Case Study

Application of Modular Construction

in High-Rise Buildings
R. Mark Lawson, M.ASCE1; Ray G. Ogden2; and Rory Bergin3

Abstract: Modular construction is widely used in Europe for multi-story residential buildings. A review of modular technologies is
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presented, which shows how the basic cellular approach in modular construction may be applied to a wide range of building forms
and heights. Case studies on 12-, 17-, and 25-story modular buildings give design and constructional information for these relatively tall
buildings. The case studies also show how the structural action of modular systems affects the architectural design concept of the building.
The combination of modules with steel or concrete frames increases the range of design opportunities, particularly for mixed-use commercial
and residential buildings. An overview of the sustainability benefits and economics of modular construction is presented based on these
case studies. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000057. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: High-rise buildings; Residential buildings; Construction; Economic factors; Europe; Methodology.
Author keywords: Modular; Steel; Residential; High-rise; Construction; Economics.

Introduction is the controlling factor. The double layer walls and floor/ceiling
combination enhances the acoustic insulation and fire resistance
Modular construction comprises prefabricated room-sized volu- of the construction system.
metric units that are normally fully fitted out in manufacture In the second case, the compression resistance of the corner
and are installed on-site as load-bearing “building blocks.” Their posts is the controlling factor and for this reason, square hollow
primary advantages are: sections (SHS) are often used due to their high buckling resistance.
• Economy of scale in manufacturing of multiple repeated units, Resistance to horizontal forces, such as wind loads and robust-
• Speed of installation on-site, and ness to accidental actions, become increasingly important with the
• Improved quality and accuracy in manufacture. scale of the building. The strategies employed to ensure adequate
Potentially, modular buildings can also be dismantled and re- stability of modular assemblies, as a function of the building
used, thereby effectively maintaining their asset value. The current height, are:
range of applications of modular construction is in cellular-type • Diaphragm action of boards or bracing within the walls of the
buildings such as hotels, student residences, military accommoda- modules–suitable for 4- to 6-story buildings.
tions, and social housing, where the module size is compatible with • Separate braced structure using hot-rolled steel members lo-
manufacturing and transportation requirements. The current appli- cated in the lifts and stair area or in the end gables—suitable
cation of modular construction of all types is reviewed in a recent for 6- to 10-stories.
Steel Construction Institute publication (Lawson 2007). Lawson • Reinforced concrete or steel core–suitable for taller buildings.
et al. (2005) describe the mixed use of modules, panels, and steel Modules are tied at their corners so that structurally they act
frames to create more adaptable building forms. together to transfer wind loads and to provide for alternative load
There are two generic forms of modular construction in steel, paths in the event of one module being severely damaged. For taller
which affects their range of application and the building forms that buildings, questions of compression resistance and overall stability
can be designed: require a deeper understanding of the behavior of the light steel
• Load-bearing modules, in which loads are transferred through C-sections in load-bearing walls and of the robust performance
the side walls of the modules. of the interconnection between the modules.
• Corner-supported modules, in which loads are transferred via
edge beams to corner posts (see Fig. 1).
In the first case, the compression resistance of the walls (gen- Modular Construction in High-Rise Residential
erally comprising light steel C-sections at 300 to 600 mm spacing) Buildings
1
SCI Professor of Construction Systems, Univ. of Surrey, Faculty
of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Guildford, UK, GU2 7XH (corre-
Spatial Arrangement of the Modules
sponding author). E-mail: [email protected] Designing with modular construction is not a barrier to creativity.
2
Professor of Architectural Technology, Oxford Brookes Univ., Oxford, Modular rooms or pairs of rooms or room and corridor modules can
UK. be used to create varieties of apartment types. These types can be
3
Head of Sustainability, HTA Architects, London, UK.
put together to make interesting and varied buildings of many
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 7, 2010; approved
on July 19, 2011; published online on July 21, 2011. Discussion period
forms. The nature of high-rise buildings is such that the modules
open until November 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted are clustered around a core or stabilizing system. The particular
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Architectural features of the chosen modular system have to be well understood
Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 2, June 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN 1076-0431/ by the design team at an early stage so that the detailed design con-
2012/2-148–154/$25.00. forms to the limits of the particular system.

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Fig. 1. Light steel module with a perimeter framework (image by

R. M. Lawson)
Fig. 2. Typical layout of rooms clustered around a core

A typical module is 3.3 m (11 ft) to 3.6 m (14 ft) wide (internal
dimensions) and 6 m (20 ft) to 9 m (30 ft) long. A module is 25 to
35 m2 (270 to 375 ft2 ) in floor area and is often used for single-
person accommodation. Two modules are generally suitable for a
2-person apartment (with one bedroom) and three or four modules
are suitable for family-sized apartments (Lifetime Homes 2010).
In all cases, the kitchens and bathrooms are arranged next to the
corridor or other accessible space so that service connections and
maintenance can be carried out relatively easily.
For modules with load-bearing walls, the side walls of the mod-
ules should align vertically through the building, although openings
of up to 2.5 m width can be created, depending on the loading. For
modules with corner posts, the walls are non-load-bearing, but the
corner posts must align and be connected throughout the building
height. Additional intermediate posts may be required in long mod-
ules, so that the edge beams are not excessively deep.
The design of high-rise modular buildings is strongly influenced
by structural, fire, and services requirements. From a building
layout viewpoint, two generic floor plans may be considered for
the spatial relationship of the modules around a stablizing concrete
core:
• A cluster of modules, which are accessed from the core or from Fig. 3. Typical corridor arrangement of modules
lobbies next to the core, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
• A corridor arrangement of modules, in which the modules are
accessed from corridors either side of the core, as illustrated the way in which forces are transferred to the stabilizing elements,
in Fig. 3. such as vertical bracing or core walls. The key factors to be taken
The addition of external balcony systems can be used to create a into account in the design of high-rise modular buildings are:
layer of external features that provide private space and architec- • The influence of installation eccentricities and manufacturing
tural interest. Balconies can be attached at the corner posts of the tolerances on the additional forces and moments in the walls
modules or can be ground supported. Integral balconies within of the modules (Lawson and Richards 2010).
the modules may be provided by bringing the end wall in-board • Second-order effects due to sway stability of the group of mod-
ules, especially in the design of the corner columns of the
of the module.
modules.
The optimum use of modular construction can achieved by
• Mechanism of force transfer of horizontal loads to the stabiliz-
designing the highly serviced and hence more expensive parts
ing system, which is generally a concrete core.
of the building in modular form and the more open-plan space
• Robustness to accidental actions (also known as structural
as part of a regular structural frame in steel or concrete. This re-
integrity) for modular systems.
quires careful consideration of the architecture and spatial planning
In modular systems with load-bearing walls, axial load is trans-
of the building.
ferred via direct wall-to-wall bearing, taking into account eccen-
Structural Action of Tall Modular Buildings tricities in manufacture and installation of the modules, which
causes additional buildup of moments and accentuates the local
The structural behavior of an assembly of modules is complex be- bearing stresses at the base of the wall.
cause of the influence of the tolerances in the installation pro- Two layers of plasterboard or similar boards are attached to
cedure, the multiple inter connections between the modules, and the internal face of the wall by screws at not more than

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 300 mm spacing. Cement particle board (CPB) or oriented strand
board (OSB) are often attached to the exterior of the walls of the
modules. In production, boards may be fixed by air-driven pins
enhanced by glued joints. These boards restrain the C-sections
against buckling in the in-plane direction of the wall.
The ability of an assembly of modules to resist applied loads in
the event of serious damage to a module at a lower level is depen-
dent on the development of tie forces at the corners of the modules.
The loading at this so-called accidental limit state is generally taken
as the self-weight plus one-third of the imposed load, reflecting the
average loading on all floors in this rare event. To satisfy “robust-
ness” in the event of accidental damage to one of the modules,
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the tie forces between the adjacent modules may be established

on the basis of a simplified model in which the module is
suspended from its neighbors. For design purposes, it is recom-
mended (Lawson et al. 2008) that the minimum horizontal force
in any tie between the modules is taken as not less than 30% of
the total load acting on the module and not less than 30 kN (3 tons).

Fire Resistance and Acoustic Insulation

In most European countries, 120-min fire resistance is required for
residential buildings of more than 28 stories in height (10 stories
typically), and in some countries sprinklers are also required. The
fire resistance of modular construction derives from four important Fig. 4. 17-story modular building stabilized by a concrete core (image
aspects of performance: by R. M. Lawson)
• The stability of the light steel walls is a function of the load
applied to the wall and the fire protection of the internal face
of the wall of the module.
• The load capacity of the module floor is influenced by the This concept has been used on one major project called Paragon
thermal-shielding effect of the ceiling of the module beneath. in west London, shown in Fig. 4 (Cartz and Crosby 2007). A series
• The elimination of fire spread by fire barriers placed between of buildings from 11 to 17 stories were constructed using modules
the modules (to prevent the spread of smoke or fire in the cavity with loadbearing corner posts. The plan form of the L-shaped
between the modules). building is shown in Fig. 5. The modules were also manufactured
• The limiting of heat transfer through the double-leaf wall and with integral corridors, in which half of the corridor was included in
floor-ceiling construction of the modules. each module. The corner columns were therefore in-board of the
Generally, the internal face of the walls and ceiling of the mod- ends of the modules and the projection of the floor into the corridor
ule are provided with two 15 mm (0.6 in.) plasterboard layers was achieved by the stiff edge beams of the modules.
(at least one layer being fire-resistant plasterboard using vermicu- The project consisted of a total of 827 modules in the form of
lite and glass fiber). Mineral wool is placed between the C-sections 600 en-suite student rooms, 114 en-suite studio rooms, and 44 one-
(also required for acoustic purposes). The floor and ceiling in com- bedroom and 63 two-bedroom key worker apartments. The
bination and the load-bearing light steel walls generally achieve 17-story building consists of 413 modules. Modules are 2.8 m
120-min fire resistance, depending on the sheathing board used (9 ft) to 4.2 m (13.5 ft) wide, which is the maximum for motorway
on the outside of the modules. transport in the UK. The edge beams use 200 × 90 (8 × 3:5 in)
The double-layer walls and floor-ceiling of the modules also parallel flange channels (PFC) at floor level and 140 × 70
provides excellent resistance to airborne and impact sound, particu-
(5:5 × 2:7 in) PFC at ceiling level to design partially open-sided
larly when supplemented by external sheathing board. Additional
modules of up to 6 m (20 ft) span. The one- or two-bedroom apart-
sound reduction and floor stiffness to minimize vibrations can be
ments were constructed using two or three modules, each with a
achieved by a thin concrete floor screed either placed on the light
35 to 55 m2 (375 to 590 ft2 ) floor area. The plan form is presented
steel floor or as a composite slab spanning between the walls or
edge beams. in Fig. 6, which shows the many variations in room layouts that
were possible using corner-supported modules.
Case Study of Modules Stabilized by a Concrete
Core—Paragon, West London Case Study of Modules on a Podium—Bond Street,
Bristol
For high-rise buildings, the modules are generally designed to resist
only vertical loads, including the cladding and corridor loads, and Modular construction may be combined with steel or concrete
horizontal loads are transferred to the concrete core. In the cluster frames to extend the flexibility in space planning in applications
arrangement, the modules are connected directly to the core, gen- where the dimensional constraints of modular systems would
erally by attaching ties to cast-in plates in the core. In the corridor otherwise be too restrictive. An adaptation of modular technology
arrangement, horizontal loads are transferred via in-plane bracing is to design a “podium” or platform structure on which the modules
in the corridors and are again connected to the core. It follows that are placed. In this way, open space can be provided for retail or
the distance of the outer module from the core is limited by the commercial use or below-ground car parking. Support beams
shear force that can be transferred via the corridor or by the travel should align with the walls of the modules and columns are typi-
distance for fire evacuation purposes. cally arranged on a 6 to 8 m grid (20 to 26 ft). A column grid of

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Fig. 5. Plan form of the building in Fig. 4 showing the location of the corner posts in the modules

7.2 m (24 ft) is optimum for car parking at ground floor or studios consisting of two rooms. The kitchen modules are 3.6 m
basement. (12 ft) external width. Stability is provided by four braced steel
Fig. 6 shows a 12-story mixed student residence and commer- cores, into which some modules are placed. The plan form is illus-
cial building in Bristol in the west of England, in which 6 to 10 trated in Fig. 7. A double corridor is provided so that a cluster of
stories of modules sit on a 2-story steel framed podium. The five rooms forms one compartment. Stability is provided by braced
400 bedroom modules are 2.7 m (9 ft) external width, but approx- steel cores and the maximum number of modules placed between
imately 100 modules are combined in pairs to form “premium” the cores is seven.
The building used a lightweight cladding system consisting of a
“rain screen” in which the self-weight of the cladding is supported
by the modules. The air and weather-tight layers and the majority of
insulation is contained within the module as delivered.

Case Study of High-rise Building in Wolverhampton

A 25-story modular construction project in Wolverhampton in the
midlands of England was studied to obtain data on the construction
process. It has three blocks of 8 to 25 stories and in total consists of
824 modules. The tallest building is Block A, which is shown in
Fig. 8 during construction. The total floor area in these three build-
ings is 20;730 m2 (223;000 ft2 ), including a podium level. The
floor area of the modules represents 79% of the total floor area.
The average module size was 21 m2 (226 ft2 ) but the maximum
size was as large as 37 m2 (398 ft2 ).
The project started on site in July 2008 and was handed over to
the client in August 2009 (a total of 59 weeks). Installation of the
modules started in October 2008 after completion of the podium
slab, and construction of the concrete core to Block A was carried
out in parallel with the module installation on Blocks C and B.
Fig. 6. 12-story modular student residence at Bond Street, Bristol
Importantly, the use of offsite technologies meant that the site acti-
(image by R. M. Lawson)
vities and storage of materials were much less than in traditional

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Fig. 7. Plan of modular building at Bond Street, Bristol, showing the irregular-shaped core positions

of a total of eight people plus two site managers. The average

installation rate was 7 modules per day, although the maximum
achieved was as high as 15 per day. This corresponds to
14.5 man-hours per module.
The overall construction team for the nonmodular components
varied from a further 40 to 110 with three to four site managers,
increasing as the 59-week project progressed. It was estimated that
the reduction in construction period relative to site-intensive
concrete construction was over 50 weeks (or a saving of 45% in
construction period).
It was estimated that the manufacture and in-house management
effort was equivalent to a productivity of 7.5 man-hours per square
meter module floor area (0.7 man-hours per square foot) for a
21 m2 (225 ft2 ) module floor size. This does not take into account
the design input of the architect and external consultants, which
would probably add about 20% to this total effort.
For modules at the higher levels, approximately 14% of the
module weight was in the steel components and 56% in the con-
crete floor slab. At the lower levels of the highrise block, the steel
weight increased to 19% of the module weight. The steel usage
varied from 67 to 116 kg∕m2 (14 to 24 pounds∕ft2 ) floor area,
which is higher than the 50 to 60 kg∕m2 (10 to 12 pounds∕ft2 )
for medium-rise modular systems.
The estimated breakdown of man-effort with respect to the com-
Fig. 8. 25-story modular building in Wolverhampton, England, during pleted building was 36% in manufacture, 9% in transport and
construction (image by R. M. Lawson) installation, and 55% in construction of the rest of the building.
The total effort in manufacturing and constructing the building
was approximately 16 man-hours per square meter (1.5 man−hours
per square foot) completed floor area, which represents an esti-
construction, which was crucial to the planning of this project. mated productivity increase of about 80% relative to site-intensive
The tallest building, Block A, has various set-back levels using can- construction.
tilevered modules to reduce its apparent size. Lightweight cladding
was used on all buildings and comprises a mixture of insulated
render and composite panels, which are attached directly to the Deliveries and Waste
external face of the modules. The total area of cladding was
10;440 m2 (112;300 ft2 ) for the 3 blocks. Site deliveries were monitored over the construction period. During
installation of the modules, approximately six major deliveries per
day were made, plus the six to twelve modules delivered on aver-
Construction Data age. During concreting of the cores, approximately 6 × 8 m3
(280 ft3 ) concrete wagons were scheduled to be pumped to con-
The module weights varied from 10,000 to 25,000 kg, depending struct the core at a rate of one story every three days.
on their size, and the module self-weight was approximately Waste was removed from site at a rate of only two skips of
5:7 kN∕m2 (120 pounds∕ft2 ) floor area. The modules in the first 6 m3 (210 ft3 ) volume per week during the module installation
Block C were installed by mobile crane, whereas the modules period and six skips per week in the later stages of construction,
in Blocks A and C were installed by the tower crane that was equivalent to approximately, 3,000 kg of general waste, including
supported by the concrete core. The installation period for the off-cuts and packaging. This is equivalent to about 9 kg per m2
824 modules was 32 weeks and the installation team consisted (1:8 pounds per ft2 ) floor area.

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 The manufacturing waste was equivalent to 25 kg∕m2 Even in a highly modular project, a significant proportion of
(5:1 pounds∕ft2 ) of the module area, of which 43% of this waste additional work is done on-site. Background data may be taken
was recycled. For the proportion of module floor area to total area from a recent National Audit Office (NAO) report “Using Modern
of 79%, this is equivalent to about 5% of the weight of the overall Methods of Construction to Build Homes More Quickly and Effi-
construction. This may be compared to an industry average of ciently” (National Audit Office 2004). This report estimates that
10 to 13% wastage of materials, with little waste being recycled. this proportion is approximately 30% in cost terms for a fully
It follows that modular construction reduces landfill by a factor of modular building, and may be broken down approximately into
at least 70%. foundations (4%), services (7%), cladding (13%), and finishing
(6%). However, in many modular projects, the proportion of on-site
work can be as high as 55% (see case study). Modular construction
Summary of Sustainability Benefits of Modular also saves on commissioning and minor repair costs that can be as
Construction high as 2% in traditional construction.
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The financial benefits of speed of installation may be considered

Modular construction systems provide several opportunities to to be:
improve the sustainability of the project in terms of the construction • Reduced interest charges by the client.
process and the performance of the completed building. • Early “start-up” of business or rental income.
• Construction waste is substantially reduced from 10 to 15% • Reduced disruption to the locality or existing business.
in a traditional building site to less than 5% in a factory envi- These business-related benefits are clearly affected by the size and
ronment, which also has greater opportunities for recycling type of the business. The tangible benefits due to reduced interest
of waste. charges can be 2 to 3% over the shorter building cycle. The NAO
• The number of visits to site by delivery vehicles is reduced by report estimates that the total financial savings are as high as 5.5%.
up to 70%. The bulk of the transport activity is moved to the
factory, where each visit can be used to deliver more material
than is usually delivered to a construction site. Lessons Learned
• Noise and disruption are reduced on-site, assisted by the 30 to
50% reduction in the construction period, which means that The case studies show that modular construction can be used for
neighboring buildings are not affected as much as in traditional residential buildings up to 25 stories high, provided the stability
building processes. under wind action is achieved by a concrete or steel framed core.
• The air-tightness and the thermal performance of the building Modules in tall buildings can be clustered around a core, or alter-
fabric can be much higher than is usually achieved on-site natively, they can be connected to a braced corridor, which transfers
due to the tighter tolerances of joints that can be achieved in wind-loading to the core. The design of the load-bearing walls or
a factory environment. corner posts should take into account the effects of eccentricities
• The efficient use of lightweight materials and the reduced waste due to manufacturing and installation tolerances.
means that the embodied energy of the construction materials is Three case studies of modular buildings showed the different
also reduced. plan forms that can be created depending on the type of modular
• Acoustic insulation is greatly improved by the double-layer system. Modules with corner posts provide more flexibility in
construction. room layouts but are more costly to manufacture than the wholly
• Safety on-site and in the factory is greatly improved, and it is light steel load-bearing systems. For the 25-story modular building,
estimated that reportable accidents are reduced by over 80% the steel usage ranged from 67 to 117 kg∕m2 (14 to 24 pounds∕ft2 )
relative to site-intensive construction. The modules can be floor area because the modular system had a concrete floor slab.
installed with pre-attached protective barriers or, in some cases, The modular components accounted for approximately 45% of
a protective “cage” is provided as part of the lifting system. the completed cost of the building. The construction period was
reduced by over 50% relative to site-intensive building. Waste
was reduced by 70% on-site and most manufacturing waste was
Economic Benefits of Modular Construction recycled.
Modular construction takes most of the production away from the
construction site, and essentially the slow, unproductive site activ- Conclusions
ities are replaced by more efficient, faster factory processes. How-
ever, the infrastructure for factory production requires greater This paper shows that modular construction can be used for resi-
investment in fixed manufacturing facilities and repeatability of dential buildings up to 25 stories high, provided the stability is
output to achieve economy of scale in production. achieved by a concrete or steel framed core. The structural design
An economic model for modular construction must take into of the modules is strongly influenced by installation and manufac-
account the following factors: turing tolerances and tying action between the modules. In terms of
• Investment costs in the production facility. layout of the modules, three modules efficiently form a two-
• Efficiency gains in manufacture and in materials use. bedroom apartment. Modules in tall buildings can be clustered
• Production volume (economy of scale). around a core, or alternatively, they can be connected to a braced
• Proportion of on-site construction (in relation to the total corridor, which transfers wind-loading to the core,
build cost). Three case studies are presented of modular buildings of 12, 17,
• Transport and installation costs. and 25 stories in height. In the tallest building, data was collected of
• Benefits in speed of installation and reduced minor repair costs. the manufacturing and construction operation. For a high-rise modu-
• Savings in site infrastructure and management (preliminaries). lar building, the steel usage ranged from 67 to 117 kg∕m2 (14 to
Materials use and wastage are reduced and productivity is 24 pounds∕ft2 ) floor area depending on the floor level. The modular
increased, but conversely, the fixed costs of the manufacturing components accounted for approximately 45% of the completed cost
facility can be as high a proportion as 20% of the total build cost. of the building. The construction period was reduced by over 50%

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 relative to site-intensive building. Waste was reduced by 70% Lawson, R. M. (2007). Building design using modules, The Steel Construc-
on-site and most manufacturing waste was recycled. tion Institute, Ascot, UK.
Lawson, R. M., Ogden, R. G., Pedreschi, R., Popo-Ola, S., and
Grubb, J. (2005). “Developments in prefabricated systems in
Acknowledgments light steel and modular construction.” Struct. Eng., 83(6), 28–35.
Lawson, R. M., Byfield, M., Popo-Ola, S., and Grubb, J. (2008). “Robust-
The information in this paper was provided with the assistance of ness of light steel frames and modular construction.” Proc. Inst. Civ.
Caledonian Building Systems, Unite Modular Solutions, Vision Eng. Struct. Build., 161(1), 3–16.
Modular Systems, HTA Architects and the Steel Construction Lawson, R. M., and Richards, J. (2010). “Modular design for high-
Institute, UK. rise buildings.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Struct. Build., 163(SB3),
151–164.
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UK.
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Cartz, J. P., and Crosby, M. (2007). “Building high-rise modular homes.” National Audit Office. (2004). “Using modern methods of construction to
Struct. Eng., 85(l), 20–21. build homes more quickly and efficiently.” London.

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