposits
of the abandoned site. Additional sediments would have washed in from similar
deposits within and between other abandoned and collapsing structures immedi-
ately above, on the summit of the hill. Where not disturbed by subsequent erosion,
such collapse deposits from single-storey structures may accumulate up to 0.60 –
0.70 m in depth (Warren, 1972: Figure 6; Coles, 1973:68; Ammerman et al., 1976:
41 – 46).
The overall similarity of all of the samples from this profile is not surprising,
given that the sediments were derived from comparable deposits on the hilltop
immediately above. Likewise, the similarity of the uppermost two samples, repre-
senting fill introduced during the construction of the agricultural terrace, suggests
that this fill was also derived from nearby on the hilltop, if not simply reworked in
situ.
No distinct strata could be identified between the stone level marking the top of
the Early Bronze Age collapse deposits, and the fills introduced as terrace makeup,
which would correspond to deposits contemporary with the historic (Hellenistic/
Roman) use of the site. Limited traces of late walls, and the considerable quantity
of sherds on the surface of the site and incorporated into the topsoil, point to a
significant occupation, perhaps a seasonal or year-round farmstead. The absence
of a clear depositional level associated with these walls, and the incorporation of
sherds of this date into the terrace fill deposits, suggest that the relevant levels, at
least on this terrace, have been completely reworked during the construction of
the existing terraces on the upper slopes of the hill. short
As with Profile 3, the upper samples of Profile 7 provide no direct evidence for standard
170 VOL. 14, NO. 2

the dating of the existing terraces. While they incorporate historical sherds through-
out their depth, these could originally have been a late surface deposit, subse-
quently mixed during the construction of the terraces. It is, however, worth noting
that sample 2, well below the ploughzone, is essentially indistinguishable from
sample 1, which will have been disturbed regularly by ploughing until the past few
decades. While the rate of soil formation in these soils is not known, the lack of
any marked differentiation between these samples would suggest that the terraces
are a relatively recent construction. This is consistent with the lack of evidence for
rebuilding of their retaining walls. Given the similarities in construction style and
condition of the terrace walls across the entire slope, this suggested recent date
should apply equally to those lower on the slope.
DISCUSSION
The micromorphological study of selected profiles at Markiani has provided de-
tailed descriptions of the terrace and archaeological deposits, and has given some
idea of the nature of the site formation and erosion processes affecting the ar-
chaeological site, and generating and modifying the surface archaeological record.
In addition, it has provided information on the history of vegetation and land-use
change in the vicinity of the site. Five principal contributions of this investigation
can be summarized:
Insight into the Sequence of Human Activities at Markiani, and Their

Implications for Local Vegetation, Slope Stability, and Soil Erosion
The three sets of samples discussed earlier, deriving from different contexts on
the slope and resulting from different events and processes, can be tied only loosely
to each other: The red soil at the base of Profiles 2 and 3 underlies terraces which
appear to be part of the same system as those retaining the deposits of Profiles 4
and 6, and samples 1 and 2 of Profile 7, and overlying the consolidated Early Bronze
Age deposits of samples 3, 4, and 5 of Profile 7. While there is no direct evidence
to date the specific sedimentological contexts, a close correspondence can be ar-
gued between the archaeological reconstruction of the pattern of occupation and
activity on the site, and the soil formation and modification processes documented
through micromorphological analysis of the sediments.
While soil erosion is not necessarily always referable to anthropogenic causes,
elsewhere in the Aegean the significant Holocene vegetation changes (Wright, 1972;
Greig and Turner, 1974; Bottema, 1985; van Andel and Hansen, 1987; Halstead, 1994;
Shay and Shay, 1995) and the onset of major erosional events (Wagstaff, 1981;
Davidson, 1980; Davidson and Tasker, 1982; Brückner, 1990; Pope and van Andel,
1984; van Andel and Zangger, 1990; Zangger, 1992, 1993, 1994; Watrous et al., 1993;
Parsons and Gifford, 1995; Gifford and Reese, 1995), have generally been attributed
to human activity. In most cases, however, the linkage can only be argued in terms
of broad chronological synchronization or an assumption of cause and effect (Bin- short
tliff, 1992). While the linkages must still be inferred, and the processes refer to a standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
very localized pattern of interactions, the direct spatial association of the archaeo-
logically documented human activities on the site and slope and the sedimentolog-
ical features identified micromorphologically enable a reasonably secure recon-
struction of patterns of land-use at Markiani.
There is little doubt that a reworked terra rossa-like soil is preserved in places
beneath the terraces on the slope below the site at Markiani. The analysis of this
buried soil suggests a sequence of landscape development involving: (1) terra rossa
soil formation; (2) an initial phase of illuviation and colluviation, associated with
increasing leaching and oxidation over time, probably associated with agricultural/
pastoral use of the hillslope, leading to the formation of a reworked red soil; (3) a
period of relative slope stability and soil formation processes within the reworked
red soil, which involved the illuviation of fine material; (4) a further period of
erosion leading to the deposition of illuvial fines (silt and clay), probably resulting
from rainsplash erosion and mass movement of soil washing off a bare ground
surface uphill; and (5) burial by the agricultural terrace system.
While the initial period of erosion of this red soil cannot be determined directly,
and no archaeological materials have been noted incorporated within it, the most
likely period for the onset of such erosion would appear to be the first occupation
of the site, fairly early in the Early Bronze Age, when activity on the hilltop and
cultivation and grazing in the immediate vicinity of the site would almost certainly
have had an impact on the stability of the slope soils. Alternatively, this period of
erosion might highlight an intensification of activity in the second half of the Early
Bronze Age, when the population of the community increased and occupation ex-
panded onto the upper southern slope of the hilltop.
No physical or sedimentological evidence survives to indicate that there was any
agricultural terracing on the slope during the Early Bronze Age. While any such
evidence might have been completely removed during later erosion or terrace con-
struction, the illuviation phases indicate that the lower slope deposits were affected
by erosion from above, such that the slopes were not, at that time, effectively
stabilized by terraces.
Potentially up to 800 years after the initial occupation of the site and the probable
start of landscape modification in its vicinity, the site was abandoned. The profile
studied in the excavation trenches at the top of the slope provides clear documen-
tation of the disuse, collapse, and silting of the ruins, and subsequent stabilization
of the slope. These deposits were capped and preserved beneath a deflation level
consisting of stones and sherds, representing a stable slope surface. This deposit,
however, cannot be taken as representative of the entire site area, since the bed-
rock outcrops which surround this terrace have obviously help to stabilize and
preserve the archaeological levels. Elsewhere on the summit of the hill, the ar-
chaeological deposits have been severely eroded, and little survives in situ except
in pockets in the bedrock. That the later (predominantly Hellenistic) activities on
the site did not disturb the underlying Early Bronze Age deposits in the area sam-
pled probably relates to the depth of post-Early Bronze Age sediment accumulation short
on that specific shelf, and cannot be extrapolated to the entire site. We can there- standard
172 VOL. 14, NO. 2

fore anticipate that there was erosion associated with the post-Early Bronze Age
use of the site, in large part responsible for the deposition of the sediments later
reworked into the terrace fills on all parts of the slope. Because of the mixing of
these deposits in the construction of the terraces, the period of deposition of these
sediments cannot be dated on the basis of the sherds incorporated in them. De-
positionally, we can only say that they should significantly postdate the abandon-
ment of the Early Bronze Age community, and predate the construction of the
terraces. However, given the quantity of sherd material down the entire slope, it
would be surprising if the Hellenistic phase of activity on the site did not have a
detectable effect on slope stability and sediments.
The final period of significant human alteration of the slope deposits is repre-
sented by the construction of the agricultural terraces. These cannot be dated di-
rectly, though the absence of structural evidence for rebuilding suggests that they
are of no great antiquity, a conclusion supported by the absence of significant soil
structure development in the sediments behind them.
The History of Agricultural Terracing in the Southern Aegean

While nearly ubiquitous in the southern Aegean landscape, agricultural terraces
have usually been ignored by archaeologists working in the region. However, with
increasing interest in the economic and social implications of landscape use, an
understanding of their history is becoming recognized as of crucial importance
(Foxhall, 1996; Isager and Skydsgaard, 1992:81 – 82; Moody and Grove, 1990; Rack-
ham and Moody, 1992; Whitelaw, 1991a:405 – 408, 1994:166 – 7, in press). In the top-
ographically variable landscapes of the southern Aegean, whether past communi-
ties were terracing and cultivating slopes has significant implications for any
reconstruction of past land-use (Whitelaw, in press; Wagstaff et al., 1982; Parsons
and Gifford, 1995; Acheson 1997).
Evidence for prehistoric agricultural terracing in the Aegean is extremely scanty.
Terraces, argued to be agricultural, have been excavated on the small islet of Pseira,
off the north coast of Crete. These are convincingly dated to the Middle and Late
Bronze Age on the basis of sherds in the fills, and are sealed beneath a stratum
containing tephra from the Late Bronze I eruption of Santorini (Betancourt et al.,
1990; Betancourt and Hope Simpson, 1992). Other, as yet unsubstantiated claims
for ancient relict terracing, whether Classical or Late Bronze Age, are generally
based on the size of the rocks incorporated in their construction and sherds in their
vicinity (e.g., Kommos in Crete: Parsons and Gifford, 1995; Berbati on the mainland:
Wells et al., 1990:227 – 228; Zangger, 1992:144 – 146). A circumstantial argument for
Late Bronze Age terracing has been suggested in the southern Argolid, based on
slope stability, contrasted with an Early Bronze Age phase of catastrophic erosion,
possibly triggered by clearance and cultivation of slopes without soil conservation
measures (Pope and van Andel, 1984; van Andel et al., 1986; Jameson et al., 1994:
371). A similar pattern of massive erosion in the Early Bronze Age, taken to imply short
the absence of effective terracing (Zangger, 1992:146), has since been documented standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
in the neighboring plains of Argos (Zangger, 1993:83), Asine (Zangger, 1994:226,

232) and Berbati (Wells et al., 1990:222 – 223). Also arguing against the widespread
existence of terraces in Aegean prehistory are site distributions which cluster on
low-lying and low-slope terrain, documented most clearly in analyses of survey
data from northwest Keos (Whitelaw, 1994; in press) and Melos (Nevett, 1988), in
the Cyclades.
For the historic period, many authors have, in the past, suggested that abandoned
terraces near Classical sites might be contemporary with the sites, without pre-
senting any further supporting arguments (Young, 1956:53 – 55; Ashton, 1991). The
identification of distinct “recent” and “older” terrace systems does not necessarily
imply that the older examples are ancient (Parsons and Gifford, 1995; Wells et al.,
1990:227 – 228; Zangger, 1992:144 – 146). More explicit claims for the survival on the
surface of ancient terraces have been made for several locations in the southern
Aegean region (Attica: Bradford, 1956; Lohmann, 1993; Euboia: Keller, 1985; Delos:
Brunet, 1990, 1996), based on evidence that settlement in these areas has never
been intensive except in the Classical or Hellenistic periods. On the ground, how-
ever, these terraces appear identical to others of recent date, and it is difficult to
see how they could have survived two millennia of exposure without being over-
grown with stabilizing vegetation. Excavation of some of the Delian terraces is
claimed to have demonstrated their Classical date, but the evidence has yet to be
published (Blackman, 1997:95).
A more convincing case can be based on site locational data, which suggests
that the landscape of northwest Keos was significantly terraced from at least the
Archaic period (ca. 700 B.C.) (Whitelaw, 1994; in press) and areas of the southern
Argolid from the late Classical period (van Andel et al., 1986:117; though see Ach-
eson, 1997). Other examples will likely be documented as more intensive surveys
are published in detail. Our present evidence would appear to indicate that agri-
cultural terracing was widespread in the southern Aegean from at least the middle
of the first millennium B.C., though it remains to be demonstrated that individual
terrace walls have survived from antiquity. Clearly, however, in terms of its poten-
tial impact on our understanding of past landscape use, this is an issue which needs
serious and systematic archaeological attention.
At Markiani there are no indications of Early Bronze Age or Hellenistic terracing
systems, nor are there clear traces of premodern cultivation surfaces or sediments
in the profiles studied. This relatively uncomplicated picture may result either from
the absence of agricultural terracing on the slope in antiquity, or because the move-
ment and reworking of the slope soils due to erosion and the construction of the
recent terraces has been so complete as to erase all earlier traces, at least in the
profiles sampled and the others examined in the field.
Bearing in mind the evidence for the small scale of the Early Bronze Age occu-
pation at Markiani and on Amorgos as a whole, and the ready availability of gently
sloping land directly north of the site, there seems little reason to expect that the
slope at Markiani would have been terraced in the Early Bronze Age. short
The situation during the later historical (primarily Hellenistic) use of the site, is standard
174 VOL. 14, NO. 2

less clear. The quantity of sherds on the surface and slope indicate a substantial
amount of activity, centered on a focus as small as the Early Bronze Age occupa-
tion, but the quantity of material deposited over a much shorter period suggests
fairly intensive use. The good preservation of the sherds on the lowest terraces
may indicate that this part of the slope, where terraces were not necessary, was
cultivated. While traces of terracing higher up the slope might have been completely
removed or obscured by more recent terrace construction, no hints of such con-
struction can be found either in the standing architecture of the present terrace
walls or in the many soil profiles examined, and those analyzed.
The argument for a recent date for the single phase of terrace construction pres-
ently visible on the slope is based on the relatively good condition of the standing
terrace walls and the absence of any clear indications of rebuilding, such as have
been noted in systems a century or more in age (Whitelaw, 1991a:405 – 410; Wells
et al., 1990:228). From the perspective of the soils behind the terraces, the absence
of a significant contrast in soil structure development between the upper cultivated
ploughzone, and the underlying terrace fill deposits, cannot be used to date the
terraces directly, but does not suggest that the fills have been in situ for a long
period of time.
While one cannot generalize from the terracing evidence at a single small rural
site, an approach combining archaeological study of the slope, with the analysis of
soil development in the associated terrace fills, holds out the promise of a more
effective approach to understanding and dating Aegean terrace systems. The study
of terrace soil development has been recognized as potentially useful (van Andel
et al., 1986:117; Wells et al., 1990:228), though it has not previously been pursued
systematically.
Implications for Understanding the Creation and Modification of the

Surface Archaeological Record
Given the importance attached to site size in the interpretation of settlement
patterns (Johnson, 1977; Laxton and Cavanagh, 1995), one of the methodological
objectives of the surface investigations at Markiani was to explore methods for
distinguishing in situ from displaced surface ceramics. An understanding of the
nature of the site disturbance processes, and any insights into the number and
nature of episodes of disturbance were desirable. To help understand these pro-
cesses, it was particularly important to learn whether the erosion of surface ma-
terials had been a continuous process, over the 5000 years since the initial occu-
pation, or was episodic, relating more directly to the nature of the utilization of the
site at specific times. The detection of periods of stable soil formation and distinct
erosion episodes suggests that erosion, and therefore sherd movement on the slope,
has been a very discontinuous process, with three potentially major episodes at
roughly 2000-year intervals: the later Early Bronze Age (ca. 2800 – 2200 B.C.), the
Hellenistic period (ca. 300 – 0 B.C.), and the recent past (ca. A.D. 1850 – 1990). short
The argument for episodic erosion is based in the first instance on the strati- standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
graphic evidence for the formation of a lag deposit on top of the abandoned Early
Bronze Age occupation area. While this may have stabilized particularly deep de-
posits on the protected rock shelf where the samples were taken, an identical
deposit was also found in an archaeological trench downslope 50 m to the south-
east. It is equally likely that similar stable deposits would have formed across the
rest of the slope, protecting pockets of slope soils. Corroboration for the episodic
nature of slope erosion comes from the formation processes of the preterrace soil,
which document a considerable period of slope stability before subsequent further
deposition of sediments.
Sherds and sediments are likely to have been dumped and to have eroded down-
slope from the settlement on the summit of the hill throughout the life of the
community, probably exacerbated during the expansion of population in the later
phases of occupation. Erosion is also likely to have increased as exploitation of
the surrounding slopes intensified, and vegetation was reduced by grazing. Thus,
there may have been a period of up to one-half a millennium during which Early
Bronze Age ceramics moved downslope, with new material constantly being added.
After the abandonment of the community, a considerable amount of erosion, par-
ticularly on the exposed summit of the hill, is documented by the fills inside the
collapsing structures on the shelf immediately to the south. Elsewhere, where such
natural terraces did not capture sediments, they would have eroded further down-
slope, until vegetation and deflation stablized the surface.
The second major phase of erosion may be attributed to the historical use of the
site, represented primarily by quantities of Hellenistic sherds on the site and slopes.
While some of the better-preserved sherds on the gentle terraces at the base of the
slope may have been deposited during cultivation of this section of the slope, some
of this material, and all of that on the upper slopes, probably derives from occu-
pation on the summit of the hill. Soil eroding with these sherds probably accounts
for the sediments which were later reworked as the fills for the terraces constructed
across the entire slope. While the underlying Early Bronze Age deposits in the
excavated trenches just below the summit of the site had not been significantly cut
into during this phase of use of the site, this need not apply to other areas, partic-
ularly shallower deposits on the summit or slope, and this may have been a period
in which previously stable sediments containing Early Bronze Age sherds were
destabilized, and new material added to the surface assemblage subject to erosion.
The duration of this phase of use of the site, and the erosion which almost certainly
accompanied it, remains unclear: ceramics (primarily coarse wares) ranging from
Geometric to Late Roman in date are present on the slope, though the vast majority
seem most consistent with a Hellenistic date. Therefore, the serious impact on
slope stability may have been confined to a fairly limited period of several gener-
ations.
Finally, we can anticipate some additional erosion in the recent past. This might
have been severe, if there was any significant utilization of the site or slope before
the construction of the existing terrace system, but this seems unlikely. There are short
very few recent ceramics either on the surface of the slope or in the superficial standard
176 VOL. 14, NO. 2

excavated levels on the site. Furthermore, if serious soil erosion had been insti-
gated on an unterraced slope, there would have been little sediment out of which
to construct the existing terraces. Overall, while terrace construction will have
mixed and shifted sediments locally, it is unlikely to have induced large-scale ero-
sion, in that the slope would have been disturbed only to be immediately restabil-
ized by the terrace walls. While there has been some terrace collapse since the
abandonment of cultivation on the slope, exacerbated by the breakdown of some
terrace walls by sheep and goats, this appears, so far, to have been fairly limited
and localized.
Combining the archaeological and sedimentological observations, it appears that
the extensive surface sherd distribution at Markiani, relating to two principal pe-
riods of use of the site, results from two periods of disturbance and serious erosion,
during the deposition of each ceramic assemblage, and the period of time after
each occupation until the slope had stabilized. Recent observations suggest that
stabilization through colonization by vegetation might have been accomplished on
the order of decades, rather than centuries (Jameson et al., 1994:373; Rackham,
1990b).
Prospects for Developing a Better Understanding of Palaeo-Environment

and Past Land-Use, in Specific Local Contexts
An unanticipated result of this study has been the identification of traces of a
relict red soil, albeit reworked, within the sediments on the lower slope at Markiani.
Micromorphological research can obviously contribute a new type of information
to the debates over the vegetation and land-use history of the Cyclades and much
of the southern Aegean, and the present study points both to a new approach to
the reconstruction of the initial, precolonization environment of the region and to
the study of changes in vegetation and land-use pattern during specific periods in
the past, under the impact of different subsistence regimes.
Because of the poor contexts for the preservation of pollen and the limited
amount of sedimentological research undertaken to date in the Cyclades or indeed
most of the southern Aegean, the natural environment of the Cyclades during pre-
history remains poorly understood and debated (Turner, 1978; Davidson, 1978;
Wagstaff and Gamble, 1982; Rackham, 1978, 1990a; Dalongeville and Renault-Mis-
kovsky, 1993). In addition, nearly all geomorphological research in the southern
Aegean over the past two decades has tended to emphasize local and anthropogenic
causes for late Holocene erosional episodes and landscape change (Davidson, 1980;
Wagstaff, 1981; Davidson and Tasker, 1982; Pope and Van Andel, 1984; van Andel
and Zangger, 1990; Brückner, 1990; Gifford and Reese, 1995), rather than broader
climatic events (Vita-Finzi, 1969; Bintliff, 1977, 1992), stressing the need for region-
ally specific direct evidence for past vegetation, land-use, and landscape modifi-
cation. The identification of redeposited soils, formed subsequent to a presumed
stable, wooded environment, is therefore of considerable interest, and contributes short
new evidence to on-going debates. While the present analysis remains far from standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
conclusive, it does point to the potential for new and complementary insights based
on the micromorphological characteristics of dateable soil horizons.
A particular advantage of a site-specific study such as this is that, even without
direct dates for individual sedimentary events, a direct linkage with the on-site
archaeologically documented sequence of site occupation and use can be estab-
lished (Davidson, 1976; van Andel and Runnels, 1995). Such a direct linkage is rarely
possible with diachronic geomorphological or palaeobotanical investigations pur-
sued at the regional scale. In such studies, the linkage between cause and effect
can rarely be argued except through the broad synchronism of fairly low-resolution
behavioral and environmental sequences. While investigation at each scale can
make significant and complementary contributions, small-scale studies tied directly
to the occupation history of specific sites deserve greater attention.
Contributions to Understanding Settlement and Land-Use Change in the

Prehistoric Cyclades
The documentation of significant erosional events, associated with the establish-
ment and episodic occupation of the site at Markiani, provides a new perspective
on the long-term development of settlement patterns in the prehistoric Cyclades.
A significant shift, from a pattern of numerous small-scale, dispersed farmsteads
and hamlets during the early part of the Early Bronze Age, to nucleation at a re-
stricted number of large centers by the end of the period, was established through
intensive surface survey on the island of Melos (Cherry, 1979, 1982). While excep-
tions to this pattern have been noted (Cherry et al., 1991b), parallels can be seen
on a number of other islands (Barber, 1987), and the explanation for this transfor-
mation has been sought in the economic and political influence of Minoan Crete
in the Cyclades (Wagstaff and Cherry, 1982) from the early Middle Bronze Age.
Elements of this change which have received less attention are the shift from widely
distributed and short-lived hamlets, to substantial and long-occupied communities
in lowland coastal locations. The instability of earlier dispersed settlement is con-
sistent with the erosion sequence at Markiani, which suggests human-induced veg-
etation clearance, slope instability, and significant, potentially catastrophic, soil
erosion. Short-term site occupation, documented throughout the Cyclades by small
cemetery size (Doumas, 1977:31; Broodbank, 1989), and at Markiani by episodic
occupation and abandonment, would be consistent with overexploitation of slopes
in the immediate vicinity of sites. Vegetation changes and deforestation during the
course of the Early Bronze Age have been documented on the neighboring island
of Naxos, and attributed to human agency (Dalongeville and Renault-Miskovsky,
1993). The appearance of fortified sites throughout the islands in the later Early
Bronze Age (Doumas, 1988), may document increasing competition for agricultural
land, in an increasingly degraded environment. The nucleation of settlement at
large sites in lowland basins may be a response to social pressures and changing
outside influences, but also marks a convergence of population on areas of deep short
and fertile soils, unaffected by or actually benefiting from hillslope erosion. Hu- standard
178 VOL. 14, NO. 2

manly induced landscape degradation suggests a new dynamic element which will
need to be explored more fully in attempts to understand the dramatic settlement
pattern changes throughout this period in the southern Aegean.
CONCLUSION
In general, the application of micromorphology to this archaeological site asso-
ciated with an intrusive terrace system has demonstrated its usefulness. Soil com-
position, and in particular, transformations of the soil/sediment regime, are directly
recognizable. Remnants of original soil types point to the existence of at least two
earlier types of landscape-stabilized open but vegetated slopes and eroding/utilized
slopes. Moving beyond the original objectives of this study, in future investigations
of southern Aegean landscape history, it will be crucial to establish closer temporal
control over the construction, use and degradation of terrace systems. There is an
obvious need to prospect for and to select better preserved sites for extensive
sampling and analysis, and to situate micromorphological research within a
broader program of palaeoenvironmental and geomorphological study.
APPENDIX: THE DETAILED MICROMORPHOLOGICAL

DESCRIPTIONS
Profile 3 (Profile 2 Similar: Sample 1: 0.08 – 0.20 m and Sample 2: 0.20 –
0.30 m)
Sample 1 (0.08 – 0.20m)
Structure: small to medium, moderately to well developed, subangular blocky
ped structure, 5 – 30 mm; Porosity: ca. 40 – 45%; 10% intrapedal vughs, subrounded
to irregular, 200 – 55 ␮m; 10% intrapedal channels, irregular, ⬍100 ␮m wide, ⬍500
␮m long, smooth to weakly serrated, walls partially accommodated; 5 – 10% inter-
pedal vughs, irregular to subrounded to subrectilinear, 1 – 4 mm; 20% complex pack-
ing voids/chambers, irregular, ⬍10 mm; Organic Components: very rare (⬍1%)
charcoal fragments, subangular, ⬍200 ␮m; Mineral Components: 10% stone con-
tent, 5 – 15 mm, subrounded to subangular; 90% soil fraction; limit 100 ␮m; coarse/
fine ratio: 25/75; coarse fraction: ⬍5% coarse and 10% medium mica, schist and
limestone, and 10% fine quartz, subangular to subrounded, 100 – 750 ␮m; fine frac-
tion: 5% very fine quartz, subangular to subrounded, 50 – 100 ␮m; 30% silt, 40% clay;
very weakly speckled; golden orange (CPL), medium reddish brown (PPL), strong
reddish orange (RL); Groundmass: fine: porphyric; coarse: undifferentiated; re-
lated: porphyric; Pedofeatures: Textural: all clay (40%) is nonlaminated dusty clay
of groundmass, pores, and grains, moderate birefringence, gold to golden orange
(CPL); Excrements: few (⬍5%) pellets in voids, rounded to oval, 50 – 100 ␮m, up
to 25% discontinuous void infills; Amorphous: whole fabric reddened or rubified;
very few (⬍2%) sesquioxide nodules, subrounded, ⬍200 ␮m, incorporated in fine
groundmass; very few (⬍2%) small zones of sesquioxide impregnation, ⬍500 ␮m short
across. standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
Sample 2 (0.20 – 0.32 m)

This sample was generally similar to sample 1 above, except for the following
features.
Structure: slightly less well developed than sample 1, but more elongated suban-
gular blocky, moderately well developed; Porosity: 20 – 30%; no complex packing
voids/chambers; only 5 – 10% interpedal channels; 10% intrapedal vughs; 5 – 10% in-
trapedal channels; Mineral Components: 30% stone fraction composed of 10% in
5 – 10 mm size range and 20% in 2 – 5 mm size range; 70% soil fraction, of similar
composition to that in sample 1; Pedofeatures: Fabric: irregular to subrounded
“aggregates” of fine fabric in interpedal void space, up top 10% of groundmass.
Profile 4
Sample 1 (0.35 – 0.49 m)
In general, this sample is very similar to Profile 6, except for the following.
Organic Components: greater frequency of sesquioxidic plant pseudomorphs;
Mineral Components: up to 70% stone content, comprised of 30% of 10 – 30 mm,
10% at 5 – 10 mm and 30% at 2 – 5 mm in size; 30% soil fraction: as for Profile 6,
sample 1, with coarse/fine ratio ranging from 30 – 50/50 – 70; Pedofeatures: Textural:
nonlaminated dusty clay acts as “linings” of voids as link-bracing between grains
and aggregates of fine fraction; Amorphous: rare (⬍2%) rolled aggregate of dung-
like material, black and striated, ⬍250 ␮m.
Sample 2 (0.95 – 1.09 m)

Similar to above and to Profile 6, samples 1 and 2, except for the following.
Mineral Components: up to 40% stone fraction, composed of 10% at 10 – 22 mm,
10% at 5 – 10 mm and 20% at 2 – 5 mm; 60% soil fraction with coarse/fine ratio of 30/
70, as for Profile 6, sample 2.
Profile 6
Sample 1 (0.20 – 0.30 m)
Structure: homogeneous; poorly sorted; poorly to moderately developed ped
structure, irregular to subrounded, 2 – 8 mm; Porosity: 30 – 32%; 10% interpedal
vughs, irregular, 1 – 4 mm, smooth to weakly serrated; 20% complex packing voids/
chambers, irregular, ⬍8 mm; 10% intrapedal channels, irregular, 100 – 500 ␮m wide,
⬍10 mm long, walls partially accommodated, smooth to weakly serrated; 2% inter-
pedal channels, irregular, ⬍100 ␮m wide, ⬍5 mm long, walls partially accommo-
dated, smooth to weakly serrated; Organic Components: very few (⬍2%) flecks of
charcoal, 50 – 200 ␮m; ⬍4% very fine flecks of charcoal/organic matter in the
groundmass, ⬍50 ␮m; very few (⬍2%) sesquioxide pseudomorphs of plant matter;
Mineral Components: 55% stone content, in size ranges 15 – 40 mm, 5 – 15 mm and
⬍10 mm, all subrounded to subsquare; 45% soil fraction; limit 100 ␮m; coarse/fine short
ratio: 50/50; coarse fraction: 20% coarse and 10% medium mica, schist, and lime- standard
180 VOL. 14, NO. 2

stone, and 20% fine quartz and mica, subangular to subrounded, 100 – 1000 ␮m; fine
fraction: 10% very fine quartz and mica, 50 – 100 ␮m, subrounded to subangular;
30% silt and 20% clay; very weakly speckled; orangey/reddish brown (CPL), reddish
brown (PPL), light orangey red (RL); Groundmass: fine: close porphyric; weakly
mosaic speckled to weakly reticulate striated in places; coarse: undifferentiated;
related: open porphyric; Pedofeatures: Textural: groundmass dominated by non-
laminated dusty clay (15%), poor to moderate birefringence, amber to orangey red
(CPL); interpedal channels and complex packing voids discontinuously “lined” with
nonlaminated dusty clay coatings (5%), ⬍50 ␮m thick, poor to moderate birefrin-
gence, amber (CPL); Excrements: very few (⬍2%) rounded excrements in clusters
in void space, ⬍50 ␮m; Amorphous: rare (⬍2%) very fine fragments of birefringent
clay or mudstone within groundmass, yellow (CPL), ⬍25 ␮m; very rare (⬍1%)
phytoliths; whole fabric slightly impregnated with sesquioxides; few (2%) sesquiox-
ide nodules, subrounded, ⬍250 ␮m, reddish black (RL).
Sample 2 (0.70 – 0.84 m)

Structure: similar coarse/fine, poorly sorted mix as in sample 1; also are small,
broken-up aggregates in the upper 1 cm of the slide and void space throughout,
⬍250 ␮m; larger peds much less well defined than in sample 1, ⬍5 mm; Porosity:
5% interpedal channels, irregular, ⬍500 ␮m wide, ⬍5 mm long, smooth to weakly
serrated, walls partly accommodated; 5% interpedal vughs, irregular, ⬍5 mm; 10%
interpedal complex packing voids, irregular, ⬍15 mm, discontinuously infilled; ⬍5%
intrapedal vughs, irregular to subrounded, ⬍200 ␮m; 5% intrapedal channels, 100
␮m wide and ⬍500 ␮m long, walls partially accommodated, smooth to weakly
serrated; Organic Components: very few (2 – 4%) very fine, black, charcoal/organic
matter in fine fabric, ⬍50 ␮m; very few (⬍2%) larger pieces of charcoal with some
cell structure evident, 50 – 200 ␮m; very few (⬍2%) sesquioxide pseudomorphs of
plant matter; Mineral Components: 40% stone content, in size ranges 2 – 17 mm,
subrectangular; 60% soil fraction; limit 100 ␮m; coarse/fine ratio: 25/75; coarse frac-
tion: 5% coarse and 10% medium mica, schist, and limestone, and 10% fine quartz
and mica, subrounded to subangular, 100 – 600 ␮m; fine fraction: 20% very fine
quartz and mica, subrounded to subangular, 50 – 100 ␮m; 30% silt and 25% clay;
speckled; golden brown (CPL), light reddish brown (PPL), pale orangey brown
(RL); Groundmass: fine: porphyric; coarse: undifferentiated; related ; porphyric;
Pedofeatures: Textural: very rare (⬍1%) laminated dusty clay in groundmass,
strong birefringence, reddish gold (CPL); 10% nonlaminated dusty clay as thin,
discontinuous void/channel “linings,” moderate birefringence, amber (CPL); ⬍15%
nonlaminated dusty clay throughout groundmass, moderate birefringence, amber
to reddish gold (CPL); Excrements: few (⬍2%) rounded excrements, black (CPL),
reddish orange (PPL), ⬍100 ␮m; small aggregates of fine fabric, singly and in clus-
ters and in linear “strings” in void space, ⬍100 ␮m, probably ⬍10% of fine fabric;
Amorphous: very rare (1%) very fine fragments of birefringent clay or mudstone in short
groundmass, amber (CPL); small zones of amorphous sesquioxide impregnation, standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
⬍2% of groundmass; small clusters (⬍1%) of small aggregates of calcium carbonate,

⬍25 ␮m and occasional void infills with amorphous calcium carbonate.
Profile 7
Sample 1 (0.10 – 0.20 m)
Structure: poorly developed, irregular to subangular blocky, 4 – 12 mm; Porosity:
very rare (⬍1%) interpedal vughs, irregular, ⬍4 mm, with discontinuous infills of
fine fraction and organic debris; 5% interpedal channels, irregular, 100 – 500 ␮m
wide, ⬍1 cm long, smooth to weakly serrated, walls partially accommodated; 5%
intrapedal vughs, irregular to subrounded, 50 – 250 ␮m; 5% intrapedal channels,
irregular, ⬍100 ␮m wide, 5 mm long, walls partially accommodated, smooth to
weakly serrated; Organic Components: few (5%) sesquioxide pseudomorphs of
plant tissue, especially in interpedal voids; few (⬍5%) very fine flecks of charcoal/
black organic matter in groundmass of fine fraction, ⬍50 ␮m; Mineral Components:
20% stone content, composed of 10% at 10 – 15 mm, 5% at 5 – 10 mm and 5% at 2 – 5
mm size; 80% soil fraction; limit 100 ␮m; coarse/fine ratio: 20/80; coarse fraction:
5% coarse, 5% medium and 10% fine quartz, mica and schist, subrounded to suban-
gular, 100 – 600 ␮m; fine fraction: 10% very fine quartz, subrounded to subangular,
50 – 100 ␮m; 40% silt and 30% clay; weakly speckled; golden brown (CPL), yellowish
brown (PPL), pale yellowish brown (RL); Groundmass: fine: close porphyric; mo-
saic speckled to weakly reticulate striated; coarse: undifferentiated; related: por-
phyric; Pedofeatures: Textural: abundant (30%) nonlaminated dusty clay through-
out groundmass, coatings grains and “lining” voids, poor to moderate birefringence,
gold to amber (CPL); Fabric: rare (⬍1%) sesquioxide impregnated silty clay as
amorphous or irregular aggregates, within groundmass, dark brown (CPL), reddish
brown (PPL); Excrements: occasional clusters of black, oval pellets in voids, ⬍75
␮m; Amorphous: rare (⬍2%) sesquioxide nodules in groundmass, subrounded,
⬍250 ␮m.
Sample 2 (0.26 – 0.40 m)
This sample is from the same layer/context as sample 1 above, and is very similar
to the above sample, except for the following.
Organic Components: few (5 – 10%) very fine amorphous organic matter in
groundmass, ⬍50 ␮m; Mineral Components: 10 – 15% stone fraction composed of
2% of 10 – 15 mm, 3% of 5 – 10 mm and 5% of 2 – 5 mm; 85 – 90% soil fraction; slightly
more reddish brown than sample 1 above and sample 3 below; Pedofeatures: Tex-
tural: no sign of dusty clay in voids/channels; Excrements: rare to occasional (2 –
3%) excrements and partially iron-replaced excremental fine fabric as discontinu-
ous infills in plant tissue; Amorphous: rare (⬍1%) irregular aggregates of burnt soil,
⬍200 ␮m, crimson red (RL), orangey red (CPL).
Sample 3 (0.66 – 0.80 m)
This sample is also similar to samples 1 and 2 above, except for the following short
differences. standard
182 VOL. 14, NO. 2

Structure: intergrain channel (50%) or vughy (50%) structure; ca. 50% of the
groundmass is comprised of irregular aggregates and clusters of aggregates with
the groundmass having a “perforated look”; Mineral Components: ⬍5% stone frac-
tion; ⬎ 95% soil fraction; Pedofeatures: Textural: many to abundant (10 – 15%) non-
laminated limpid clay in groundmass, moderate to strong birefringence, yellow to
gold (CPL); abundant (15 – 20%) nonlaminated dusty clay mainly in groundmass
and coating grains with little in the voids, poor to moderate birefringence, gold to
amber (CPL); Amorphous: very rare (⬍1%) subrounded aggregates, ⬍500 ␮m, com-
posed of very fine quartz, silt and dusty clay, dark brown mottles in golden orange
background (CPL); few (⬍2%) amorphous, irregular zones of amorphous calcium
carbonate within groundmass; rare (⬍1%) phytoliths in sesquioxidic pseudomorphs
of plant material; one small piece of pottery, subrounded, 6 mm.
Sample 4 (0.80 – 0.9 m)

Structure: homogeneous; intergrain channel (40%) or vughy (60%) structure,
moderately well developed; Porosity: 25%; 15% vughs, irregular to subrounded, 100
␮m to 3 mm; 10% channels, very irregular, smooth to weakly serrated, walls par-
tially accommodated to unaccommodated, 50 ␮m to 1 mm wide, 1 – 10 mm long;
Organic Components: few (2 – 5%) charcoal fragments, subangular, 100 – 200 ␮m;
few (5%) very fine flecks of charcoal/black organic matter in groundmass, ⬍50 ␮m;
Mineral Components: limit 100 ␮m; coarse/fine ratio: 10/90; coarse fraction: 5%
medium and 5% fine quartz, mica and schist, subrounded to subangular, 100 – 300
␮m; fine fraction: 5% very fine quartz, subrounded to subangular, 50 – 100 ␮m; 35 –
40% silt and 40% clay; 5 – 10% amorphous calcium carbonate; speckled; golden or-
ange (CPL), orangey brown (PPL), orangey yellow (RL); Groundmass: fine and
related: porphyric, mosaic speckled to weakly reticulate striated; coarse: undiffer-
entiated; Pedofeatures: Textural: rare (2%) microlaminated clay in groundmass,
strong birefringence, yellowish gold (CPL); very abundant (40%) nonlaminated
dusty clay in groundmass, coating grains and “lining” voids, moderate birefrin-
gence, amber to yellowish gold (CPL); Amorphous: 5 – 10% amorphous calcium
carbonate well mixed with fine groundmass or as void “linings”; very rare (⬍1%)
subrounded aggregates of black plant material, possibly dung, 200 – 250 ␮m; very
rare (⬍1%) subrounded aggregates of iron impregnated silt with minor amounts of
very fine quartz, ⬍350 ␮m.
Sample 5 (0.94 – 1.08 m)

This sample is similar to sample 4 above.
We would like to thank Lila Marangou and Colin Renfrew for encouraging and facilitating this research.
Permission to take samples was granted by Lila Marangou and the KB’ Ephorate for Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities, to whom we are also grateful. Simos Giannakos, Manoli Despotides, and Georgios
Gavalas have provided every assistance with the research at Markiani over many years. Simos Gian-
nakos, Georgios Gavalas, Natasha Angelopoulou, and Kasia Gdaniec assisted with sample collection in short
the field, while Julie Boast undertook thin section preparation in the laboratory, Lisa Nevett collaborated standard

FRENCH AND WHITELAW
in the identification of the post-Bronze Age ceramics from Markiani, and Richard Macphail and Tjeerd
van Andel provided advice on soils. Paul Goldberg, Lisa Nevett, Dave Passmore, Tjeerd van Andel, and
Malcolm Wagstaff kindly commented on an earlier draft of this article. The field and laboratory work
was funded by the British Academy and the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
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Received September 8, 1997

Accepted for publication September 26, 1998
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GEA(Wiley) RIGHT BATCH

Soil Erosion, Agricultural Terracing and

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 14, No. 2, 151– 189 (1999)

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EROSION, TERRACING, SITE FORMATION PROCESSES AT MARKIANI, GREECE

SITE FORMATION STUDIES AT MARKIANI

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Figure 3. Schematic profile of slope and sample sections at Markiani.

1. identification of old land surfaces and in situ palaeosols;

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Table I. A summary of the main characteristics of the features examined at Markiani.

Preterrace soil Terraces Excavation Sequence

RESULTS OF THE MICROMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES

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The Terrace Deposits

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with the physical/chemical weathering of exposed (through sheet erosion)

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Trench I.5 Archaeological Sequence

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Insight into the Sequence of Human Activities at Markiani, and Their

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The History of Agricultural Terracing in the Southern Aegean

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