TOPI

CSCOVERED

SCI
ENTI
FCI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

UNI
TONE :
MEASUREMENTS

 FUNDAMENTALANDDERI
VEDQUANTI
TIESOFMEASUREMENTS

 STANDARDFORM (
SCI
ENTI
FICNOTATI
ON)

 PREFI
XESFORUNI
TD

 MEASUREMENTOFLENGTH

 MEASUREMENTOFTI
ME

 MEASUREMENTOFVOLUME

 MEASUREMENTOFMASS

UNI
TTWO :
SCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

 SCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ONDESI
GN

 CARRYI
NGOUTASCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

 DATAANALYSI
SINASCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

 PRESENTATI
ONOFTHERESULTSOFASCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

 EVALUATI
NGASCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

 LABORATORYREPORT

 ASAMPLEOFSCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

UNI
TTHREE:
THEKI
NETI
CTHEORYOFMATTER

 THEKI
NETI
CTHEORYOFMATTER

 THECAUSESOFGASPRESSURE

 EFFECTOFTEMPERATUREONTHEMOLECULARSPEED

PROPERTI
ESOFMATTER

UNI
TFOUR :
THERMOMETRY

 TEMPERATURESCALES

 THERMOMETERS

1
UNI
TFI
VE :
PRESSURE

 PRESSURE

 PRESSUREI
NSOLI
DS

 PRESSUREI
NLI
QUI
DS

 TRANSMI
SSI
ONOFPRESSUREI
NFLUI
DS

 ATMOSPHERI
CPRESSURE

 APPLI
CATI
ONOFPRESSUREI
NFLUI
DS

 UPTHRUSTANDARCHI
MEDE’
SPRI
NCI
PLE

 THELAW OFFLOTATI
ON

 APPLI
CATI
ONOFTHELAW OFFLOTATI
ON

 APPLI
CATI
ONOFARCHI
MEDE’
SPRI
NCI
PLE

UNI
TSI
X :
GASLAWS

 BOYLE’
SLAW

 CHARLES’
LAW

 THEPRESSURELAW

 THECOMBI
NEDGASLAW

 KI
NETI
CTHEORYOFGAS

 APPLI
CATI
ONOFGASLAWS

MECHANI
CS

UNI
TSEVEN:
SCALERANDVECTORS

 SCALARANDVECTORQUANTI
TIES

 REPRESENTI
NGVECTORS

 ADDI
TIONANDSUBTRACTI
ONOFVECTORS

 RESOLUTI
ONOFVECTORS

UNI
TEI
GHT:
LINEARMOTI
ON

 DI
STANCE,
DISPLACEMENT,
SPEED,
VELOCI
TYANDACCELERATI
ON

2
  ACCELERATI
ONDUETOGRAVI
TY

 MOTI
ON-
TIMEGRAPHANDTHEI
RINTERPRETATI
ONS

 EFFECTOFAI
RRESI
STANCEONTHEMOTI
ONOFABODYFALLI
NG
THROUGHAIR

 EQUATI
ONSOFUNI
FORMLYACCELERATEDMOTI
ON

UNI
TNI
NE :
WORKANDENERGY

 WORK

 WORKDONEBYFORCEACTI
NGATANANGLE

 MECHANI
CALENERGY

 CONSERVATI
ONOFMECHANI
CALENERGY

 ENERGY-
WORKTHEORY

UNI
TTEN :
MACHI
NES

 MACHI
NES

 TERMSUSEDINMACHI
NES:MECHANI
CALADVANTAGE,
VELOCI
TYRATI
O
ANDEFFI
CIENCY

 TYPESOFSI
MPLEMACHI
NES

ELECTRI
CITYANDMAGNETI
SM

UNI
TELEVEN:
ELECTRI
CCURRENTANDPOTENTI
ALDI
FFERENCE

 BASI
CCI
RCUI
TSYMBOLS

 ELECTRI
CALCURRENT

 POTENTI
ALDI
FFERENCE(
VOLTAGE)

UNI
TTWELVE :
ELECTRI
CALRESI
STANCE

 ELECTRI
CALRESI
STANCE

 OHM’
SLAW

 TYPESOFRESI
STORS

 I
NTERNALRESI
STANCE

3
UNI
TTHI
RTEEN :
ELECTRI
CCI
RCUI
T,ENERGYANDPOWER

 ELCTRI
CALCI
RCUI
T

 ELECTRI
CALENERGY

 ELECTRI
CALPOWER

 POWERRATI
NG

 UNI
TOFELECTRI
CALENERGY

 CALCULATI
NGTHECOSTOFELECTRI
CITY

 DOMESTI
CWI
RINGSYSTEM

OSCI
LLATI
ONANDWAVE

UNI
TFOURTEEN :
OSCI
LLATI
ONANDWAVE

 OSCI
LLATI
ON

 CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFANOSCI
LLATI
ON

 FACTORSAFFECTI
NGOSCI
LLATI
ONS

 FORMATI
ONOFPULSEANDWAVES

 CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFWAVEMOTI
ON

 PROPERTI
ESOFWAVES

UNI
TFI
FTEEN:
SOUND

 PRODUCTI
ONOFSOUND

 NATUREOFSOUNDWAVES

 CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFSOUNDWAVES

 FREE,
FORCEDANDRESONANTVI
BRATI
ONS

 PROPAGATI
ONOFSOUND

 SOUNDPOLLUTI
ON

SCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ONANDSKI
LLS

UNI
TONE

4
 MEASUREMENTS

Fundament
alQuant
it
ies

 Ar
equant
it
ieswhi
char
enotdef
inedi
nter
msofot
herquant
it
ies.

 Ar
eal
socal
ledbasi
cquant
it
ies.

Ser
. Exampl
esofquant
it
ies SIUni
t Symb
No. ol

1 Lengt
h Met
re M

2 Mass Ki
logr
a Kg
m

3 Ti
me Second S

4 Thermodynami
c Kel
vin K
temper
ature

5 El
ect
ri
ccur
rent Amper
e A

6 Lumi
nousI
ntensi
ty Candel
a Cd

7 Amountofsubst
ance Mol
e mol
.

Der
ivedQuant
it
ies

 Ar
equant
it
ieswhi
char
eexpr
essedi
nter
msoft
hef
undament
alquant
it
ies.

Ser
. Examplesof SIUni
t Symb Base
No. quant
it
ies ol Unit

1 Moment Newt
onmet Nm Kgm2/
s2
r
e

2 Wor
k Joul
e J Kgm2/
s2

3 Ener
gy Joul
e J Kgm2/
s2

4 Power Wat
t W Kgm2/
s3

5 Pr
essur
e Pascl
e Pa Kgm2/
s3

5
 6 Char
ge Coul
omb C As

7 Cur
rent Amper
e A C/
s

St
andar
dNot
ati
on(
Sci
ent
if
icNot
ati
on)

 I
sthesi
mpl
estwayofwri
ti
ngquant
it
ieswher
eallquanti
ti
eshaveasi
ngl
e
whol
enumberandot
her
sareexpr
esseddeci
malfract
ions.

Exampl
e

 Expr
ess0.
000000001i
nst
andar
dnot
ati
on.

1.Shi
ftt
hedeci
malpoi
ntt
other
ightsot
hatt
her
eisonl
yonewhol
enumber
.

2.Mult
ipl
ythenumberby10r
aisedt
othepowerequi
val
entt
othenumberof
shi
ftst
o
t
heri
ght.

3.Sincet
hedeci
mal
isshi
ft
ingt
other
ight
,thepowershoul
dbecomea
negati
veone.

0.
000,
000, 00x10-9
001=1.

 Expr
ess1,
000,
000,
000i
nst
andar
dnot
ati
on.

Dost
eps1t
o3butnowt
othel
eft
.

1,
000,
000, 00x109
000=1.

Pr
efi
xesandSIuni
ts

 Thesear
esymbol
susedt
odescr
ibeacer
tai
nuni
tofquant
it
y.

Pr
efi symb Magni
tud
x ol e

at
to Α 10-18

f
emt £ 10-15
o

pi
co Ƥ 10-12

6
 nano Ղ 10-9

micr Ս 10-6
o

mi
ll M 10-3

cent
iC 10-2

deci D 10-1

deca Da 101

hect H 102
o

ki
lo K 103

Meg M 106
a

Gi
ga G 109

Ter
a T 1012

Pet
a P 1015

Exa E 1018

Measur
ementofl
engt
h

 I
smeasur
edi
nmet
res(
m).

 Measur
edusi
ngt
apemeasur
e,met
rer
ule,
etc.

 Theabovei
nst
rument
sonl
ymeasur
elar
gel
engt
h.

 Ver
ysmal
llengt
hismeasur
edusi
ng

 Ver
niercal
li
per

 Mi
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

Chal
lengesofusi
ngamet
rer
ulet
omeasur
elengt
h

 I
tfai
lst
omeasur
etheseconddi
gitofadeci
malf
ract
ion

 2.
2cm canbeseeneasi
ly.

7
  2.
24cm i
sdi
ff
icul
tbecausei
tdoesnotshow0.
04oni
t,

Ver
niercal
li
per

 Wasi
nvent n17thcent
edi urybyFr
encht
echni
ciancal
ledPi
err
eVer
nier
.

 Isusedt
omeasureshor
tdi
stancessuchasadi
amet
erofasmal
lbal
l
beari
ng,
thi
nrod,
etc.

 I
thasaf
ixedj
awandsl
idi
ngj
aw.

 Sl
idi
ngj
awi
scent
ral
lyal
ignedbyat
hinf
latbar
.

 Ithasthespring-
loadedbut
tonusedt
opr
eventt
hesl
idi
ngj
awf
rom movi
ng
unnecessari
ly.

Fi
xedj
aw Sl
idi
ngj
aw

Usi
ngaver
niercal
li
per

 I
thasascal
eof9mm.

 Thesear
edi
videdi
ntot
enequaldi
visi
ons.

 Eachdi
visi
oni
sof0.
9mm.

 Thedi
ff
erencebet
weenonedi
visi
onandanot
heri
so.
1mm or0.
01cm.

 0.
1mm i
scal
ledl
eastcount(
LC)
.

 Theseconddecimalval
ueisobt
ainedbyi
dent
ifyi
ngamar kont heverni
er
scal
ewhichcoinci
deswithamarkonthescal
ecalledver
niercoinci
dence
(VC)
.

 Mul
ti
plyi
ngVCwi
th0.
01cm =(
VCxLC)
.

Mi
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

 I
sanotherinst
rumentformeasuri
ngver
ysmal
llengt
hsuchasdi
amet
erofa
wir
e,t
hinrods,thi
cknessofapaper.

 Wasf
ir
stmadebyanast
ronomercal
ledWi
ll
iam Geor n17thcent
gei ury.

8
 Spi
ndl
e Thi
mbl
e

Sl
eeve Rat
chet

Zer
oadj
ust
ing

Scr
ew U-
fr
ame

 U-
fr
ame

 Hol
dsananvi
latoneendandaspi
ndl
eatt
heot
herend.

 Sl
eeve

 Hasali
nearmai
nscal
e(sl
eevescal
e)mar
kedi
nmi
ll
imet
resorhal
f
mil
li
metr
es.

 Thi
mbl
e

 Hasaci
rcul
arscal
e.

 I
scal
ibr
atedf
rom 0t
oei
ther50or100di
visi
ons.

 I
scal
ledheadscal
e(t
himbl
escal
e).

 Whenthi
mblei
srot
atedt
hespi
ndl
ecanmoveei
therf
orwar
dor
backwar
ds.

 Rat
chet

 Prevent
stheoper
atorf
rom exer
ti
ngt
oomuchpr
essur
eont
heobj
ect
tobemeasured.

 Zer
oadj
ust
ingscr
ew

 I
susedt
ocl
earzer
oer
ror
.

Readi
ngami
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

 Movementoft
het
himbl
eiscont
rol
ledbyascr
ewcal
ledpi
tch.

 Thesear
eof1mm and0.
5mm.

 1mm pi
tchhas100di
visi
onscal
ledheadscal
edi
visi
ons.

 I
nthi
scaseeachdi
visi
oni
s0.
01mm wi
thl
eastcount(
LC)as0.
01mm.

LC=1mm =0.
01mm
100

 A0.
5mm pi
tchhas50di
visi
onswi
tht
heLCas0.
01mm.

9
 LC=0.
5mm =0.
01mm
50

 Thethi
mbler
eadi
ngcall
edtheheadscal
ecoi
nci
dence(HSC)i
sthevalueof
themarkont
hethi
mblethatcoi
nci
deswit
hhori
zont
all
ineont
hesleeve.

 Themainscal
ereadingist
akenbyconsider
ingther
eadi
ngofamarkonthe
fi
xedt
hatisi
mmedi atel
ybef
oret
hesleeveenter
stheri
m oft
heheadscal
e.

 Theli
nearmainscal
eont
hesl
eevei
scal
ibr
atedi
nmi
ll
imet
resorhal
f
mil
li
metres.

8
5

8
0

 Thel
eastcounti
s0.
01mm

 Themi
cromet
erscr
ewgauger
eadi
ng=MSR+(
HSCxLC)

=4.
0+(
80x0.
01)

=4.
0+0.
8

=4.
8mm

Measur
ementoft
ime

 Ti
mei
sthei
nter
valbet
weent
wodi
sti
nctevent
s.

 TheSIuni
toft
imei
sthesecond(
s).

 Canbemeasur
edusi
ngst
opwat
ch,
stopcl
ockanddi
git
alcl
ocks.

 Di
git
alst
opwat
chi
scommonl
yusedi
nourl
abor
ator
ies.

 Di
git
alst
opwat
chescandi
spl
ayhour
s,mi
nut
es,
secondsandmi
ll
iseconds.

Measur
ingt
imei
nter
valusi
ngasi
mpl
ependul
um

 Apendulum i
sasmallmasscal
ledbobsuspendedbyal
ighti
next
ensi
ble
st
ri
ngfrom afi
xedpi
vot.

10
  I
tunder
goesosci
ll
ator
ymot
ion.

AnAct
ivi
ty

Ai
m:

 Tomeasur
eti
mei
nter
valusi
ngapendul
um

Mat
eri
als

 Bob(
mass)

 St
ri
ng

 Nai
lorf
ixedpoi
nt

Pr
ocedur
e

 Ti
ethebobt
othest
ri
ngandst
ri
ngt
othepoi
ntort
othenai
l.

 Di
spl
ayt
hesuspendedbobt
hroughasmal
langl
eandr
eleasei
t.

 Uset
hest
opwat
cht
oti
me20osci
ll
ati
onsoft
hependul
um.

 Repeatst
eps2and3t
womor
eti
mesandgett
heaver
ageval
ueoft
ime.

 Def
inet
het
imef
oroneosci
ll
ati
on.

Per
iod= Time
Numberofosci
ll
ati
ons

Measur
ingt
imeusi
ngcat
hoder
ayosci
ll
oscope

 Cat
hoder
ayoscil
loscope(
C.R.
O)usescat
hoder
ayst
odi
spl
aywavef
orms
onafl
uor
escentscreen

11
 El
ect
ron Def
lect
ionsyst
em

Gun

YX Fl
uor
escentscr
een

A1 A2

6V(
LT) Y

V1 El
ect
ronbeam

V2

 El
ect
rongun

 Consist
sofafi
lament(
F)whi
chissur
roundedbyacathodeC,
two
anodesA1andA2andathi
rdel
ectr
ode(cont
rolgr
id)
.

 Def
lect
ingsyst
em

 Consi
stsoft
wopai
rsofpl
ates.

 Ahor
izont
alpai
rcal
ledY-
plat
e.

 Aver
ti
calpai
rcal
ledX-
plat
e,

 Attheendofevacuat
edglasst
ubeist
hefl
uor
escentscr
eencoat
ed
wit
hmat er
ial
li
kephosphorandzi
ncsul
phi
de.

 Whencat
hodeisheat
edbycurrentf
rom al
owemi
tt
ed(
L.T)suppl
y,
f
reeel
ect
ronsareemi
ttedf
rom i
tssurf
ace.

 Theseemi
tt
edelect
ronsar
eaccel
eratedandfocusedbyanodeA1
andA2maintai
nedataposi
ti
vevol
tagetothecathodes.

 Theel
ect
ri
cfi
eldsbet
weent
hecat
hodesconver
get
hebeam i
ntoa

12
 f
inespotont
hef
luor
escentscr
een.

 Br
ight
nessoft
hespot

 Thi
siscont
rol
ledbyacont
rolgr
id.

 Makingthegr
idmorenegat
ivei
npotent
ialwit
hrespectt
othecat
hode
decr
easesnumberofel
ectr
onspassi
ngthroughpersecond.

 Thi
sreducest
hebr
ight
nessoft
hespot
.

 Ther
efor
e,t
hebri
ghtnessoft
hespotdependsonthei
ncr
easeof
numberofel
ect
ronspassi
ngthr
oughpersecond.

Basi
ccont
rolonal
abor
ator
ycat
hoder
ayosci
ll
oscope

Ti
mebase

I
nputt
ermi
nal

 TheX-
plat
esar
econnect
edt
othet
ime-
baseci
rcui
t.

 XandY-cont
rolknob(
lastt
wol owerknobs)ar
eusedt
oshi
ftt
hespot
manual
lytot
heXandYdi r
ect
ion.

Pr
ocedur
eforoper
ati
ngcat
hoder
ayosci
ll
oscope.

13
  Swi
tchont
heosci
ll
oscopewhent
het
ime-
baseknobi
sof
f.

 Adj
ustt
heX-
shi
ftandY-
shi
ft(
lastt
wol
owerknobs)t
il
lthespotappear
s.

 Sett
hespott
othecent
reoft
hescr
eenusi
ngXandYshi
ft
sadj
ust
ment
s.

 Adj
ustf
ocusandbr
ight
nesscont
rolknobst
oobt
ainshar
pandbr
ightspot
.

TheY-
def
lect
ionpl
ate

 Whenthet
imebasei
sswi
tchedof
f,apot
ent
ialdi
ff
erencei
sappl
iedt
otheY-
pl
ate.

 Theel
ect
ronspoti
sdef
lect
edupordownal
ongt
heY-
axi
s.

 Somet
imest
hespotpr
oducedonY-
axi
sist
oosmal
l.

 TheY-
gai
ncanbeusedt
oadj
ustt
hedef
lect
ion.

TheX-
def
lect
ionpl
ates

 X-
plat
esar
econnect
edt
othet
ime-
baseci
rcui
t.

 Thiscreat
esanel
ect
ri
cbeam thatmovesf
rom l
efthandsi
deofthescreent
o
theri
ghthandsi
dewhenthevolt
agesri
setomaximum andtot
heleft

 Themechani
sm sweepst
hespotal
ongt
heX-
axi
s.

 Thet
ime-
basedknobcanbeusedt
oadj
ustt
hespotal
ongt
heX-
axi
s.

Measur
ementofsmal
lti
mei
nter
val

 Eventsoccur
ri
ngwithi
nashor
tint
ervaloft
imee.
g.soundwavecanbe
detect
edbyami cr
ophone.

 Mi
crophoneconver
tssoundener
gyi
ntoel
ect
ri
calener
gy.

 Thesesi
gnal
sar
efedt
othecat
hoder
ayosci
ll
oscopewhoset
ime-
basei
son.

 Thesear
eseenont
hescr
eenoft
hecat
hoder
ayosci
ll
oscope.

Cat
hoder
ayosci
ll
oscope
scr
een

Ti
mebet
weent
wowaves

14
  Theti
meint
ervalbet
weenthet
wowavescanbecalculat
edi
fyouknowthe
ti
mebaseofthecathoder
ayosci
ll
oscopeandt
hedist
ancebet
weenthetwo
si
gnal
s.

Measur
ementofvol
ume

 Vol
umei
sdef
inedasanamountofspaceoccupi
edbyanobj
ect
.

 SIuni
tofvol
umei
scubi
cmet
r m3)
e( .

 Vol
umei
smeasur
edusi
ngi
nst
rument
ssuch

 Measur
ingcyl
inder

 Bur
ett
e

 Pi
pet
te

 Measur
ingf
lask

Measur
ingcyl
inder

Bur
ett
e

 Whent
aki
ngt
hevol
umer
eadi
ng,
themeasur
ingi
nst
rumentmustbeup-
ri
ght
.

Factorst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngt
heappr
opr
iat
einst
rumentf
ormeasur
ement
ofvolume.

 Nat
ureoft
hesubst
ance

 Theamountoft
hesubst
ance

15
I
nvest
igat
ion

Ai
m

 Toi
nvest
igat
ethevol
umeofadr
opofwat
er.

Mat
eri
als

 Bur
ett
e

 Wat
er

Pr
ocedur
e

 Fi
llt
hebur
ett
etot
hel
evelandr
ecor
dit
svol
umeasvol
umeone.(
V1)
.

 Runout10dr
opsofwat
er.

 Not
eandr
eadt
henewl
evelasvol
umet
wo(
V2)
.

 Subt
ractV2byV1i
.e.V2–V1.Thi
sist
hevol
umeof10dr
opsofwat
er.

 Divide10dr
opsi
ntot
hevolumeof10dr
opsofwat
erf
oundi
n4.Thi
sist
he
volumeofonedr
opofwater.

Vol
umeofonedr er=vol
opofwat umeofndropsofwat
er
ndr
opsofwater

Measur
ementofmass

 Massi
smeasur
edusi
ngbeam bal
ances

 Tr
ipl
ebeam bal
ances

 Di
git
albeam bal
ances

Tr
ipl
ebeam bal
ance

 Fi
rstbeani
scal
ibr
atedi
n100-
gram mar
ks.

 Secondbeam i
sin10-
gram mar
ks.

 Thi
rdbeam i
sin1-
gram mar
ks.

 Thet
ri
plebeam bal
ancecanbeusedt
o:

 Measur
ether
equi
redmassofaquant
it
yfr
om t
hegi
vensampl
e.

 Det
ermi
net
hemassofagi
vensampl
eofasubst
ance.

16
 UNI
TTWO

SCI
ENTI
FICI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

Sci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion

 Ist
hesystemati
cwayusedbyt
hesci
ent
ist
stof
indsol
uti
ont
othepr
obl
em
orananswertoaquest
ion.

 Asci
ent
istmustpl
anf
ort
hei
nvest
igat
ion.

Sci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
iondesi
gn

 St
atet
het
opi
corpr
obl
em t
obesol
ved

 Thest
atementshoul
dbepr
eci
seandf
ocusedt
omakei
tmanageabl
e.

 Suggestahypot
hesi
sont
hepr
obl
em t
obesol
ved.

 Isaproposedexpl
anati
ongi venonthebasi
sofl
imi
tedevi
denceasa
star
ti
ngpointf
orfurt
herinvesti
gat
ion.

 Out
li
neSMARTobj
ect
ivesf
ort
hei
nvest
igat
ion

 S-
speci
fi
c

 A-
achi
evabl
e

 R-
real
ist
ic

 T-
ti
mebound

 I
dent
if
ythevar
iabl
esi
nvol
vedi
nthei
nvest
igat
ion

 Thesear
eoft
hreet
ypesnamel
y

I
ndependentvar
iabl
es

 I
stheonet
hatr
esear
cherhasacont
rolover

 Thecont
roli
stobr
ingachangei
nanot
hervar
iabl
e.

17
  Dependentvar
iabl
es

 Istheonet
hatchangesasar
esul
toft
hechangei
nthevar
iabl
e
t
hati
s

var
iedbyt
her
esear
cher
.

 Thi
srespondst
ochangesi
nthei
ndependentvar
iabl
e.

 Cont
rol
ledvar
iabl
es

 Isthequant
it
ythatt
her
esear
cherwant
stor
emai
nconst
antso
t
hati
t

doesnotaf
fectt
hedependentvar
iabl
e.

 Ther esear
cherdel
iber
atel
ykeept
hecont
rol
ledvar
iabl
e
const
antby

var
yingi
ndependentvar
iabl
e.

 Thi sisdonet
oobt
aint
hecor
respondi
ngchangei
nthe
dependent

var
iabl
e.

 I
dent
if
yappar
atus/
resour
cest
obeusedt
ocar
ryoutt
her
esear
ch.

 Theseshoul
dbeabl
etogi
ver
eadi
ngsandr
esul
tst
otheexpect
ed
degr
eeof

accur
acyt
omi
nimi
zeer
ror
s

 Out
li
net
hepr
ocedur
eofcar
ryi
ngoutt
heexper
iment

 Theseshoul
dincl
udel
ogi
calst
epssetupdi
agr
amsandpr
ecaut
ionar
y
measure

wher
enecessar
y.

 I
dent
if
ytheappr
opr
iat
emet
hodsofcol
lect
ingdat
a

 Thesemet
hodsshoul
dbe

 Ef
fi
cient

 Appl
yst
andar
dpr
ocedur
es

 Enhancecol
lect
ionofpr
imar
ydat
a

 Theyshoul
dal
sobecostef
fect
ive.

18
  Specul
ateori
dent
if
yanypossi
bleconst
rai
nts,
risksandsuggest
edwayst
o
handl
ethem.

 Suggestmet
hodsandt
ool
sofdat
aanal
ysi
sthatwi
llbeused.

 Thesei
ncl
udegr
aphsandchar
ts.

 I
ncor
porat
etheuseofsecondar
ysour
ceofi
nfor
mat
iont
oval
idat
ethe
r
esul
tsobt
ained.

 Thesei
ncl
udebooks,
magazi
nes,
jour
nal
sandi
nter
netl
inks.

Exer
cise

Prepar
eascient
if
icinvest
igat
iondesi
gnthatyoushoul
duseti nvesti
gatehowt
he
o
temperat
ureofafi
xedmassofwat ervar
ieswitht
imefrom 0Cunt ili
tboil
s.

Car
ryi
ngoutasci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion

 Thi
sist
hesecondst
ageaf
terdesi
gni
ngasci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion.

 Togetappr
opr
iat
eandaccur
atedat
aconsi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ng

 Car
ryoutt
heout
li
nedpr
ocedur
esandt
rai
ls.

 Makesur
ethatt
hepr
ocedur
esf
oll
owedcangi
veaccur
ate
r
esul
ts.

 Howeverobser
veheal
th,
saf
etyandenvi
ronment
almeasur
es.

 Col
lectandr
ecor
dthedat
atot
her
ightpr
eci
sionasyoucar
ryoutt
he

pr
ocedur
es

 Methodsofr
ecor
dingdat
aincl
udet
abl
es,
char
ts,
phot
ogr
aphi
ngand

r
ecor
dingofsound.

Exer
cise

Presentt
heinf
ormat i
oncollect
edbelowthatwasobtai
nedint
heinvesti
gat
iont
o
deter
minehowpr essureaff
ectsthevol
umeofami xedvolumeofafixedmassof
gasatconst
anttemper at
ure.

Pr
essur
e(x Volume
5
10pa) (cm3)

1.
00331 7.
339

19
 1.
02180 7.
241

1.
03907 7.
143

1.
02565 7.
038

1.
07390 6.
88

1.
08481 6.
83

1.
09388 6.
78

1.
011137 6.
67

1.
12196 6.
63

Dat
aanal
ysi
sinasci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion

 Ther
awdat
acol
lect
edandr
ecor
dedneedt
obeanal
ysed.

 Thi
sisi
nor
dert
ogi
vemeani
ngf
uli
nfor
mat
ion.

 Anal
ysi
smayi
ncl
ude

 Or
gani
zingt
hedat
aandst
udyi
ngt
het
rend

 Thi
sist
odet
ermi
nehowi
tisvar
yingori
tremai
nsconst
ant
.

 Dr
awgr
aphsandchar
ts

 Thi
sist
oshowt
het
rendi
nthesetofdat
a.

 Cal
cul
ati
ngr
equi
redval
uest
hatar
erepr
esent
ati
onoft
hedat
a.

Interpr
eti
ngt
hegr
aphs,
char
tsandt
hecal
cul
atedval
uest
oder
ive
meaningf
ul

i
nfor
mat
ion.

I
dent
if
yingsour
cesofer
ror
sinexper
iment
.

Gui
del
inesonhowt
odr
awgr
aphs

 Agr
aph

I sadiagr
am t
hatshowst
her
elat
ionshi
psbet
weent
woormor
e
quant
it
ies.

I
thashor
izont
alaxi
scal
ledx-
axi
sandver
ti
calaxi
scal
ledy-
axi
s

20
  Feat
uresofagr
aph

 Ti
tl
e

 Axes

 Scal
e

 Pl
ott
ingpoi
nts

 Li
ne/
cur
veoft
hebestf
it

 Sl
ope(
gradi
ent
)

 Ti
tl
e

 I
ndi
cat
est
hevar
iabl
eswhoser
elat
ionshi
pisr
epr
esent
edi
nthegr
aph.

 Thefi
rstquant
it
yinthestat
ementoft
het
it
leshoul
dber
epr
esent
ed
ontheY-axi
s(ver
ti
calaxi
s)

 Thesecondquant
it
yinthestat
ementoftheti
tl
eshoul
dbe
repr
esent
edontheX-axi
s(hori
zont
alaxi
s).

 Nor
mal l
y,t
hedependentvar
iabl
etakesthevert
icalaxi
swhi
let
he
i
ndependentvar
iabl
etakest
hehorizont
alaxes.

 Axes

 Thesearedrawnper
pendi
culart
oeachot
herwi
thar
rowsi
ndi
cat
ing
thedi
rect
ionofthei
ncr
easi
ngvalues.

 Axesshouldbel
abel
ledwi
tht
hesymbol
soft
hequant
it
ies
repr
esent
edonthem.

 Bot
haxesmusthaveast
art
ingval
ueatt
hepoi
ntoft
hei
rint
ersect
ion.

 Mostoft
het
imet
hest
art
ingpoi
nti
szer
o.

 Scal
e

 Choi
ceofscal
eenablesonet
opl
otal
lthepoi
ntsobt
ainedorgi
vent
o
getagr
aphofareasonabl
esi
ze.

 Ver
ti
calscal
eandhor
izont
alscal
edoesnotnecessar
il
ybet
hesame.

 I
tisimportantt
ochooseaconveni
entscal
ewhichenabl
esonet
o
r
epresentandreadal
lpossi
bleval
uesdataont
hegrid.

Not
e

21
  Ast
andar
dgr
aphpaperusedshoul
dhave1cm gr
id.

Howt
odet
ermi
net
hescal
e

Vh-Vl
 Wher
e
n

 Vhi
sthehi
ghestval
uei
nthecol
umn

 Vli
sthel
owestval
uei
nthecol
umn

 nl
engt
hincent
imet
resal
ongt
heaxi
swher
ethepoi
ntswi
llbepl
ott
ed.

Pl
ott
ingpoi
nts

 Usesmal
lxoranenci
rcl
eddo.

 Theseshoul
dnotbet
oobi
gbutsmal
l.

 I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oconf
ir
mthepl
ott
ingf
oreachpoi
nt.

Li
ne/cur
veoft
hebestf
it

 I
nbot
hli
neandcur
vegr
aph,
joi
nonl
ythebestf
it
.

 Leavet
her
estout
sidet
hel
ine.

 Dr
awi
ngoft
hel
ineorcur
veoft
hebestf
itmi
nimi
zeser
ror
s.

Sl
ope

 I
sthemeasur
eoftheext
entt
owhichthevari
ablei
nthevert
icalaxi
schanges
i
nrel
ati
ontot
hechangeint
hevar
iabl
eont hehori
zont
alaxi
s.

ope= Changei
 Sl nthenert
icalaxi
s
Changeinthehori
zontalaxi
s

G=∆Ywher
e∆Y =Yf–Yiand∆X=Xf–Xi
∆X

Y -Y
G= f i
Xf-Xi

Det
ermi
nat
ionofkeyquant
it
ies

 I
nsomeexper
iment
sasl
opei
snotenought
oleadust
omakeconcl
usi
on.

 Suchexper
iment
smi
ghtr
equi
ret
ocal
cul
atesomeot
herquant
it
ies.

 Thesequant
it
iescanbecal
cul
atedusi
ngt
heexpr
essi
ongi
ven.

22
Exampl
e

 Aft
erplot
ti
ngagr aphofy(
sinr
)andx(
sini
),youneedal
sot
ocal
cul
atet
he
ref
ract
ionindex(
n)ofthesl
ope(s)
.

 Fi
ndi
ngreci
procaloft
hesl
opeoft
hegr
aphgi
vest
her
efr
act
ioni
ndexi
.e.n=
1where
s

 nshoul
dbeexpr
essedt
othesamesi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
es.

 Theworki
ngatt
hisst
ageshoul
dbedonei
nSIuni
tswher
etheuni
ts
exi
st.

 Ift
heuni
tsofasl
opear
est
andar
duni
tsconver
tthem bef
orebei
ng
used.

Det
ermi
nat
ionofexper
iment
aler
ror
s

 Anerr
ori
sthevar
iancebet
weenameasur
ementandt
het
rueoraccept
ed
val
ue.

Ter
msr
elat
edt
oer
ror

 Uncer
tai
nty

 I
stheinter
valar
oundavaluesuchthatanyrepet
it
ionofthe
measurementwil
lpr
oduceanewr esul
tthatl
iewit
hinthi
sinter
val
.

 Pr
eci
sion

 Isthedegreet
owhichrepeatedmeasur
ement
sunderunchanged
condit
ionshowthesamer esul
ts.

 Accur
acy

 I
sthedegr
eeofcl
osenessofameasur
ementt
otheact
ualval
ue.

Cl
assesofexper
iment
aler
ror

 Absol
uteer
ror

 Ist
hediff
erencei
nmagnit
udebet
weenval
ueoft
hemeasur
ement
obt
ainedandactual
val
ue.

 I
sdevi
ati
onoft
hemeasur
ementf
rom t
heact
ualval
ue.

i
.e.measur
edval
ue–act
ual
val
ue.

 Somet
imes,
iti
sdef
inedashal
foft
hel
eastval
ue(
count
)thatcanbe

23
 measur
edusi
ngt
hegi
veni
nst
rument
.

 Absol
uteer
rorcanbemi
nimi
sedbybei
ngmor
eaccur
atewhent
aki
ng
anymeasurement
.

 Rel
ati
veer
ror

 I
stherat
iooftheabsol
uteer
rort
othet
rueval
ue,
usual
lyexpr
essedas
aper
centage.

Rel
ati
veer
ror=Absol
uteerr
orx100
act
ualvalue

 Rel
ati
veer
rorcanbemi
nimi
zedbymi
nimi
zingabsol
uteer
ror
.

 Syst
emat
icer
ror

 I
stheonet
hatar
isesf
rom t
heer
rori
nmeasur
ingi
nst
rument
.

 Theval
uer
emai
nst
hesame.

 Syst
emat
icer
rorcanbecor
rect
edby

 cor
rect
ingt
heposi
ti
onofzer
oor

 usi
nger
ror
-f
reei
nst
rument
s.

 Zer
oer
ror

 I
sthereadi
ngthatani
nst
rumentgi
veswheni
tissupposedt
ogi
vea
r
eadi
ngofzero.

 Sour
cesofzer
oer
rorcanbe

 Usi
ngamal
adj
ust
edi
nst
rument(
ani
nst
rumentt
hati
stober
esett
o
zer
obefor
e

usi
ngi
t)

 Usi
ngwr
ongl
ycal
ibr
atedi
nst
rument
.

 Usi
ngadamagedmeasur
ingi
nst
rument
.

 Zer
oer
rorcanbemi
nimi
zedby

 Reset
ti
ngmeasur
ingi
nst
rument
stozer
oreadi
ngbef
oreusi
ngt
hem.

 Usi
ngi
nst
rument
sthatar
ecor
rect
lycal
ibr
ated.

Not
e

24
  Whenthezer
oer r
orisnegat
ive,
act
ualr
eadi
ngi
sfoundbyaddi
ngt
he
magni
tudeoftheerr
or.

 Whentheerrori
sposi
ti
ve,
theact
ualr
eadi
ngi
sfoundbysubt
ract
ing
t
hevalue
ofanerr
or.

 Envi
ronment
aler
ror
s

 Ar ethoseerr
orsar
iseduet
ocondi
ti
onst
hatar
eext
ernalt
othe
measur
ingi
nstr
ument.

 Temper
atur
e.

 Humi
dit
y.

 Pr
essur
e.

 Magnet
icf
iel
d.

 El
ect
ri
cfi
eld.

 Canbemi ni
mizedbycont
rol
li
ngt
heext
ernalenvi
ronmentwher
e
possi
ble.

 Random er
ror
s

 Error
sari
sefr
om t
hei
nconsi
stencyi
nther
epeat
edmeasur
ement
sof
thequant
it
y.

 Duet
ounpr
edi
ctabl
efl
uct
uat
ionsi
nthe

 r
eadi
ngsofameasur
ingi
nst
rument
.

 I
naccur
atet
aki
ngofr
eadi
ngsf
rom measur
ingi
nst
rument
.

 Canbemi ni
mizedbyt
aki
ngt
heaver
ageofnumber
sofr
epeat
ed
obser
vat
ions..

 Par
all
axer
ror
s

 Al
socal
ledobser
vat
ionaler
ror
s.

 Duet
oreadi
ngofwr
ongval
ueonani
nst
rument

 Duet
owr
ongposi
ti
oni
ngoft
heeyes.

 Poorvi
sionbyt
heobser
ver
.

 Canbemi
nimi
zedby

25
  Cor
rectpoi
soni
ngofeyeswhenr
eadi
ngt
heval
uei
nthe
i
nst
rument.

Dr
awi
ngconcl
usi
onsf
rom ani
nvest
igat
ion.

 I
sasummar
yofwhatwasest
abl
ishedt
hroughi
nvest
igat
ion.

 Resear
chercompar
eshypot
hesi
sandt
hef
indi
ngst
ogi
veast
atement
.

 Thest
atementf
ir
mst
hehypot
hesi
str
ueornott
rue.

Pr
esent
ati
onoft
her
esul
tsofasci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion.

 Allfi
ndi
ngsoft
hesci
enti
fici
nvesti
gat
ionhavet
obecommuni
cat
edi
na
formalwayt
othei
nter
estedpart
ies.

I
mpor
tantgui
del
inesonhowt
opr
esentt
her
esul
tsofsci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion.

 I
dent
if
ytheaudi
ence.

 Wi
llassi
sti
nchoi
ceofpr
esent
ati
onmet
hodsandt
ool
s.

 Pr
esent
ati
onshoul
dbewel
lor
gani
sed.

 Shoul
dhaveti
tl
e,object
ive,
hypot
hesi
s,i
ntr
oduct
ion,
exper
imentand
st
rai
ghtt
othepoint.

 Pr
esent
ati
onshoul
dbesummar
isedandst
rai
ghtt
othepoi
nt.

 Levelofl
anguageusedshoul
dbesui
tabl
etot
hepoi
nt.

 Pr
esent
ati
onshoul
dbemadecl
ear
lyandconci
sel
y.

 Audi
al/
visualai
dsshoul
dbeusedef
fect
ivel
y.

 Shoul
dbeaudi
ble/
visi
ble.

 Compl
etet
hepr
esent
ati
onwi
thi
nar
easonabl
eti
me.

 Att
heend,
theaudi
enceshoul
dcommentoraskquest
ions.

Met
hodsofpr
esent
ati
on

 Or
alpr
esent
ati
on.

 Powerpoi
ntpr
esent
ati
on.

 Post
erpr
esent
ati
on.

26
  Vi
deoconf
erenci
ng.

 Sci
ent
if
icj
our
nalandpubl
icat
ionsandr
epor
ts.

Eval
uat
ingasci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion

 Resear
chershoul
deval
uatet
heenti
repr
ocessoftheinvest
igati
onagainst
t
heobject
ivesout
li
nebef
orethecommencementoftheinvesti
gati
on.

 Ther
esear
chershoul
d

 Det
ermi
newhet
hert
heobj
ect
ivesoft
hei
nvest
igat
ionwer
emetornot
.

 Hi
ghli
ghtthechal
lengest
hataf
fect
edpar
ti
cul
arst
agesoft
he
i
nvest
igat
ion.

 Di
scusswaysofaddr
essi
ngt
hechal
lengesencount
ereddur
ingt
he
i
nvest
igat
ion.

 Poi
ntoutar
east
hatwoul
drequi
ref
urt
heri
nvest
igat
ion.

 Suggesttherepor
tshoul
dbesubmi
tt
edf
orpeerr
evi
ewbef
oret
he
repor
tisadopted.

Labor
ator
yrepor
t

 Explai
nswhatyoudi
dinanexper
iment
,whatyoul
ear
nedandwhatt
he
result
smeant
.

 Si
mpl
erepor
tshoul
dhave

 Ti
tl
e-t
wot
ypeoft
hem.

 Thet
it
lepage

 Notal
lrepor
tshavet
it
lepages.

 Thet
it
lepagei
sasi
ngl
epaget
hatcont
ains

o Ti
tl
eoft
heexper
iment
.

o Nameoft
her
esear
cherandl
abor
ator
ypar
tner
.

o Teacher
’sname(
super
visor
).

27
 o Datewhenthelabwasperf
ormedort
hedat
e
repor
twasestabl
ished.

 Ti
tl
e

 Sayswhatyoudi
dinbr
iefi
.eai
mfort
enwor
dsorl
ess.

 Descr
ibet
hemai
npoi
ntoft
heexper
imentori
nvest
igat
ion.

 Theai
m

 I
sthepur
poseofcar
ryi
ngoutt
heexper
iment
.

 Maybeoneormany.

 Fori
nstr
ument
al-
basedpr
act
ical
,theappar
atususedar
enor
mal
ly
menti
oned.

 I
ntr
oduct
ion.

 I
sasi
ngl
epar
agr
apht
hatst
atest
heobj
ect
iveoft
heexper
iment
.

 Pr
ovi
dest
her
eaderwi
thbackgr
oundt
otheexper
iment
.

 Sometimesabriefsummaryonhowt
heexper
imentwasper
for
med,
resul
tsobt
ainedandconcl
usi
on.

 I
nthi
spar
agr
aph,
thehypot
hesi
sisal
sost
ated.

 Mat
eri
als

 I
sasi
ngl
eli
stofever
ythi
ngneededt
ocompl
eteyourexper
iment
.

 Makesur
ethati
tisaccur
ateandcompl
ete.

 Met
hods

 Ar
est
eps/
procedur
est
hatshowhowyoucar
ri
edoutt
heexper
iment
.

 Thedescr
ipt
ionofstepsshoul
dbedetai
ledbutpr
eci
sesot
hatanyone
canreadt
hissect
ionanddupli
cat
eit
.

 Stepsshoul
dbeclearandf
igur
etodi
agr
am yourexper
iment
alst
eup
shouldbeprovi
ded.

 Resul
ts

 Thi
scont
ainst
her
awdat
athatyouobt
ained.

 Dat
ashoul
dbesummar
isedi
nthef
ormsof

28
  Tabl
es

 Fi
gur
es

 Gr
aphs

 Phot
ogr
aphs

 Al
lthesef
ormsofsummar
isi
ngt
hedat
ashoul
dhavet
it
les.

 Labelt
heaxesont
hegr
aphandi
ncl
udeuni
tsofmeasur
ement
s.

 Di
scussi
on

 I
sthemosti
mpor
tantpar
toft
her
epor
t.

 I
swher
eyouexpl
ain,
int
erpr
etandanal
ysedat
a.

 Youdet
ermi
newhet
herornotahypot
hesi
swasaccept
ed.

 Pleaseexpl
aint
hel
ogi
cthatal
lowsyout
oacceptorr
ejectt
he
hypothesi
s.

 Al
lmi
stakesmadeshoul
dbedi
scussed.

 Descr
ibewaysofi
mpr
ovi
ngt
heexper
iment
.

 Listf
utur
eexper
iment
sthatmi
ghtcl
ari
fyar
easofdoubti
nyour
resul
ts.

 Concl
usi
on

 Iswhereyousum upwhathappenedi
ntheexper
iment
,whet
heryour
hypot
hesiswasrej
ect
edandwhatdoesthismean.

 Mostoft
het
imesasi
ngl
epar
agr
aph.

 Ref
erences

 I
ncl
udeslistofbooks,j
our
nals,
websit
esetcusedi
nyourr
esear
chon
t
heprocessofcarryi
ngoutyourexper
imentandwr
it
ingar
eport
.

29
 UNI
TTHREE

PROPERTI
ESOFMATTER

THEKI
NETI
CTHEORYOFMATTER

 Statest
hatmatt
eri
smadeupoft
inydi
scr
etepar
ti
clest
hatar
eal
waysi
n
random mot
ion.

 “
Kinet
ic”i
sder
ivedf
rom Gr
eekwor
d“Ki
neo”whi
chmeans“
Imove”.

 So,
part
icl
esi
nasubst
ancear
einconst
antmot
ionr
egar
dlessofi
tsst
ateof
matt
er.

 Thetheor
yexpl
ainsthatpart
icl
esarepackedi
nsol
ids,
li
qui
dsorgasesand
areboundbydi
ff
erentattr
acti
vefor
cesbetweent
hem.

 Theyobser
vet
heef
fectoft
emper
atur
eont
hem.

 So,t
hearr
angementofpar
ti
clesofmatterandthewaytheymove
det
ermi
nesthest
ateofasubstancei
.e.soli
d,l
iqui
dorgaseousst
ate.

Ki
net
ict
heor
yofsol
ids

 Sol
idshavest
rongcohesi
vef
orceofat
tr
act
ionbet
weenpar
ti
cles.

 Mol
ecul
esar
ecl
osel
ypackedi
nfi
xedposi
ti
onsbyat
tr
act
ivef
orces.

30
  Havet
hehi
ghestdensi
tycompar
edwi
thl
iqui
dsandgases.

 Havedef
ini
teshapes.

 Lar
gef
orcei
sneededt
ochanget
hesi
zeandshape.

 Requi
real
otofheatener
gyt
omel
tint
oli
qui
d.

 Par
ti
clesormol
ecul
esvi
brat
econt
inuousl
yinaf
ixedormeanposi
ti
on.

 Whensol
idsar
eheat
ed

 Ki
net
icofpar
ti
clesi
ncr
eases.

 Par
ti
clesvi
brat
evi
gor
ousl
yint
hei
rfi
xedposi
ti
ons.

 Cohesi
vef
orcesbet
weenmol
ecul
esar
eweakened.

 I
nter
mol
ecul
arf
orcesbecomeweak.

 Par
ti
clesst
artt
ofl
ow.

 Thetemper
atureatwhi
cht
hesepar
ti
clesst
artt
ofl
owi
scal
led
melt
ingpoi
nt.

 Theprocessofchangi
ngofst
atef
rom sol
idt
oli
qui
discal
led
melt
ing.

Ki
net
ict
heor
yofl
iqui
ds

 Havemoder
atei
nter
mol
ecul
arf
orceofat
tr
act
ionbet
weenpar
ti
cles.

 Par
ti
clesar
eloosel
ypacked.

 Havel
owerdensi
tycompar
edt
osol
ids.

 Par
ti
clesar
efr
eet
omover
andoml
y(f
lowwhi
lest
icki
ngt
oget
her
).

 Donothavedef
ini
teshape(
Takest
heshapeoft
hecont
ainer
)

 Whenl
iqui
dsar
eheat
ed

 Par
ti
clesacqui
remor
eki
net
icener
gyAndmovef
ast
er.

 Thei
nter
mol
ecul
arf
orcei
sweakened.

 Mol
ecul
esescapet
hrought
hesur
faceofal
iqui
d.

 Thetemper
atur
ewherepar
ti
clesst
artt
oescapef
rom t
opoft
he
l
iqui
disboi
li
ngpoi
nt.

31
  Thepr
ocessofchangi
ngf
rom l
iqui
dtogasi
sevapor
ati
on.

Ki
net
ict
heor
yofgases

 Havever
yweaki
nter
mol
ecul
arf
orcesexper
ienceduponcol
li
sion.

 Havenodef
ini
teshape.

 Fi
llt
hecont
ainer
.

 Mol
ecul
esmover
api
dlyandf
reel
y.

 I
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eincr
easeski
net
icofpar
ti
cles.

 Part
iclesofgasmovemorevi
gor
ousl
yindi
ff
erentdi
rect
ions.(
Thi
siscal
led
ki
netictheor
yofgases)

 Vi
gor
ousmovementofgaspar
ti
clesdi
rect
edt
oonepoi
ntgi
vesl
argef
orce.

 Thi
scr
eat
espossi
blef
orcet
hatr
otat
etur
binesi
ngeot
her
malel
ect
ri
cpl
ates.

Causesofgaspr
essur
e

 Pr
essur
eisf
orceexi
tedperuni
tar
ea.

 Gasmol
ecul
esar
eincont
inuousmot
ion.

 Theyconst
ant
lycol
li
dewi
theachot
herandt
hewal
lsoft
hecont
ainer
.

 Contai
nerexper
iencesanout
war
dpusheacht
imeamol
ecul
est
ri
kesi
tand
bouncesoff.

 Const
anthi
tt
ingpersecondpr
oducesast
eadyout
war
dfor
cepergi
vear
ea.

 Thi
siswhati
sbei
ngdef
inespr
essur
e.

Fact
orsaf
fect
inggaspr
essur
e

 Numberofmol
ecul
es(
par
ti
cles)i
nthecont
ainer
.

 Temper
atur
eoft
hegas.

 Si
zeofpar
ti
clesoft
hegas.

 Vol
umeoft
hecont
aineri
nwhi
chpar
ti
clesar
e.

EFFECTOFTEMPERATUREONTHEMOLECULARSPEED

 Part
icl
es/molecul
esoff
lui
dsandsol
idsar
eal
waysmovi
ngr
andoml
yor
vi
brateaboutameanposit
ion.

32
  Hi
ghert
emper
atur
emakest
hemol
ecul
esmovef
ast
ert
hanbef
ore.

Absol
utezer
otemper
atur
e

 Ist
hetemper
atur
ewheremolecul
esst
opmovi
ng(
havezer
oener
gy)andt
he
gassampl
ehaszerovol
ume.

273oCt
 At- heor
eti
cal
lymol
ecul
eshavezer
oener
gy.

 Thi
sisequal
toabsol
utezer
osi
ncei
tisequalt
o0Kel
vin(
0K)
.

UNI
TFOUR

ROPERTI
ESOFMATTER

THERMOMETRY

TEMPERATURESCALES

 I
sar
angeofval
uesf
ormeasur
ingt
hedegr
eeofhot
nessorcol
dness.

 Thedegr
eeofhot
nessorcol
dnessi
scal
ledt
emper
atur
e.

 Temper
atur
eisexpr
essedi
n

 Degr
eesCel
siusal
socal
ledcent
igr
ade.

 Degr
eesFahr
enhei
t.

 Kel
vin.

 Kel
vinscal
eist
heSIuni
tfort
het
emper
atur
e.

 Degr
eeCel
siusandkel
vinar
ecommonl
yused.

TheCel
siusscal
e
o
 Usest
hedegr
eeCel
sius(C)asauni
tofmeasur
ingt
emper
atur
e.

 Hast
wof
ixedval
ue

 Mel
ti
ngpoi
ntf ceoC.
ori

 Boi
li
ngpoi er100oC.
ntofwat

 Thi
sonl
yunderst
andar
dat
mospher
icpr
essur
eof101325pa.

 Theset
wopoi
ntsar
ecal
ledt
hel
owerandt
heupperf
ixedpoi
nts.

 Wasi
nvent
edbySwedi
shi
nvent
or,
Ander
sCel
siusi
n1742.

33
  I
twasnamedunderhi
sname.

TheKel
vinscal
e

 UsesKel
vinasauni
tofmeasur
ingt
emper
atur
e.

 Usesabsol
utezer
o(273oC)
- .

273oC=0K.
 -

 Wasi
nvent
edbyPr
ofessorWi
ll
iam Thomas,
alect
ureratGl
asgowUni
ver
sit
y.

 WasaBr
it
ishPhysi
cist
.

 Hewasgi
vent
het
it
leofBor
onKel
vinofLogosi
n1892.

 Heusedhi
sti
tl
easauni
tofmeasur
ement
.

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenCel
siusandKel
vinscal
es

 ToconvertCel
siustoKel
vinweadd273t
othegi
vendegr
eeCel
sius
temper
aturescale.

 32oCt
oKel
vin=32+273=305K.

 Toconver
tKel
vint
oCel
siuswesubt
ract273t
oKel
vint
emper
atur
escal
e.

273=32oC
 305K =305-

Ther
momet
ers

 At
her
momet
eri
sani
nst
rumentf
ormeasur
ingt
emper
atur
e.

Ther
momet
ri
csubst
ance

 I
sthesubst
anceusedi
ntheconst
ruct
ionoft
her
momet
ers.

 Defi
nethetemper
atur
escal
ebyassi
gni
ngf
ixedl
owerf
orcedpoi
ntandupper
for
cedpoint.

 Ther
momet
ri
csubst
ancecanbel
iqui
d,gasorsol
id.

 Butt
hei
rpr
oper
ti
eschangeuni
for
mlywi
tht
emper
atur
e.

Ther
momet
ri
cpr
oper
ti
esofasubst
ance

 Shoul
dremai
nconst
anti
ftemper
atur
eisconst
ant
.

 Shoul
dchangeuni
for
mlywi
thchangei
ntemper
atur
e.

34
  Shoul
dchangeuni
for
mlyf y1oCchangei
orever ntemper
atur
e.

 Shoul
dacquir
ether
malequil
ibr
ium asqui
ckl
yaspossi
ble,
whent
emper
atur
e
measurement
sareneeded.

 Shoul
dcoverawi
der
ange(
shoul
dnotf
reezeorboi
latnor
malt
emper
atur
e).

 Shoul
dbeabl
etor
egi
stert
her
api
dchangi
ngt
emper
atur
e.

 Shoul
dhaveal
argechangeeveni
fthechangei
ntemper
atur
eissmal
l.

 Shoul
dbesucht
hatt
het
emper
atur
ecanbet
akeneasi
lywi
thoutwai
ti
ngf
or
alongti
me.

Typesoft
her
momet
ers

 Li
qui
d–i
n–gl
asst
her
momet
er.

 El
ect
ri
calr
esi
stancet
her
momet
er.

 Di
git
alt
her
momet
er.

 Const
antvol
umegast
her
momet
er.

 Ther
mocoupl
ether
momet
er.

Li
qui
d-i
n-gl
asst
her
momet
er

 Usesmer
cur
yorcol
our
edal
cohol
.

 Li
qui
disf
il
ledi
ntot
hebaseoft
het
her
momet
ercal
ledabul
b.

 Bulbi
sconnect
edtothecali
brat
edcapi
ll
aryt
ubet
hroughwhi
cht
hel
iqui
d
ri
seswit
hincr
easei
nt emperat
ure.

Mer
cur
y-i
n-gl
asst
her
momet
er

 I
stheonei
nwhi
chi
tst
hinwal
ledbul
bisf
il
ledwi
thmer
cur
y.

Bul
b Mer
cur
y Thi
ncapi
ll
aryt
ube

 Pr
ecaut
ionswhenconst
ruct
ingi
t.

 Thewal
lsofthebul
bshoul
dbet
hint
oensur
ethatmer
cur
ycanbe
heat
edeasi
ly.

 Quant
ityofmer
cur
yshoul
dbesmal
lsot
hati
tshoul
dtakel
it
tl
eti
met
o
warm up.

35
  Thethi
ncapill
arytubeshoul
dbeofunif
orm cross-
sect
ionsot
hatt
he
mercur
ylevelchangesunif
orml
yalongit
slength.

 Advant
agesofusi
ngmer
cur
yast
her
momet
ri
csubst
ance

 Mercuryi
sshi
nyopaquel
iqui
dthati
tsmeni
scuscaneasi
lybeseen
andreadi
ngst
akenwit
houtdi
ffi
cul
ti
es.

 Mercurydoesnotwetgl
asssoi
tcannotst
ickt
othesi
desoft
he
capi
ll
arytube.

 Mer
cur
yiseasi
lyobt
ainedasapur
esubst
ance.

 Mer
cur
yhasal
argei
ncr
easei
nvol or1oCr
umef isei
ntemper
atur
e.

 Mer
cur
y-i
n-gl
assthermomet
erhasawider angeoft
emper
atur
esi
nce
o o
mer
cur
yfreezesat-39Candboi
lsat357C.

 Mer
cur
yhasabi
li
tyt
otr
ansf
erheatener
gyeasi
ly.

 Di
sadvant
agesofusi
ngmer
cur
yasat
her
momet
ri
csubst
ance.

 Usual
lytisonl
ythebulbwhi
chi
sincont
actwi
tht
hebodywhen
t
akingthetemper
atur
e.

 Thereisachangeininit
ialpressureduetothedi
ffer
entposi
ti
onsof
thether
momet eri
.e.t
her eadingofthemercuryl
evelisl
owerwhenthe
tubeisver
ti
calascompar edt othereadi
ngwheninhor i
zont
alposi
ti
on.

 Mercur
ytakessomet i
met ocont
ractt
otheor
igi
nalvolume.The
samethermometercannotbeusedtomeasur
eal owtemperatur
e
soonaft
erhight
emper at
ure.

 Theymaybenon-
uni
for
mit
yint
hecapi
ll
arybor
eoft
ube.

 I
tisnosui
tabl
etomeasur
etemper
atur
e.

Al
cohol–i
n–gl
asst
her
momet
er

 Thi
susescol
our
edal
coholi
nst
eadofmer
cur
y.

 Thevol
umeofal
coholchangesuni
for
mlyandeasi
lywhenheat
ed.

 Thechangei
ssi
xti
mest
hatofmer
cur
y.

 Therangeoftemperatur
ethatcanbemeasur edwi
tht
hist
her
momet
eri
s
o o
l
imit
edi.e.boi
lsat78Candf reezesat-
112C.

 I
tisi
dealf
ormeasur
ingl
owt
emper
atur
es.

36
  Advant
agesofusi
ngal
coholasat
her
momet
ri
csubst
ance

 Hasaver
yl owfr
eezi ntof112oChencei
ngpoi tssui
tabl
ein
t
hermometertor
ecor
dveryl
owtemperatures.

 Canbecol
our
edbri
ght
lybyaddi
ngdyet
hatmakesi
tcl
ear
lyvi
sibl
e
thr
ought
hegl
ass.

 Hasuni
for
m expansi
onandcont
ract
iont
hanevenmer
cur
y.

 I
sgoodt
her
malconduct
or,
cheapandeasi
lyavai
labl
e.

 Di
sadvant
agesofusi
ngal
coholasat
her
momet
ri
csubst
ance

 Al
coholsti
ckstothewall
softhegl
assthuswet
ti
ngi
t.Thi
smakesi
t
di
ff
icul
ttoreadthetemper
atur
eaccur
ately.

 Al
coholhaslowboi
li
ngpoi
ntandcannotbeusedt
omeasur
ehi
gh
t
emperatur
es.

Cl
ini
calt
her
momet
er

 I
tisani
nst
rumentdesi
gnedt
omeasur
ehumanbodyt
emper
atur
e.

 I
thast
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 At
hinwal
ledbul
bcont
aini
ngmer
cur
y.

 Acapi
ll
arybor
eisver
ynar
rowanduni
for
m di
amet
er.

 Hasal
imi
tedr
angef
rom 35oCt
oabout43oC.

 Thenor
malbodyt
emper
atur
ei 9oC.
sabout36.

Nar
rowcapi
ll
aryt
ube

Bul
b Const
ri
cti
on

Si
x’
sMaxi
mum andMi
nimum Ther
momet
er

 I
susedtomeasur
emaxi
mum andmi
nimum t
emper
atur
eofapl
acedur
ing
t
heday.

37
  Wasi
nvent
edbyphysi
cistcal
ledJohnSi
x.

 I
thasaU-
tubeconnectt
otwobul
bs.

 TheU-
tubecont
ainsmer
cur
y.

 Thet
wobul
bscontainal
coholwhi
choccupi
est
hef
ullvol
umeofonebul
b
l
eavi
ngt
heotherbul
bwithaspace.

 Hast
woi
ndi
cesf
it
tedwi
thl
ightf
inespr
ing.

BulbA Ai
randal
cohol
vapour

Bul
bB

Al
cohol

I
ndex1

I
ndex2

Mer
cur
y

 Whenthet
emper
atur
eisver
yhi
gh,
mer
cur
ypushest
hei
ndex2t
othe
maxi
mum.

 Theposi
ti
oni
ndex2i
sthemaxi
mum.

 Uset
hemagnett
oresett
hei
ndi
cest
othesamel
evel
.

 Whent
het
emper
atur
eisver
ylow,
mer
cur
ypushest
hei
ndex1up.

 Theposi
ti
onofi
ndex1i
sthemi
nimum.

Ther
mocoupl
ether
momet
er

 Thi
susest
het
her
mocoupl
eef
fect
.

 Wasdi
scover
edbyaGer
manphysi
cistcal
ledThomasSeebeck(
1170-
1831)
.

 Heusedt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenheatf
lowandel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

 Hedi
scoveredt
hatwhent
woendsofmet
alpi
ecesar
eatdi
ff
erent
t
emperat
ures,

 el
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowsf
rom t
hehotendt
othecol
dend.

38
  Theamountofcur
rentt
hatf
lowsdependsont
het
emper
atur
e
di
ff
erencebet
weenthetwoends.

 Di
ff
erentamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hroughdi
ff
erentt
ypesof
metal
s.

 Thecurr
entcanbemeasur
edbyconnect
ingagal
vanomet
eratsomepoi
nti
n
thel
oop.

 Theval
ueofcurr
entcanbeusedtodet
ermi
net
het
emper
atur
eatoneendi
f
thet
emper
atureatt
heotherendi
sknown.

 Thermocoupl
ether
mometerisusedt
omeasur
ever
yhi
ght
emper
atur
ewhi
ch
ordi
nar
ythermometer
scannotmeasure.

Copperwi
re G Gal
vanomet
er

Junct
ionB
Junct
ionA

Br
ass

 Usesoft
her
mocoupl
e

 I
susedinindust
ri
est
odet
ermi
nei
fther
equi
redt
emper
atur
eis
r
eached.

 Canbeusedinhomes,off
icesandbusi
nesspl
acesast
he
temper
atur
esensori
nthermostat
s.

 Ar
eusedasf
lamesensori
nsaf
etydevi
ces.

 Ar
eusedt
omeasur
ever
yhi
ght
emper
atur
e.

UNI
TFI
VE

39
 PRESSURE

PRESSURE

 I
sfor
ceexer
tedperuni
tar
ea.

P=f
A

 For
cei
smeasur
edi
nnewt
on(
N)andar
eai
nsquar
emet
r m2)
e( .

 Pr
essur
eismeasur
edi m2.
nN/

 Uni
tforpr
essur
eisPascal(
pa)
.

Pr
essur
einsol
ids

 Pressurei
nsol
idsdependsont
hef
orceexer
tedbyt
hesol
idandt
hear
eaof
contactwi
tht
hesoli
d.

 Thel
argert
hepart
icl
ethegr
eat
ert
hepr
essur
eandt
hesmal
lthepar
ti
clet
he
l
owthepressur
e.

Pr
essur
einl
iqui
ds

 Li
qui
dsexer
tpr
essur
eonal
lthewal
lsoft
hecont
ainer
.

 Li
qui
dpr
essur
ehast
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
ti
es:

 Li
qui
dpr
essur
eincr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easei
ndept
h.

 Li
qui
dpr
essur
eatequall
eveli
sthesame.

 Li
qui
dpr
essur
eincr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easei
ndensi
ty.

 Li
qui
dfi
ndsi
tsownl
evel
.

For
mul
aforpr
essur
einl
iqui
ds

P=f
A

ButF=mg

P-mg
A

Butm =℮vandv=Ah

m =℮Ah

40
 P=℮Ahg=℮hg;where℮isdensi
ty,
hishei
ght(
dept
h)andgi
sgr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
A
st
rengt
h.

Exampl
e

 Cal
culatethepressur
eatt
hebott
om ofabeakerwheni
tisf
il
ledwi
thwat
er
3
toaheightof12cm.taket
hedensi
tyofwateras1g/
cm andg=10N/kg.

P=℮gh

cm3=1000kg/
℮=1g/ m3

g=10N/
kg

h=12cm =0.
12m

m3x10N/
p=1000kg/ kgx0.
12m

p=1200Nm2

Appl
icat
ionofl
iqui
dpr
essur
e

 Wat
ersuppl
ysyst
em.

 Dr
inki
ngst
raw.

 Hydr
aul
icmachi
nes

 Hydr
aul
iccarbr
ake.

 Hydr
aul
icj
ack

 Hydr
aul
icoi
lpump

At
mospher
icpr
essur
e

 I
sthepr
essur
eexer
tedbyai
rpar
ti
clesi
ntheat
mospher
e.

 I
smeasur
ed

 Mer
cur
ybar
omet
er

 Theaircol
umnsubt
ract
edgi
vest
heval
ueoft
hepr
essur
e
exer
ted.

41
 P-h℮g

 Si
nceg=10N/
kg,
conver
tal
lther
eadi
ngt m3.
okg,

Exampl
e

 I
fhi
nthedi
agr
am abovei
s75mm,
findt
hepr
essur
eexer
ted.

m3
 ℮=13600kg/

 g=10N/
kg

 h=75mm =0.
075m

 p=h℮h

=0. m3x10N/
075m x15600kg/ kg

m2
=10200N/

 Manomet
er

 I
sani
nst
rumentusedt
omeasur
egaspr
essur
e.

 Hasat
ranspar
entt
ubecont
aini
ngal
iqui
d.

 Oneendi
slef
topenwiththeot
herendisusual
lyconnect
edt
o
t
hegaswhosepressur
eismeasured.
Pr
essur
eappl
ied Pr
essur
e
appl
ied

GasPr
essur
e

I I
I

 I
nIt
hel
eveloft
hemer
cur
yist
hesamei
nbot
hsi
des.

 Thi
simpl
iest
hatgaspr
essur
eisequalt
oat
mospher
icpr
essur
e.

Pg=PA

42
  WhenPg >PA,Pg=PA +Pr
essur
eduet
omer
cur
ycol
umn

P2=PA +h℮g

 WhenPA >Pg,PA =Pg+pr

essur
eduet
omer
cur
y

PA =Pg+h℮g

∴Pg=PA -h℮g

Exampl
e

Bel
owisaU-tubemanometerusedtodeterminet
hepressur
eoft hegasusedt
o
3
i
nfl
atet
hetyr
e.Densit
yoft
hemer curyi
s13600kg/m andgr avi
tyis10N/kgwi
th
5
at
mospher
icpressur
eof1.
02x10pa.Cal cul
atet
hepressur
eoft hegas.

0.
69
m

PA >Pg

∴ pg=PA -h℮g

02x105pa–(
=1. 0. m3x10N/
69m x13600kg/ kg)
5
=1.
02x10pa-
93840pa

=8160pa

∴Thepr
essur
eoft
hegasusedt
oinf
lat
ethet
yrei
s8160pa.

Fl
uids

 Thesear
emadeupofl
iqui
dsandgases.

Appl
icat
ionofpr
essur
einf
lui
ds

 Hydr
aul
icbr
akes

 Hydr
aul
icpr
ess

 Dr
inki
ngst
raw

43
  Syr
inges

 Li
ftpump

 For
cepump

 Bi
cycl
epump

 Si
phon

Hydr
aul
icbr
akes

 Usest
hepr
inci
pleoft
ransmi
ssi
onofpr
essur
e.

 Whenasmallf
orceisappli
edont
hebr
akepedaloft
hecar
,itpushest
he
pi
stoni
nthemastercyl
inder
.

 Thi
spr oducespr
essur
ethati
sequal
lyt
ransmi
tt
edt
othepi
stoni
nthesl
ave
cyl
inder.

 Thepr
essurefor
cesthebr
akepadst
ocomei
ntocont
actwi
thl
argedi
skand
sl
owsorstopsthecar.

 Thepist
oninthemast
ercyl
inderar
esmal
leri
ndi
amet
ert
hant
hepi
stoni
n
thecl
avecyl
inder
.

 Thesmal
lfor
ceappl
iedi
smul
ti
pli
edbyt
hel
argepi
stoni
nthesl
avecyl
inder
.

Force Mast
ercyl
inder Br
akepeds
exert
ed

Tyr
e

Toot
herbr
akes Sl
avemast
er

Axl
e
Ri
m

Lar
gedi
sc

For
ce=30N 44 For
ce

Pi
ston1
Pi
ston2
Dr
inki
ngst
raw

 Sucki
ngt
hroughast
rawr
educest
heai
rpr
essur
einsi
det
hest
raw.

 Theat
mospher
icpr
essur
efor
cest
hel
iqui
dint
othemout
hthr
ought
hest
raw.

Syr
inges

 Consi
stofat
ight
-pi
stoni
nbar
rel
.

 I
susedbydoct
ors.

 Whent
hepi
stoni
spul
led,
thespacei
scr
eat
edi
nthebar
rel
.

 Thi
slower
sthepr
essur
einsi
deandal
lowsai
rtooccupyt
hespace.

 Pushi
ngthepi
stonr
educest
hepi
stonr
educedt
hespacei
nsi
deandpushes
ai
rout.

Li
ftpump

 I
susedt
orai
sel
iqui
dfr
om al
owl
evelt
oahi
ghl
evel
.

 I
shascyl
indr
icalmet
albar
relwi
thadel
iver
ytube.

 Api
stoni
spl
acedi
nsi
det
hebar
relwi
tht
woval
ves.

45
  Thepumpi
soper
atedbymeansofl
ever
s.

For
cepump

 Consist
softwoval
ves,
asol
idpi
ston,
twocompar
tment
sAandBandt
he
out
lettube.

 Thepumpi
sopenedbymovi
ngt
hesol
idpi
stonupanddownusi
ngal
ever
syst
em.

Pi
ston

A B

Val
ve
ai
r out
let2
val
ve1 ai
r

Wat
er

 Dur
ingupst
roke

 Whent
hepi
stonmovesup,
itcr
eat
esanempt
yspacei
ncompar
tment
A.

 Theai
rbet
weent
hepi
stonandval
ve1expandst
ofi
llt
hespace.

 Thi
sreducesthepressur
eoft
heai
rincompar
tmentAbel
owt
he
at
mosphericpressur
e.

 Theatmospher
icpr
essur
eonthewat
ersur
facef
orcest
hewat
erup
pastval
ve1int
othecompar
tmentA.

 Val
ve2doesnotopensi
ncepr
essur
eabovei
tisat
mospher
ic.

 Dur
ingdownst
roke

 Val
ve1cl
oseduet
owei
ghtandt
hatoft
hewat
erabovei
t.

 I
ncr
easei
npr
essur
eincompar
tmentA,
opensval
ve2.

 Thi
sal
lowswat
eroutt
hrought
heout
lett
ubevi
acompar
tmentB.

 Ai
rist
rappedi
ncompar
tmentB.

Bi
cycl
epump

 Consi
stsofaf
lexi
blel
eat
herwasheratoneendoft
hepi
stoni
nsi
dea

46
 bar
rel
.

 Thepumpisusedt
oinf
lat
etubesorbal
loonswhosemat
eri
alsar
enott
oo
har
dtoexpand.

 Thef
lexi
blel
eat
herwasheract
sasval
veasapi
ston.

Handl
e Pi
ston Bar
rel Leat
herwasher

 Thepumpi
soper
atedbyhands.

 Thepi
stoni
spushedi
nandoutwi
thi
nthebar
rel
.

 Pushi
ngi
nmakest
heai
routoft
hepumpi
ntot
het
ube.

Si
phon

 I
saf
lexi
blet
ubeusedt
oempt
ycont
ainere.
g.pet
rolt
ank.

 Toempt
ythel
iqui
dint
hecont
ainer
,thesi
phoni
sfi
rstf
il
ledwi
thl
iqui
d.

 Oneendi
spushedi
ntot
hel
iqui
dandt
heot
heronel
efthangi
ng.

UPTHRUST

 I
stheupwar
dfor
ceexer
tedbywat
eront
hebodyi
mmer
sedi
nit
.

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGTHEMAGNI
TUDEOFUPTHRUST

 Densi
ty

 Asthedensi
tyoft
hel
iqui
dincr
eases,
theupt
hrusti
ncr
easesandvi
ce
ver
sa

 Thevol
umeoft
hebodyi
mmer
sedi
nthel
iqui
d

 Thegreat
ert
heheightandhencethevolumeoft
hepor t
ionoft
he
obj
ectsubmergedi
ntoli
qui
d,thegreat
ertheupt
hrustexert
edonthe
body

 Upt
hrusti
sequalt
othewei
ghtoft
hel
iqui
ddi
spl
aced

47
ARCHI
MEDES’
PRI
NCI
PLE

 Stat
esthatwhenabodyiswhol
lyorpart
ial
lyi
mmersedi
naflui
d,i
t
experi
encesanupt
hrustwhi
chisequalt
othewei
ghtofthef
lui
ddispl
aced.

 Upthr
usti
sequalt
othewei
ghtoff
lui
ddi
spl
acedmi
nusappar
entl
ossi
n
wei
ght.

TAKENOTE

 Thesameef
fecti
sobser
vedf
orapar
ti
all
yimmer
sedcube.

 Thefor
cesonthesi
desareequalbutacti
nopposi
tedi
rect
ionshencet
henet
for
ceonthesi
desofthecubei
szero.

THELAW OFFLOATATI
ON

 St
atest
hatafr
eel
yfl
oat
ingbodydi
spl
acesaf
lui
dofwei
ghtwhi
chi
sequalt
o
i
tsownweight
.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFFLAOTATI
ON

 Manuf
act
uri
ngofshi
p

 Shi
pismadeupofmet
alandai
r.Thi
smakest
heshi
pfl
oatonwat
er.

 Whentheshi
pisl
oadedi
tdi
spl
acesmor
ewat
ert
hanwheni
tisnot
l
oaded.

 Submar
ines

 I
sthet
ypeofshi
pthatcanf
loatonwat
erandsi
nki
nwat
er.

 Submar
ineshavei
nter
nalt
ankscal
ledbal
lastt
ank.

 Bal
lastt
ankcanbef
il
ledwi
thwat
erorai
r.

 Whenwat eri
sal
lowedt
ofi
ll
,i
tcansi
nki
nwat
erandwhenf
il
ledwi
th
ai
ritf
loat
s.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFARCHI
MEDE’
SPRI
NCI
PLEANDRELATI
VEDENSI
TY

 Usedi
nfi
ndi
ngr
elat
ivedensi
ty

 Fi
ndt
hemassoft
hesol
idi
nai
r.

 I
mmer
sei
tinacont
ainerf
ullofwat
er.

 Col
lectt
hedi
spl
acedwat
erandf
indi
tsmass.

 Di
videt
hemassoft
heobj
ectbymassofdi
spl
acedwat
er.

48
 Rel
ati
vedensi
tyofsol
id= massofsoli
dinai
r
massofdi
spl
acedwat
er

Rel
ati
vedensi
tyofl
i d=upt
qui hrusti
nli
quid
upt
hrusti
nwater

HYDROMETER

 I
sani
nst
rumentf
ormeasur
ingt
her
elat
ivedensi
tyofal
iqui
ddi
rect
ly.

 I
tconsi
stsofanuppert
em andl
owerbul
b.

 Bot
hthest
em andt
hebul
bcont
ainai
r.

St
em

Bul
b

Leadshot
s

UPPERSTEM

 Consi
stsofahal
lownar
rowgl
asst
ubeandscal
eont
hei
nsi
deoft
het
ube.

 Thescal
eisgr
aduat
edi
nrel
ati
vedensi
ti
esnoevenl
yspacedout
.

 Thet
hinst
em gi
vest
hei
nst
rumentagr
eat
ersensi
ti
vit
y.

LOWERBULB

 Consi
stsofawidebulbwhi
chisl
oadedwi
thl
eadshot
stokeept
he
hydr
ometerupr
ighti
ntheli
qui
d.

 Thebulbdispl
acesareasonabl
eamountoft
hel
iqui
dmaki
ngi
texper
iencea
reasonabl
eamountofupt hr
ust
.

TYPESOFHYDROMETER

 Lact
omet
er

 I
stheonet
otestt
hepur
it
yofmi
lk.

 I
sforchecki
ngwhet
heranywat
erhasbeenaddedt
omi
lk.

 Hasar
angef
rom 1.
015t
o1.
045.

49
  Pur
emi
lkhasar
elat
ivedensi
tyof1.
030.

 I
tisgr
aduat
edi
nper
cent
ageofpur
it
yofmi
lk.

 Wi
susedf
or0%pur
ewhi
leM i
susedf
or100%pur
it
yofpur
emi
lk.

 Spi
ri
t/
wines/
beerhydr
omet
er

 Fordet
ermi
ningper
cent
ageofal
coholi
nbeer
s,wi
nesandspi
ri
ts.

 Acaraci
dhydr
omet
er

 Fort
est
ingt
hest
ateofchar
geofaci
dbat
ter
ies.

 Isdonebymeasur
ingt
her
elat
ivedensi
tyofsul
phur
icaci
dint
he
batt
ery.

 I
sencl
osedi
ngl
asst
ubef
it
tedwi
thar
ubberbul
b.

 Ther ubberbul
bissqueezedt
oexpelt
heai
rfr
om t
hegl
asst
ubet
o
reducepressur
e.

 Whenrel
easi
ngt hebul
b,t
heat
mospher
icpr
essur
efor
cest
heaci
dup
i
ntot
heglasstube.

 Thehydr
omet
eri
smadet
ofl
oatandr
elat
ivedensi
tycanber
ead.

 Whenf
ull
ychar
gedt
her
elat
ivedensi
tyi
s1.
25.

 I
fther
elat
ivedensi
tyoft
heaci
dis1.
18,
thebat
ter
yneedsr
echar
ging.

 I
thasar
edbandar
oundt
het
opoft
hest
em.

 I
saci
dlevelr
eachest
hisband,
thebat
ter
yrequi
reschar
ging.

50
 UNI
TSI
X

GASLAWS

GASLAWS

 Thesearet
helawswhichdescr
ibet
her
elat
ionshi
poftwovariabl
esamong
temper
atur
e,pr
essur
eandvolumewhenonevar i
abl
eiskeptconst
ant
.

 Thequanti
ti
eswhichexpl
aint
hebehavi
ourofaf
ixedmassofgasar
e
pressur
e,t
emper
atureandvol
ume.

 Ther
ear
ethr
eegasl
aws

 Boyl
e’
sLaw

 Char
les’
Law

 Pr
essur
eLaw

PRESSURE LAW

Itst
atesthatf
orafi
xedmassofgasatconst
antvol
ume,
pressur
eisdi
rect
proport
iontoi
tst
emperat
urei
nKelvi
nscale.

51
i
.e.P ∝ T
P=KT
K=P
T
Giventwopositions,
(P1,
T1)and(
P2,
T2)
,
P P
K= 1= 2
T1 T2
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
P1T2=P2T1

Exampl
e

Agaswhoseor i
ginalt
emper
atur
eandpr
essur
ear
e30Kand300KN/m2isexpanded
unti
lit
snewpr essurei
s60KN/m whi
2
lei
tsvol
umeremai
nsconst
ant
.Whatisi
ts
temperat
ure?

Sol
ution
Gi m , T1=30K, P2=60KN/
ven:P1=300KN/ 2
m2, T2=?
P1T2=P2T1
PT
T2= 2 1
P1
T =60KN/ m2x30
2
300KN/
m2
=6K.

Exer
cise

1.Anel ectri
clightbulbhasvol umeof200cm3.I tcont
ainsar gongasatpressureof
1.1x
105paandt emper atureof289K.Whent heli
ghtisswitchedon,thepressur
e
i
ncr eased
~ st eadilyto1.8x105pa.Whati sthet emperat
ureofthear gonintheel
ectri
clight
bulbt hat
createdthisnewst eadypressur
e?
2.Agaswhoseor i
ginalpressureandt emperaturewere17paand34Ki sexpanded
untilit
s
newpr essureis51pawhi l
eitsvolumer emainsconstant.Whatisit
stemper atur
e?

BOYLE’SLAW
I
tstatesthatfort
hef i
xedmassofgasatconst
antt
emper
atur
e,t
hevol
umei
s
i
nverselyproport
ionalt
oit
spressur
e.

52
i
.e.V ∝ 1
P
V=K
P
K=VP
Giventwoposi
ti
ons( V2P2)
V1P1)and(
K=V1P1=V2P2

Example
I
facer
tai
namountofgasoccupi
es100li
tr
esat100Kpa.Whatisthepressur
e
requi
redt
ooccupyi
tint
o10li
tr
esatthesametemperature.

Sol ut
ion
Given:
V1=100l , P1=100kpa,
V2=10l , P2=?
V1P1=V2P2
VP
P2= 1 1
V2
=100lx100kpa
10l
=1000kpa.

Exercise
1.Agaswhoseor igi
nalpressureandvol umewer e300paand14m2i sexpanded
unt i
lit
snew
pr
essur
eis60pawhi l
eitstemperatureremai nsconstant
.Whatisit
snewvolume?
2.Aquanti
tyofgaswhoseor igi
nalvolumeandpr essurewer
e35land12pawer e
compr essed
i
tsvol
umer educedto7lwhi l
eit
st emper at
ureremainsconst
ant.Findt
henew
pressureof
t
hegas.

CHARLES’ LAW
I
tst
atest
hatf
ort
hef ixedmassofgasatconst antpr
essure,vol
umei
sdi
rect
ly
proport
ionalt
oitstemperatur
einKelvi
n.
i
.e.V ∝ T
V=KT
K=V
T
Givent
woposi ti
ons(V1T1)and(V2T2),
V V
K= 1 = 2
T1 T2

53
 V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V1T2 = V2T1

Example
Aquanti
tyofgaswhosei
niti
altemperatur
eandvol
umeare576Kand20m3
r
espect
ivel
yiscool
edataconstantpressur
eunti
lit
snewvol
umeis10m3.Fi
ndthe
f
inaltemperat
ureoft
he
gas.

Soluti
on
Given:
V1=20cm3, T1=576K,
V2=10cm3, T2=?
V1T2=V2T1
VT
T2= 2 1
V1
10m 3
= x576K
20m3
=288K

Exercise
1.Calculat
ethevol
umeoccupiedbyasampl eofgasat42oCifi
toccupi
es5l
it
resat
o
22C.
2.Aquanti
tyofgaswhoseinit
ialtemper at
ureandvol
umear e244Kand12m3
r
espectivel
yis
cooledataconstantpr
essur
eunt i
lit
svol umeis24m3.Findthefi
nalt
emperat
ure
ofthegas.

THEIDEALGASEQUATI ON
Iti
sfor
medwhent hepr
essurelaw,Boyle’
slawandChar l
es’
lawarecombined.
Thi
sisanequat
ionshowi
ngtherelat
ionshipamongt het
emperat
ure,pr
essureand
volume
whent heyallvary.
ie.V ∝ Tand V ∝ 1
.
P
V ∝ T
P
V= KT
P

54
 K= VP
T

Gi
vent
woposi t
ions(V1P1T1)and(
V2P2T2)
,
VP VP
K= 1 1 = 2 2
T1 T2
V1P1T2 = V2P2T1

Exampl
e

Thepr eof15mlofoxygengasat8oCi
essur s12at
m.Whati
sthevol
umei
fthe
o
pressureis770t
orrandt
emperat
ureis20C.

Soluti
on
Given:V1=15ml m, T1=8oC,P2=770t
, P1=12at or, T2=20oC
r and V2=?

Inthi
sproblem,
youarer
equiredt
oconver
tpr
essur
etooneuni
t,ei
theri
ntot
orror
atm andtemper
atur
etoKel
vin.

i
.e.P1= 12at m x760t or
r=9120t
orr
,
1atm
T1=8+273=281K
T2=20+273=293K
V1P1T2 = V2P2T1
VPT
V2 = 1 1 2
P2T1
=185. 25ml
=185ml
Exer
cise

1.Thevol umeofairi
nacontai s24m3andhasapr
neri essur
eof16at
m whenthe
temper
at ure
o
is21C.Cal cul
atei
tspr
essurewhent
hevol
umeisreducedto12m3andi
ts
temper
at ureto
o
171C.
KINETI
CTHEORYOFMATTER

 I
sthet
heor
ythatexpl
ainst
hebehavi
ourofgases.

55
  I
tst
atest
hatgasesar
emadeupoft
inypar
ti
cleswhi
char
eal
waysi
nmot
ion.

ASSUMPTI
ONSMADEI
NKI
NETI
CTHEORYOFGASES

 Agasismadeupofti
ny,
ident
ical
,sol
idpar
ti
cleswhi
char
einconst
ant
,rapi
d
andr
andom mot
ion.

 Theparti
clesmovei
nast
rai
ghtl
ineandt
hei
rmot
ioni
sonl
yaf
fect
edby
col
li
sions.

 Al
lcol
li
sionsar
eper
fect
lyel
ast
ic.

 Thetimethatt
heparti
clesareact
ual
lyi
ncont
actwit
heachotherorwi
tht
he
wall
sofacontaineri
snegli
gibl
ecomparedwi
ththet
imebet
weent wo
successi
vecol
li
sionswiththewal
ls.

 Thef
orceofat
tr
act
ionbet
weent
hepar
ti
clesi
snegl
igi
ble.

 Theact
ualvol
umeofthepar
ti
clesi
snegl
i
gibl
ecompar
edwi
tht
hespacei
n
whicht
hepart
icl
esmove.

 I
fthegasobeysal
ltheassumpt
ionsabove,
iscal
ledi
dealgas.

UNI
TSEVEN

MACHANI
CS

SCALERSANDVECTORS

SCALERS

 Thesear
equant
it
ieswi
thmagni
tude(
size)onl
y.

 Pr
essur
e

 Speed

 Temper
atur
e

 Di
stance

 Mass

 Densi
ty

 Ar
ea

 Ener
gy

56
  Vol
ume

VECTORS

 Thesear
equant
it
ieswi
thbot
hmagni
tudeanddi
rect
ion.

 Di
spl
acement

 Vel
oci
ty

 Accel
erat
ion

 Moment
um

 Magnet
icf
iel
d

 Temper
atur
egr
adi
ent

REPRESENTI
NGVECTORS

 Ar
erepr
esent
edbyal
inewi
thanar
rowhead( )

 Thelengt
hofthel
iner
epr
esent
sthemagni
tudeandanar
rowheadshows
thedir
ect
ion.

 Thel
engt
hmaybedr
awnt
oagi
venscal
e.

PROPERTI
ESOFVECTORS

 Theyhavemagni
tude.

 Theyhavedi
rect
ions

 Theycanbemovedf
rom oneposi
ti
ont
oanot
herasl
ongast
hemagni
tudes
anddir
ect
ionsar
emaint
ained.

 Whent
hevect
ori
srever
sed,
iti
sassi
gnedanegat
iveval
ue.

ADDI
TIONANDSUBTRACTI
ONOFVECTORS

VECTORADDI
TION

 Thesum oft
hevect
orsi
scal
ledr
esul
tant
.

ADDI
TIONOFPARALLELVECTORS

7N + 12N = 19N

57
ADDI
TIONOFVECTORSTOOPPOSI
TEDI
RECTI
ON

18N + 10N = 8N

ADDI
TIONOFVECTORSUSI
NGTRI
ANGLERULE

 Thi
sisascal
edi
agr
am.

 Thef
oll
owi
ngst
epsshoul
dbef
oll
owed

 Reducethemagni
tudeoft
het
wocopl
anarvect
orst
othesi
zet
hatcan
sui
tthespacet
obedrawn.

 Dr
awonevect
ort
otheconver
tedl
engt
hwi
tht
heheadpoi
nti
ngt
oone
di
rect
ion.

 Fr
om t
heheadoft
hisvect
orconst
ructt
hegi
venangl
e.

 Thr
ought
hegi
venangl
edr
awt
hesecondvect
ort
otheconver
ted
uni
ts.

 Joint
het
ailofthef
irstvect
orandheadoft
hesecondvect
orby
drawi
ngastrai
ghtl
ine.

 Thi
sli
nei
sther
esul
tantandmeasur
eitusi
ngyourr
uler
.

 Conver
tyourr
eadi
ngt
o(N)usi
ngt
hescal
eyouar
eusi
ng.

 Exampl
e

Fi
ndr
esul
tantf
orcei
nthef
igur
ebel
ow

a=200N

60o

b=300N

 Usi
ngascal
eof100N=1cm

58
 200N=2cm and300N=3cm

 Dr
awt
het
ri
angl
easshownbel
owwhi
chhasa=2cm andb=3cm.

 Mai
ntai
ntheangl
eatt
hepoi
ntshownasshownbel
ow.

R a

o
60
b

RESOLVI
NGVECTORSUSI
NGPARALLELOGRAM RULE

 Thi
sisanotherscal
edr
awi
ngi
nwhi
chr
esul
tanti
sthedi
agonaloft
he
par
all
elogr
am.

 Youcomplet
et heremaini
ngtwosidesoftheparal
lel
ogram usi
ngt
hegiven
twocopl
anarforcesandthendrawthediagonalf
rom thegi
venangl
etothe
angl
ewhereheadsoft hedrawnvector
smeet .

 Thef
oll
owi
ngst
epsshoul
dbef
oll
owed;

 Conver
ttheuni
tst
othescal
ethatcansui
tthepapert
obeused.

 Copythet
woforceswi
ththemagnit
udefoundaf
terconver
ti
ngt
he
uni
tsbutmai
ntai
ntheangle’
smagni
tudeandposi
ti
on.

 Useconst
ruct
ionrul
est ocompl
etevect
orspar
all
elt
othedr
awn
vect
orst
oform aparal
lelogr
am.

 From thegi
venangle,dr
awadiagonalt
omeettheheadsoft
he
constr
uctedvect
ors,measur
eitandconver
ttheuni
tsf
oundusi
ngt
he
givenscal
e.

 Thi
sbecomest
her
esul
tantf
orce.

 Usingt
heexampl
eint
het
ri
angl
erul
eandt
hesamescal
e,i
twi
llbeas
shownbel
ow.

a R
59
60o

b
RESOLVI
NGVECTORSUSI
NGVECTORCOMPONENTS

 Asingl
evect
orhast
wocomponent
s;hor
izont
alcomponentandver
ti
cal
component
.

 Somet
imest
hef
orcesact
ingagai
nstt
hebodycanbet
woormor
e.

 Thesewi
llst
il
lgi
veasi
ngl
eresul
tant
.

 Thesear
eresol
vedbybr
eaki
ngeachvect
ori
ntohor
izont
alandver
ti
cal
component
s.

 Allhor
izontalcomponent
sareaddedandverti
calcomponent
sar ealso
addedgivingthesum ofhor
izont
alcomponentsandthesum ofvert
ical
component s.

Exampl
e

 Usi
ngvect
orabel
owt
ofi
ndhor
izont
alandver
ti
calcomponent
s.

 Vect
orahascomponent
sindi
cat
edi
nthef
igur
ebel
owusi
ngt
ri
angl
erul
e.

y
a
θ

60
  ahasahor
izont
alcomponentxandver
ti
calcomponenty.

 tofi
ndausi nθ=yhencey=asi
eθ;si
ngangl nθandcosθ=xhencex=a
a a
cosθ.
2 2
 Usi
ngPyt
hagor
ast
heor
em a=√∑(
x) +∑(
y)

 Tof
inddi
rect
ionoft
her
esul
t anθ= ∑ver
antuset t
icalcomponent
s.
∑hori
zontalcomponent
s

Exampl
e

Resol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngvect
ors

140N
200N

30o Box 70o

Vect
o Hor
izont
alcomponent Ver
ti
calcomponent
r

200N -
200Ncos30o=- 200Nsin30o=
∴ 153.
209N 100.
000N Resul
tant
140N 2
=√(- 105.
326)
140Ncos70o= 140Nsin70o=
+
47.
883N 131.
557N

∑ =- =231.
557
105.
326N
2
(
231.
557)

=8.
044N

Di
rect
i anθ=231.
on;t 557;θ=t
an-1231.
557 =66o
105.
326 105.
327

04N 66obel
R=8. owx-
axi
s.

UNI
TEI
GHT

LI
NEARMOTI
ON

LI
NEARMOTI
ON

61
  I
samot
ionmadebyabodyasi
tmovesf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
her
.

 Thi
sinvol
vest
imetaken,di
stancecover
ed,speed,
vel
oci
tyandaccel
erat
ion
oft
hemot i
onandr
elati
onshipsamongstthem.

DI
STANCE

 I
sthet
otall
engt
hoft
hepat
hbet
weent
wopoi
nts.

 I
smeasur
edi
nuni
tsofl
engt
hsuchaskm,
m,cm et
c.

 Det
ermi
ningt
hedi
stancebet
weent
wopoi
nts,
thedi
rect
ioni
snotconsi
der
ed.
Kal
iyeka Chi
pasul
a

4km
3km
Ar
ea22

Ar
ea23 6km

 Di
stancecover
edf
rom Kal
i
yekat
oChi
pasul
athr
oughAr
ea23andAr
ea22

=3km +6km +4km

=13km

 Iftherewerethel
engt
hf r
om oneareatoanot
her,
thepersonwouldmovea
distanceof13km f
rom Kal
iyekat
oChipasul
aift
heroutetoArea23andAr
ea
22i sfol
lowed.

DI
SPLACEMENT

 I
sthest
rai
ghtl
inedi
stancebet
weentwopoint
sinthedir
ecti
onofmoti
on.
(
Moredi
rectr
outefr
om onepointt
oanot
herinthedi
rect
ionstat
ed)
.
Chi
pasul
a
Kal
iyeka di
spl
acement

Ar
ea23 Ar
ea22

62
  Shor
testr
out
efr
om Kal
iyekat
oChi
pasul
aist
hedi
spl
acement
.

 Thear
rowi
ndi
cat
est
hedi
rect
ionofmot
ion.

 TheSIuni
tfordi
spl
acementi
smet
re(
m).

SPEED

 I
sthedi
stancemovedbyt
hebodyperuni
tti
me.

Speed=di
stancemoved
t
imet aken

 Di
rect
ioni
snotconsi
der
ed.

 SIuni
tofspeedi
smet
respersecond(
m/s)
.

UNI
FORM SPEED

 I
swhent
hebodycover
sequaldi
stancesi
nuni
tti
mei
nter
val
s.

 Nor
mal
lyt
hebodymovi
ngbet
weent
wopoi
ntsmoveswi
thvar
yingspeed.

 Thi
siscal
lednon-
uni
for
m speed.

 Thespeedbet
weent
wopoi
ntsi
scal
ledaver
agespeed.

agespeed=Tot
Aver aldist
ancecover
ed
Totalt
imetaken

Exampl
e

Whatist
hespeedofar
aci
ngcari
nmet
respersecondi
fthecarcover
s360km i
n
2hour
s?

Speed=Di
stancecover
ed =360km =180km/
hrs
Timetaken 2hrs

Changet
hekm t
om andhour
stoseconds.

Speed=180x1000 =50m/
s
1x60x60

VELOCI
TY

 I
sthechangeofdi
stancei
napar
ti
cul
ardi
rect
ion.

Vel
oci
ty=Di
stancemovedinapart
icul
ardi
rect
ion
Ti
metaken

63
  Isthedispl
acementcover
edi
nauni
tti
meort
her
ateofchangeof
displ
acementandtime.

Vel
oci
ty=Displ
acement
Timetaken

 Insomecasesthevel
oci
tyofamovingbodykeepsonchangi
ng.I
nsuch
cases,
iti
sbet
tertofi
ndaver
agevel
ocit
y.

Aver
agevel
oci
ty=Tot
aldispl
acement
Totalt
imetaken

 Whenthevel
ocit
yinapar
ti
cul
ardi
rect
ioni
sconst
ant
,thevel
oci
tyi
scal
led
uni
for
m vel
oci
ty.

Di
spl
acement 0 48 1
(
m) 2

Ti
met
aken(
s) 0 2 4 6

 TheSIuni
tforvel
oci
tyi
smet
respersecond(
m/s)
.

 Whensket
chi
ngt
hevel
oci
tyoft
hebody,
thedi
rect
ionshoul
dbei
ncl
uded.

Exampl
e

Acartravel
li
ngf rom t
ownAt otownB200km eastofAin3hour
s.Thecarchanged
di
rect
ionandt ravel
ledadi
stanceof150km duenor
thfr
om townBtotownCi n
2hour
s.Calculate:

a)Speed=Tot
( aldi
spl
acementcover
ed
Tot
alti
metaken

=200km +150km =350km =70km/

h
3h +2h 5h

Di
spl
acement→
(
b)Aver
agevel
oci
ty= AB

Ti
metaken

Di
spl
acement 150km
64
A 200km B
 2 2
Di
spl
acement=√(
AB)+(
BC)

=√2002+1502

=250km

Aver
agevel
oci
ty=250km =250km =50km/
h
3h +2h 5h

MEASURI
NGVELOCI
TY

 Canbemeasur
edi
nanumberofwayssuchasusi
ngt
icker
-t
ape-
ti
mer
.

TI
CKER-
TAPE-
TIMER

 Isanelect
ri
calvi
brat
orwhi
chmovesamet
alpi
nupanddown50t
imesever
y
second.

 Thi
sgi
vesonecompl
etevi
brat
ionas1/
50second=0.
02s.

 Ast
hepi
nmovesdownwar
ds,
itpr
essesadotont
hecar
bonpaperdi
sc.

 Thet
apei
sat
tachedt
oamovi
ngbody.

 Eachsuccessi
vepai
rofdot
srepr
esent
sat
imei
nter
valof0.
02second.

 Thedist
ancebet
weenanyt
wosuccessi
vepai
rofdot
sist
hedi
stancet
he
obj
ecthasmovedin0.
02second.

 Theref
ore,
thet
aper
ecor
dst
hedi
stancemovedandt
imet
akenbyamovi
ng
body.

 Sincethedot
sar
eequal
lyspaced,
thevel
oci
tyi
fthesameatal
lpoi
ntsont
he
tape.

Vel
oci
tyoft ape=Di
het spl
acement
Timetaken.

ACCELERATI
ON

 I
sther
ateofchangeofvel
oci
ty.

65
 Accel
erat
ion=Changei
nveloci
ty
Ti
metaken

a=∆v= v-
u
∆t t

 TheSIuni
tofaccel
erat
ioni
smet
respersquar
esecond(
m/s2)
.

 Whenaccel
erati
onisposit
ive,
itmeanst
hati
tsvel
oci
tyi
sincr
easi
ng
commonlycal
ledaccel
erati
on.

 Whent
heacceler
ati
oni
snegative,
itmeanst
hati
tsvel
oci
tyi
sdecr
easi
ng
commonl
ycal
leddecel
erat
ion.

UNI
FORM ACCELERATI
ON

 I
swhent
her
ateofchangeofvel
oci
tywi
tht
imei
sconst
ant
.

Exampl
e

Acaracceler
atesfrom r
estt
oaveloci
tyof20m/sin5seconds.Ther
eaf
ter
,it
decel
erat
estoar esti
n8seconds.Cal
culat
etheaccel
erat
ionoft
hecar

a.I
nthef
ir
st5seconds

Accel
erat
ion=Changei
nveloci
ty=20m/
s-0m/
s =20/
s=4m/
s2
Ti
metaken 5s 5s
(
accel
erati
on)

b.I
nthenext8seconds

0m
Changeinv el
oci
ty -
20m/
s
Accel
erat
ion= =s =-
20m/s =-
2. s2
5m/
Timet aken 8s 8s
(
decel
erati
on)

ACCELERATI
ONDUETOGRAVI
TY

 I
stheaccel
erat
ionduet
opul
loft
heear
thont
heobj
ect
.

 Allf
reel
yfal
li
ngbodi
esneart
heeart
h’ssur
facear
eat
tr
act
edt
owar
dst
he
centr
eoftheear
thwit
hanaccel
erat
ion.

66
  Thi
saccel
erat
ioni
scal
ledt
heaccel
erat
ionoft
hef
reef
all
.

FREEFALLBODY

 I
sthebodyt
hathasbeenal
lowedt
ofal
lfr
eel
y.

Speed=Di
stancecover
ed=s
Timetaken t

 Const
antaccel
erat
ion=Fi
nalvel
oci
ty+Ini
ti
alvel
oci
ty
2

Speed=V +U=s
2 t

s=t
(V +U)
2

f
oraf
reef
allbodyU=0,

∴ s=t
v
2

Butv=gr
avi
tat
ionalpul
l(g)
2
∴ s=gt
2
2
speed=x,x= gtandg=2x
2 t2

 I
fyouhavespeedandt
ime,
youcancal
cul
ategr
avi
tat
ionalpul
lovert
hebody.

 ghast
womeani
ngs

 t
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt
hwhi
chi
s10newt
onsperki
logr
am

(
g=10N/
kg)
.

 theaccel
erat
ionofaf
reef
allbodywhi
chi
s10met
respersecondper
second

( s2)
g=10m/ .

ACTI
VITY

Ai
m

 t
odet
ermi
neaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
tyusi
ngasi
mpl
ependul
um.

67
Appar
atus

 st
opwat
ch

 pendul
um

 st
andandcl
amp

 t
abl
e

pr
ocedur
e

 Assembl
etheappar
atusasshownbel
ow.

St
and St
ri
ng

 Di
spl
acet
hependul
um t
hroughasmal eθ <10oandr
langl eleasei
t.

 Usethestopwatchtot i
me20oscil
lati
onsofthependulum.Repeatthe
exper
imentandcalculat
etheaver
aget i
mefor20oscil
lati
ons.Doforatleast
si
xdiff
erentl
engths.Recor
dyourresult
sint
het abl
ebelow.

Lengt
h Timetaken(
t)f
or20 Aver
agetime(t
)for Per
iod(T)= T2(
s2)
(m) osci
ll
ati
ons(
s) 20osci
ll
ati
ons(s) t
20

0.
60

0.
70

0.
80

0.
90

1.
00

1.
10

 Dr aphofT2agai
awagr nstl
.

 Dr
awt
hel
ineofbot
hbestf
itt
hrought
hepoi
nts.

 Det
ermi
net
hegr
adi
ent
.

68
Di
scussi
on

 Pl
ott
ingt aphofT2agai
hegr nstlwi
lll
ookl
iket
heonebel
ow.

T2(
s2)

l(
m)

2
 Thegr
adi
entwi
llbe∆T
∆l

 Forasi
mplependul
um osci
ll
ati
ngwithasmallampl
it
ude,
theper
iod(
T)i
s
gi
venbytwopiesquar
erootoflengt
hovergr
avit
y.

l
T=2π√
g

l
√ =T
g
2π

l= T 2 = T2
()
g 2π 4π2
2
g=4πl
T2

 Tocal
cul
ateaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
tyi
sgi
venby
2
g=4πl
T2
2
butT2=4πlandy=mx+c
g

 I
nt aphT2=y,
hegr l=xval
ues

Y=mx+c ⇒ T2=mx+c

T2=ml
Atc=0,

69
 2
ngT =4πl
2
Subst
it
uti
g

4π2l=ml
g
2 2
∴ m =4πl=4π
gl g
2
 Gr
adi
entoft
hegr m)=4π
aph(
g
2
∴ g=4π
m
2
 Gr
avi
ty= 4π
gr
adi
entoft
hegr
aph

Exer
cise

1.Thefoll
owingresult
swereobtai
nedinacer
tai
nexper
imentt
odet
ermi
ne
fact
orsaff
ecti
ngt heper
iodofapendul
um.

Lengt
h 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Time(t)for10 0 1. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 8.
osci
ll
ations 7 2 4 5 5 4 2 6

Per
i T)= t(
od( s)
10

a.Completet
hetabl
ebydet
ermi
ningt
heper
iodofeacht
imef
or10
osci
ll
ati
ons.

b.Pl
otagr
aphofper
iod(
T)i
nsecondsagai
nstl
engt
h(l
)incent
imet
res.

2.Af or
mt hreestudentper
for
medanexperimentt
odeter
mi netheosci
ll
ati
on
duetogr avi
tybytimingonosci
ll
ati
ngpendul
um andobtainedt
hefol
lowing
resul
ts.

Lengt
hofpendul
um 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1 0.
1
(m) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time(t)for20 30. 32. 36. 40. 45. 48. 50.

osci
ll
ations 5 0 7 2 0 6 3

a.Expl
ainhowt
hel
engt
hoft
hependul
um i
smeasur
ed.
2
b.Pl
ott
hegr
aphoftagai
nstL.

70
 c.Det
ermi
neaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty.

d.Li
sttheprecauti
onsyouwoul
dtakei
nthi
sexper
imentt
omeasur
e
accurat
eresult
s.

MOTI
ON–TI
MEGRAPHSANDTHEI
RINTERPRETATI
ONS

DI
STANCE-
TIMEGRAPHS

 Abodyatr
est
.

Di
stance(
s)(
m)

Ti
me(
t)i
n(s)

 Thi
sshowst
hatt
hedi
stancecover
edbyt
hebodydoesnotchange
wit
hti
me.

 So,
thebodyi
satr
est(
isnotmovi
ng)
.

 Movi
ngbodywi
thconst
antaccel
erat
ion.

Di
stance(
s)i
n(m)

Ti
me(
t)i
n(s)

71
  Thisshowst
hatast
hedist
ancet
ravel
ledbyt
hebodyi
ncr
eases,
the
ti
mei sal
soi
ncr
easi
ng.

 I
tthi
scase,
speedcanbepr
esent
edby

 Speed=∆s.
∆t

 Butgr ent=∆s.
adi
∆t

 ∴ gr
adi
ent=speed.

 Thi
sshowst
hatt
hebodyi
smovi
ngwi
thconst
ant(
uni
for
m)speed.

 Speedi
ncr
easi
ngwi
tht
ime.

Di
stance(
s)i
n(m)

Ti
me(
t)i
n(s)

 Thi
sshowst
hatt
hespeedi
sincr
easi
ng(
notuni
for
m).

 Thi
simpl
iest
hatt
heobj
ecti
saccel
erat
ing.

 Exampl
esmayi
ncl
ude;

 Bodyr
oll
ingdownani
ncl
inedpl
ane.

 Acaraccel
erat
inguni
for
mlyf
rom r
est
.

 Speeddecr
easi
ngwi
tht
ime.

Di
stance(
s)i
n(m)

Ti
me(
t)i
n(s)

 Thi
sshowst
hatt
hespeedi
sdecr
easi
ng(
notuni
for
m).

 Thi
simpl
iest
hatt
hebodyi
sdecel
erat
ing.

72
  Exampl
esmayi
ncl
ude;

 Abodyt
hrownver
ti
cal
lyupwar
ds.

 Abodyr
oll
inguphi
llorani
ncl
inedpl
ane.

 Acardecel
erat
ingt
other
est
.

Exampl
e

Belowisadi
stance–t
imegr
aphf
oramot
ori
st.Usei
ttoanswerquest
ionst
hat
fol
low.
Di
stance(s)
i
nmet res 25

20

15 B C

10

0 D
A 0 10 20 30
Ti
me(
t)i
nseconds

1.Howf
arwast
hemot
ori
stf
rom t
hest
art
ingpoi
ntaf
ter10seconds?

Thi
sisdi
stanceAB.

Ai
sat0m andBi
sat15m

∴AB=15m –0m =15m

AB=15m

2.Cal
cul
atet
heaver
agespeedoft
hemot
ori
stf
ort
hef
ir
st10seconds.

Speed=gr
adi
ent

Gr ent=∆s
adi
∆t
m
Speed=(
15-0)
( 0)
10- s

73
 Speed=15=1.
5m/
s
10

Speed=1.
5m/
s

3.Descr
ibet
hemot
ionoft
hemot
ori
sti
n

a.BC

AtBC,t
hemotor
isti
satr
estbecauset
hedi
stancedoesnotchangeno
matt
erthet
imei
schangi
ng.

b.CD

AtCD,themot
ori
stismovingataconst
antspeeddownt
othest
art
ing
poi
nt.(
Themotor
istisdecel
erat
ing.
)

DI
SPLACEMENT-
TIMEGRAPHS

 Di
spl
acementoft
hebodyhasast
art
ingpoi
ntanddi
rect
ionofmot
ion.

0–t
hisi
sref
erencepoi
nt.

 Posit
iveuni
for
mincr
easei
ndi
spl
acementwi
tht
imet
other
ighthand
di
recti
on.

Di
spl
acement

∆s
∆t
Ti
me(s)

 Whenthebodymovest
otheri
ghtofthenumberl
ine,
bot
h
di
spl
acementandt
imearei
ncreasi
ng.

 Ont
hegr
aph,
iti
sshownont
hef
ir
stquadr
ant
.

 Thegr
adi
entoft
hedi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphgi
vesvel
oci
tyoft
he

74
 body.

V=∆s
∆t

 Negat
iveuni
for
mincr
easei
ndi
spl
acementwi
tht
imet
othel
eftdi
rect
ion.

∆t
∆s

 Whenthebodymovest
ot heleftoft
henumberl
ine,
displ
acementi
s
decr
easi
ngwhil
eti
meisincreasing.

 Ont
hegr
aph,
iti
sshownont
hef
our
thquadr
ant
.

 Youcouldseef
rom t
hegr
apht
haty-
val
uesar
edecr
easi
ngbutt
imei
s
i
ncreasi
ng.

 Obj
ectatr
est

Di
spl
acement

 Di
spl T
acementdoi
me
esnotchangewi
tht
ime.

 Thebodyi
satr
est(
stat
ionar
y).

 Di
spl
acementi
ncr
easesnon-
li
near
lywi
tht
ime.
Di
spl
acement

Ti
me

 Thegr
adi
ent(
vel
oci
ty)i
sincr
easi
ng.

 Thebodyi
saccel
erat
ing.

 Di
spl
acementdecr
easesnon-
li
near
lywi
tht
ime
Di
spl
acement

75

Ti
me
  Thevel
oci
tyi
sdecr
easi
ng.

 Thebodyi
sdecel
erat
ing.

SPEED–TI
MEGRAPHS

 Obj
ectatr
est
.
Speed

Ti
me

 Atr
estt
hebodycover
snodi
stancesi
ncei
tisnotmovi
ng.

 Thespeedi
sther
efor
ezer
o(0m/
s).

 Thegr
aphwi
llmoveal
ongx-
axi
s.

 However
,changei
nspeedandt
imei
scal
ledaccel
erat
ion.

a=∆speed
∆time

 Accel
erat
ioni
sther
efor
ethegr
adi
entofspeed-
ti
megr
aph.

 Theobj
ectatr
estgi
vesanaccel
erat
ion(
gradi
ent
)ofzer
o.

 Abodymovi
ngwi
thuni
for
m speed.
Speed

Ti
me

 Thegr
adi
entf
ort
hisgr
aphi
szer
o(0m/
s).

76
  Thi
sonehasuni
for
m speed.

 Abodymovi
ngwi
thnon-
uni
for
m speed.
Speed

Ti
me

 I
fwet
akegr
oundasourr
efer
encepoi
nt,

 Upwar
dsi
saposi
ti
vedi
rect
ion.

 I
tst
art
swi
thsomespeedwhi
cht
henst
artt
odecr
easet
ozer
o.

 Thenthest
onest
art
sdr
oppi
ngasi
tsspeedst
art
sincr
easi
ng
fr
om zer
o.

 Thest
onenowmovest
oopposi
tedi
rect
ion(
downwar
ds)
.

 Anobj
ectmovi
ngwi
thuni
for
mincr
easei
nspeed.
Speed

Ti
me

 Whenabodymoveswi t
huni f
orm accel
erat
ion,
itsspeedchangesby
equalamounti
nequali
nter
valti
me.

 Thespeed-
ti
megr
aphf
orauni
for
m changi
ngwi
llbeast
rai
ghtl
ine.

 Abodymovi
ngwi
thnon-
uni
for
m accel
erat
ion.
Speed

Ti
me

77
  Consi
derabodyf
all
i
ngi
nai
r.

 Ast
hebodyf
all
sthr
oughai
r,t
hespeedi
ncr
easesbutnotr
egul
arl
y.

 Abodymovi
ngwi
thnon-
uni
for
m decel
erat
ion.
Speed

Ti
me

 Consi
derabodyf
all
i
ngi
nwat
er.

 Ast
henbodyf
all
s,t
hespeedaccel
erat
esandt
henr
educes.

 Ift
heaccel
erat
ionisreduci
ngnon-l
inearl
y,t
hebodyi
ssai
dtobe
under
goingnon-uni
formrandom motion.

AREAUNDERSPEED-
TIMEGRAPH

 Uni
for
m speed.

Speed(
m/s)

∪
∪t=di
stance

Ti
me(
s) t

 Considerabodymovingatconstantspeedof ∪m/sforat
ime,
t
seconds,t
hedist
ancextravel
ledbyabodymovingwi
thaspeed ∪
foratimetisgi
venby;

Di
stance( antspeed( ∪)xt
x)=const ime(
t)

X= ∪t

oduct ∪ti
 Thepr sthear
eaunderspeed-
ti
megr
aph.

 Theareaunderaspeed-
ti
megr
aphgi
vesust
hedi
stancecover
edby
theobj
ect
.

 Uni
for
m accel
erat
ion.
Speed(
m/s)

V
Ar
ea=½vt

0 t
78
Ti
me(
s)
  Di
stancecover
ed=½vxt=ar
eaundert
hevel
oci
tyt
imegr
aph.

 Canbepr
esent
edwi
tht
hegr
aphbel
ow.

VELOCI
TY-
TIMEGRAPHS

 Aveloci
ty-
ti
megr
apht
ell
sushowt
hespeedanddi
rect
ionofanobj
ect
changes.

 Wherether
eisnochangei
ndi
rect
ionavel
oci
ty-
ti
megr
aphl
ooksl
ike
speed-
ti
megraph.

 Thegradi
entoft
hevel
oci
ty-
ti
megr
aphi
snumer
ical
lyequalt
o
accel
erat
ion.

 Thear
eaundervel
oci
ty-
ti
megr
aphsgi
vest
hedi
stancecover
edbyt
he
obj
ect
.

 Abodymovi
ngatconst
antvel
oci
ty.
Vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

C B Gr
adi
ent
=0

O A
Ti
me(
s)

 Theareaint
hiscase,
arect
angl
eOABCgi
vest
hedi
stancecover
edby
thebody.

 Di
stancecover
ed=Ar
eaofOABC=OCxOA.

 Abodymovi
ngwi
thst
eadyaccel
erat
ionf
rom r
est
.
Vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

O A
Ti
me(
s)
 Thegr
adi
entofvel
oci
ty-
ti
megr
aphr
epr
esentt
heaccel
erat
ion.

79
  Gr ent=changei
adi nvel
oci
ty(∆v)=accel
erat
ion
changei
nti
me( ∆t)

 Ther
ateofchangeofvel
oci
ty(
accel
erat
ion)i
suni
for
m.

 Theareaundert
hegraph,
i.
e.ar
eaof∆OAB,
givest
hedi
stance
cover
edbythecar.

i
.e.di
stancecover
ed=ar
eaof∆OAB=½ (
OAxAB)

 Abodydecel
erat
inguni
for
mly.

 I
fthebr
akesar
eappl
ied,
thebodydecel
erat
esuni
for
mlyt
orest
.

Vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

O
Ti
me(
s)

 Abodymovi
ngwi
thnon-
accel
erat
ion.

 Somet
imesaccel
erat
ioni
snotuni
for
m.

 I
tmaybei
ncr
easi
ngordecr
easi
ng.

Vel
oci
ty(
m/s) Vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

Ti
me(
s) Ti
me(
s)

I
ncreasi
ngaccel
erat
ion Decr
easi
ng
accel
erati
on

EFFECTSOFAI
RRESI
STANCEONTHEMOTI
ONOFABODYFALLI
NGTHROUGH
AIR

I
nvest
igat
ion:

Ai
m:

80
  Toi
nvest
igat
ethemot
ionofabodyf
all
ingt
hrought
heai
r.

Appar
atus:

 Bur
ett
e

 Gl
ycer
ine

 Thr
eest
eelbal
ls

 Compl
etest
and

 Cl
amp

Pr
ocedur
e:

 Clampthebur
ett
ever
ti
cal
ly.Car
eful
lyf
il
lthebur
ett
ewi
thgl
ycer
ineusi
nga
funnel
.

 Caref
ull
ydroponest
eelbal
lfr
om abovet
hel
iqui
dsur
face(
Thebal
lshoul
d
notsl
ideal
ongthewall
sofaburet
te).

 Obser
vet
hemovementoft
hebal
lthr
ought
hegl
ycer
ine.

 Repeatt
hisf
ort
womor
eti
mesusi
ngt
heot
herr
emai
ningst
eelbal
ls.

Obser
vat
ion:

 I
nit
ial
l
ythespeedoft
hebal
lincr
easesandevent
ual
lybecomesconst
ant
.

Di
scussi
on

 Whenanobj
ecti
sfal
li
ngi
nai
roranyot
herf
lui
d,t
hreef
orcesactoni
t.

 Theseareweightoft
hebody(
w),
up-
thr
ust(
u)andvi
scousdr
ug(
fl
uid
fr
ict
ion)(
Fr)
.

U Fr

 Thevi
scousdr
agi
ncr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easei
nspeedoft
hef
all
ingbody.

I
nit
i yw >(
al
l u+Fr)

81
  Hencet
hebodyaccel
erat
esdownwar
ds.

 Asvi
scousdr
ag(
Fr)i
ncr
eases,
itr
eachesapoi
ntwher
e(U+Fr)=W.

 Ther
esul
tantf
orcei
szer
o.

 Thebodymovesatuni
for
m(const
ant
)vel
oci
ty.

 Thi
sconst
antvel
oci
tyi
scal
ledt
ermi
nalvel
oci
ty(
Vt)
.

TERMI
NALVELOCI
TY

 I
sthemaxi
mum downwar
dvel
oci
typossi
blef
orapar
ti
cul
arobj
ectf
all
ing
t
hroughaf
lui
d.

Vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

B C
A

0
Ti
mes(
s)

DESCRI
PTI
ONOFTHEMOTI
ONI
NTHEGRAPH

 OA–vel
oci
tyi
ncr
easeswi
tht
ime(
const
antaccel
erat
ion)
.

 AB–accel
erat
iondecr
easest
ozer
oupt
oter
minalvel
oci
ty.

 BC–bodyatconst
antvel
oci
ty(
ter
minalvel
oci
ty)
.

MOTI
ONOFTHEBODYI
NTHEVACUUM

 Thebodyf
all
sfr
eel
y.

 Themot
ioni
sduet
oit
swei
ghtonl
y.

 Ther
eisnoai
rresi
stanceandup-
thr
ust
.

 Thevel
oci
tyoft
hebodyi
sincr
easi
ngwi
tht
ime.

 The
Vb
eo
l
od
cy
i
tha
y(su
m/
sn
)i
for
m accel
erat
ion(
a)equalt
ofor
ceofgr
avi
ty(
g).

82

Ti
me(
s)
EQUATI
ONOFUNI
FORMLYACCELERATEDMOTI
ON

o Lett
hei
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyatpoi
ntPbe(
u)andf
inalvel
oci
tyatQbe(
v).

o Thedi
stancet
ravel
ledPQi
nti
me(
t)i
s(s)
.

Accel
erat
ion=Changei
nveloci
ty
Ti
metaken

=Fi
nalvel
oci
ty(V)-
ini
ti
alvel
oci
ty(
U)
Timetake(t
)

a=V-
U
t

V=U+at

o Aver
agevel
oci
ty=di
spl
acement(
s)= s…………………….
.(i
)
Ti
metaken(t
) t

Aver
agevel
oci
ty=I
nit
ialvel
oci
ty+fi
nalvel
oci
ty =U +V ………(
ii
)
2 2

Equat
ion(
i)=equat
ion(
ii
)

i
.e.s = U +V
t 2

s=( t
U +V)
2

butV=U+at

U +(
s= [ )
U +att
]
2
2
s= Ut+Utat
2
2
s= 2Ut+at = Ut+½at
2

83
 Fr
om equat
ionV=U+at
,t=V-U
a
s=V +U
t 2

s =V +U
V-U 2
a
as =V +U
V-
U 2

2as=(
V+U)
(V–U)

2as=V2–U2

V2=U2+2as

Theequat
ions

 V=U+at
2
 s=Ut+½at

 V2=U2+2as

Ar
eref
err
edt
oast
heequat
ionsofuni
for
m accel
erat
edmot
ion.

EQUATI
ONOFMOTI
ONUNDERGRAVI
TY

o Ift
hestoneisthrownvert
ical
lyupwardsfrom poi
ntAwithiniti
alspeedu,i
t
2
exper
iencesadeceler
ati
onof10m/ si ft
hereisnoairr
esistanceuntilt
he
speedreducestozeroatt
hemaxi mum heightB.

o Af
tert
hat
,itaccel
erat
esasi
tfal
lsdownduet
ogr
avi
t s2.
yat10m/
B

A C

Gr
oundl
evel

o Whenanobjecti
sthr
ownupwar
ds,
itsaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
tybecomes
negat
ive.

o Whendownwar
ds,
itsaccel
erat
ioni
sposi
ti
ve.

84
o Thus,
theequat
ionV=U+atbecomesV=U–gt
.

o Mot
iondownwar
ds,
(poi
ntBt
opoi
ntC)accel
erat
esa=g=- s2.
10m/

Vatpoi
ntB=0m/
s,V=U+gt
,V=0m/
s+gt
,V=gt
.

o I
fthemaxi
mum hei
ghtabovet
hest
art
ingpoi
nti
sH,
2 2
S=Ut+½at ⇒ H=Ut+½gt
2
Forupwar
dH=½gt si
nceU=0m/
s.

o Formoti ds,V2=U2+2asbecomesU2=-
onupwar 2gHandV2=2ghf
or
downwards.

UNI
TNI
NE

WORKANDENERGY

85
WORK

o I
sthepr
oductoff
orceanddi
stancemovedi
nthedi
rect
ionoft
hef
orce.

W =Fxd

o SIuni
tisj
oul
e(J)

Exampl
es

1.Astati
onar
yt r
oll
eywashitbyanot hertr
oll
eyonthesamehori
zontalfl
at
surf
acewit
haf orceof20N.Ifthestati
onaryt
rol
leymoved15m i
nt he
dir
ecti
onoftheforce,
cal
culatetheworkdone.

W =Fxd

W=20Nx15m

W =300j

2.At owingtr
uckwasusedt
otowabrokencart
hroughadi st
anceof30m.t
he
tensionint
hetowi
ngchai
nwas2000N.ift
hetotalf
ri
cti
onis150N,
determine

a.Wor
kdonebyt
hepul
li
ngf
orce.

W =Fd

W =2000Nx30m

W =60,
000j

b.Wor
kdoneagai
nstf
ri
cti
on.

W =Frd

W =150Nx30m

W =4500j

c.Usef
ulwor
kdone.

Wnet=Fd–Frd

Wnet=60,
000j–4500j

Wnet=55500j

WORKDONEAGI
NSTFORCEOFGRAVI
TY

o Thegravit
ati
onalf
orce(
weight
)acti
ngonabodyofmass(
m)i
sequalt
othe
productofmassandaccel
erat
ionduet
ogravi
ty.

86
 i
.eW =mg

mg
h

mg gr
ound

o Wor
kdoneagai
nstgr
avi
tyt
oli
ftabodyt
hroughhei
ghti
sgi
venby

Wor
k=For
cexVer
ti
calhei
ght

W =mgh

Exampl
e

1.Cal
culatetheworkdonebyawei
ghtl
if
teri
nrai
singawei
ghtof400Nt
hrough
avert
icaldist
anceof1.
4m.

W =mgh

mg=400N,h=1.
4m

W =400Nx1.
4m

W =560j

WORKDONEDUETOI
NCLI
NEDPLANE

o Consi
dert
heincli
nedplanebel
owofabodyofmass(
m)movedupbya
for
ce(F)t
hroughadist
ance(d)
.

ied
ppl C
a
F(
h

orce) θ
f

87
  Wor
kdonebyt
heappl
iedf
orce,

Wor
kdone=f
orcexdi
stance

W =f
d

 Wor
kdoneagai
nstt
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce,

Wor
kdone=wei
ghtofobj
ectxver
ti
calhei
ght

W =mgh

o I
ncaset
hever
ti
calpl
anei
sfr
ict
ionl
essf
orce;

 Wor
kdonebyappl
iedf
orce=wor
kdoneagai
nstgr
avi
ty.

o I
ncasether
eissomef
ri
cti
onalf
orceopposi
ngt
hesl
idi
ngoft
heobj
ectal
ong
t
heplane

 Wor
kdonebyt
heappl
iedf
orce >wor
kdoneagai
nstgr
avi
ty.

 Workdoneagai
nstf
ri
cti
on=wor
kdonebyappl
iedf
orce–wor
kdone
agai
nstgr
avi
ty.

o Ef
fi
ciencyoft em =wor
hesyst kdoneagai
nstgr
aivit
yx100
workdonebyt
heappliedfor
ce

Exer
cise

1.Aboxofmass100kgi
spushedbyaf or
ceof920Nupani ncli
nedpl
aneof
l
engt
h10m.Theboxisrai
sedt
hroughavert
icaldi
stanceof6m.

a.Cal
cul
ate

(
i) Thewor
kdonebyt
heappl
iedf
orce.

(
ii
) Thewor
kdoneagai
nstt
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce.

b.Whydot
heanswer
sto(
i)and(
ii
)di
ff
er?

WORKDONEBYAFORCEACTI
NGATANANGLE

o Assumi
ngt
heappl
iedf
orcei
sFandt
hedi
stanced:

Tocalcul
atewor
kdone,
findt
hehor
izont
alcomponentandmul
ti
plyi
twi
th
di
stancemoved.

88
 i
.e.Hor
izont
alcomponent=Fcosθ

kdone=Fcosθxd
Wor

Exer
cise

1.Ast
udentpushedal
awnrol
lerwi
thaforceof800Natanangleof39ot
othe
l
awnsurf
ace.Cal
cul
atet
heworkdoneifther
oll
eri
spushedfor30m.

2.Apersonpushedablockalongahorizontalr
oughsurf
aceasshowni nthe
fi
gur
ebelow.Thesurfacehasafri
cti
onof30Nagai nstthemoti
onofthe
bl
ock.Theblockmovedthroughadistanceof12m.Calculat
eworkdone.

F=450N

30o

Fr=30N

MECHANI
CALENERGY

o Ar
etwocl
assesofmechani
calener
gy:

 Pot
ent
ialener
gy:i
sener
gyofhei
ght

e.
g.gr
avi
tat
ionalpot
ent
ialener
gy,
elast
ic(
str
ain)pot
ent
ialener
gy.

 Gr
avi
tat
ionalpot
ent
ialener
gy

 Ist
heenergypossessedbyabodybyvi
rt
ueofi
ts
ver
ti
calposi
ti
on.

 Whenabodyofmass( m)i
srai
sedt hr
oughavert
ical
hei
ght(h)
,theworkdoneagai
nstgravi
tyi
sequaltothe
pot
enti
alenergygai
nedbythebody.

P.
E.=wor
kdoneagai
nstgr
avi
ty

PE=mgh

Exampl
e

1.Acr
anei
susedt
oli
ftabodyofmass40kgt
hroughaver
ti
calhei
ghtof5m.

89
 cal
cul
atemmmt
hegr
avi
tat
ionalP.
E.st
oredi
nt s2.
hebody.Takeg=10m/

Gr
avi
tat
ionalP.
E.wor
kdone=agai
nstgr
avi
ty.

=mhg

=40kgx10n/
kgx5m

=2000j
.

2.Astoneofmass100gi sproj
ectedver
ti
cal
lyupwar
dwithavel
oci
tyof20m/ s.
Fi
ndthegravi
tat
ionalP.
E.atthemaximum hei
ghtr
eachedbyt
hestone.Take
2
g=10m/ s

Fr
om t
heequat
ionmot
ion;

V2=U2+2as

02=202+2(
-10)
h

0=400–20h

20h=400m

h=20m

Gr
avi
tat
ionalP.
E.=mgh

=0.
100x10x20

=20j

 El
ast
icpot
ent
ial(
str
ain)ener
gy

 Ist
heenergypassedbyorpossessedbyacompr
essed
ofst
ret
chedspri
ng.

 Thi
sener
gyi
sduet
othest
ateofst
rai
noft
heobj
ect
.

 Wor
kdonei
nst
ret
chi
ngt
hespr
ing:

=El
ast
icP.
E.gai
nedbyt
hespr
ing

=aver
agef
orcexext
ensi
on

=0 +F(
e)
2

90
 =½Fe

 Wor
kdonei
sst
oredasel
ast
icpot
ent
ialener
gy.

Not
e:

o Sincetheforceisnotuni
form(Fincr
easesfr
om 0t
oF)
,weshoul
duset
he
averageforceincal
culat
ingtheworkdone.

Exampl
e

1.Calcul
atet
heel
ast
icgravi
tat
ionalP.
E.st
oredi
naspr
ingwhenst
ret
ched
thr
ough4cm byafor
ceof2N.

El
ast
icP.
E.=½Fe

=½x2x0.
04

=0.
04j

2.Cal
culat
etheki
net
icener
gyofacarofmass1200kgmovi
ngwi
thvel
oci
tyof
40m/s.

Ki
net
i gy=½mv2
cEner

=½x1200x402=960,
000j
.

Exer
cise

1.Abodyofmass400gf al
lsf
reel
yfr
om atowerandr
eachesthegr
oundaft
er4
seconds.Cal
cul
atet
heki
neti
cenergyoft
hemassasithit
sthegr
ound.Take
2
g=10m/ s

2.Acarofmass1000kgt ravel
li
ngat36km/ hi
sbroughttorestbyappl
ying
brakes.Cal
cul
atethedi
stancetr
avel
ledbythecarbefor
ecomi ngtor
est,i
f
thefri
cti
onalf
orcebet
weent hewheelsandther
oadis2000N.

CONSERVATI
ONOFMECHANI
CALENERGY

 Ener
gycannei
therbecr
eat
ednordest
royedbutcanbeonl
yconver
tedf
rom
onefor
mtoanother
.

 Lossi
npot
ent
ialener
gy=gai
ninki
net
icener
gy

 Lossi
nki
net
icener
gy=gai
ninpot
ent
ialener
gy.

P.
E.=K.
E.

mgh=½mv2

91
 Vmax= 2ghmax

Exampl
e

1.Whatisthevel
ocit
yofanobj
ectdr
oppedf
rom acl
if
fofhei
ght20m j
ust
2
bef
oreitst
ri
kesthegr
ound?Takeg=10m/s.

P.
E.l
ost=K.
E.gai
ned

V= 2gh

V= 2x10x20

V=20m/
s

Exer
cise

1.Agirlofmass25kgr
olleddownfrom appoint
,Atoapoi
ntBonthesl
ideof
3m highgoi
ngdown.Ifthepul
lofgr
avityis10kg/
N.Cal
cul
ate

a.Pot
ent
ialener
gyoft
hegi
rl
.

b.Ki
net
icener
gyoft
hegi
rl
.

2.A150gballfall
svert
ical
lydownwardsfr
om ahei
ghtof1.
8m onahori
zont
al
pl
ate.Onhit
tingtheplat
e,t
heballr
eboundst
oaheightof1.
25m.Fi
ndthe

a.Vel
oci
tyoft
hebal
ljustbef
orehi
tt
ingt
hepl
ate.

b.Ki
net
icener
gyoft
hebal
lasi
thi
tst
hepl
at s2.
e.Takeg=10m/

ENERGY–WORKTHREOREM

 Thenetwor
kdonebyt
henetf
orceont
her
igi
dbodyi
sequalt
othechangei
n
ki
net
icener
gyoft
hebody.

DERI
VATI
ONOFTHEENERGYWORKTHEOREM

W =mas

ButF=ma

W =mas

V2-U2
Buta=m(
2s
2
V2-U )
=m(
2

92
Not
e:

 Notet
hatforcei
savectorquant
it
yhenceafor
ceappliedtosl
owthespeed
oft
heobjectisi
ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ion(
negat
ive)andthenetwor
kitdoesi
s
al
so.

 Theener
gy-wor
ktheor
em doesnotappl
yifobj
ectbei
ngact
edonbyt
henet
for
ceisr
igi
dassomeoftheenergyisusedtodef
ormtheobj
ect
.

Exampl
e

1.I
faconst
antf
orceof20Ni
sappl
iedonat
rol
leyofmass;

Networ
k=changei
nK.
E.

V2–U2)
Fxs=½m(

Subst
it
uti
ngf
oreachoft
heval
ues;

20x1.
5=½x0.
5(V2–02)

25V2
30=0.

V2= 30 =120
0.25

V= 120

V=10.
95m/
s

Exer
cise

1.Thef r
ict
ionalforcebetweenthewheelofamotorbikeandthegr oundis
150N.Theai rresi
stanceact
ingonthemotorbi
keandthecyclistis90N.A
dri
vingforceof960Ni sappl
iedont
hemot or
bikebytheengineovera
di
stanceof5m.I fthetot
almassofthemotorbikeandthecycl
istis180kg,
anditstart
edf rom restf
indt
he

a.Resul
tantf
orceont
hemot
orbi
ke.

b.Fi
nalvel
oci
tyoft
hemot
orbi
ke.

c.Accel
erat
ionoft
hemot
orbi
ke.

93
 UNI
TTEN

MACHI
NES

MACHI
NES

 I
sthedevi
cet
hatmakeswor
kdoneeasi
er.

 Machi
neswhi
chwer
edi
scussedi
nfor
mtwower
e

 Lever
s

 I
ncl
inedpl
ane

 Pul
leysyst
ems

 Mechani
caladvant
age(
M.A.
)

 I
sther
ati
ooft
hel
oadandef
for
t.

i
.e.Mechani age=Load
caladvant
Ef
for
t

A.=L
M.
E

 Vel
oci
tyr
ati
o(V.
R.)

 I
sther
ati
onoft
hevel
oci
tyoft
heef
for
ttot
hevel
oci
tyoft
hel
oad.

i
.e.Vel
oci
tyr
ato=di
i stancemovedbyt
heeff
ort
dist
ancemovedbythel
oad

 Ef
fi
ciency

 Nomachi
nei
sper
fect
.

 I
never
ymachi
ne,
someener
gyi
swast
edi
nover
comi
ngf
ri
cti
on.

i
.e.ener
gyi
nput=ener
gyout
put+ener
gyl
ostagai
nstf
ri
cti
on.

 Out
puti
sal
waysl
esst
hant
hei
nput
.

94
  Ef
fi
ciencyi
sther
ati
ooft
heener
gyoutputofamachi
net
oit
sener
gy
i
nput

i
.eEf
fi
ciency=ener
gyoutputx100
ener
gyinput

=usef
ulworkout
putx100
wor
koutput

=l
oadxdi
stancemovedbytheloadx100
ef
for
txdistancemovedbyeff
ort

=Loadxdi
stancemovedbythel
oadx100
Ef
for
t dist
ancemovedbyeff
ort

ButLoadisM.
A,anddi
stancemovedbythel
oad i
s1
Ef
for
t di
stancemovedbyeff
ort V.R

∴ ef
fi
ci Ax 1 =M.
ency=M. Ax100
V.
R V.
R

Exampl
e

1.Amachi
nei
susedt
oli
ftal
oadof400Nwi
thanef
for
tof80N.Cal
cul
ate;

a.Themechani
caladvant
ageoft
hemachi
ne.

A.=L
M.
E

A.=400N
M.
80N

M.
A.=5

b.Theef
fi
ciencyoft
hemachi
ne,
ifi
tsvel
oci
tyr
ati
ois8

Ef
fi
ciency=M.
A.x100
V.
R

Ef
fi
ciency=5x100
8

Ef
fi
ciency=62.
5%

95
Exer
cise

1.Aneff
ortof250Nrai
sealoadof900Nt
hroughadi
stanceof5m.I
ftheef
for
t
movesthrough25m,cal
cul
ate

a.Thewor
kdonei
nrai
singt
hel
oad.

b.Thewor
kdonebyt
heef
for
t.

c.Theef
fi
ciencyoft
hemachi
ne.

TYPESOFMACHI
NES

 Thef
orcemul
ti
pli
er.

 Ar
ethoset
hatal
lowasmal
lef
for
ttomoveal
argel
oad

 Exampl
es

 Lever
s

 Scr
ewj
ackofacar

 Hydr
aul
icpr
ess

 Hydr
aul
icmachi
nes

 Thedi
stanceorspeedmul
ti
pli
er.

 Ar
ethosethatal
lowasmal
lmovementoft
heef
for
ttopr
oduceal
arge
movementoftheload.

 Exampl
es

 Bi
cycl
egear
s

 Lever
s

LEVERS

 I
sri
gidbarcapabl
eofr
otat
ionaboutaf
ixedpoi
ntcal
ledpi
vot(
ful
crum)
.

 Arethr
eetypesofl
eversdependi
ngont heposi
ti
onoft
hepi
votwi
thr
espect
t
ot hel
oadtobeovercomeandef f
ortappl
ied.

 Fi
rstor
derl
ever

 Pi
voti
sbet
weent
hel
oadandt
heef
for
t

 Exampl
es

 Cr
owbar

96
  Apai
rofsci
ssor
s

 Cl
awhammer

 See-
saw

 spanner

 secondor
derl
ever

 Loadi
sbet
weent
hepi
votandef
for
t.

 Exampl
es

 Wheel
bar
row

 Bot
tl
eopener

 Thi
rdor
derl
ever

 Ef
for
tisbet
weent
hepi
votandt
hel
oad.

 Exampl
es

 Fi
shi
ngr
od

 Tweezer
s

 For
ces

Load(
L)

Ef
for
t(E)

Pi
vot

I
NCLI
NESPLANE

 Isashapeorr
ampt
hatenabl
esust
orai
seheavyl
oadst
oacer
tai
nver
ti
cal
hei
ght.

 Supposet
hel
oadofmass200kgispul
ledal
ongani
ncl
inedpl
anebyaf
orce
of1500N,
andd=5m,h=3m, cal
cul
ate

a.Mechani
caladvant
age

A.=L
M.
E

97
 A.=200x10
M.
1500

M.
A.=1.
33

b.Vel
oci
tyr
ati
o

R=di
V. stancemovedbyeff
ort
dist
ancemovedbyload

R=5
V.
3

V.
R.=1.
67

c.Ef
fi
ciencyoft
hemachi
ne

Ef
fi
ciency=M.
A.x100
V.R.

Ef
fi
ciency=1.
33x100
1.
67

Ef
fi
ciency=80%

PULLAYS

 I
susual
lyagr
oovedwheelofr
im.

 Pul
leysar
eusedt
ochanget
hedi
rect
ionoff
orce.

TYPESOFPULLEYS

 Si
ngl
efi
xedpul
ley

Fi
xedpoi
nt

Tensi
on(
T)

Ef
for
t(e)

Load(
L)
98
  Hasf
ixedsuppor
twhi
chdoesnotmove.

 Thet
ensi
oni
nther
opei
sthesamet
hroughout

 Thel
oadi
sequal
tot
heef
for
tift
her
eisnol
ossofener
gy(
nof
ri
cti
on)
.

 TheM.
A.i
sther
efor
e1

 Fi
xedpul
leyhast
hef
oll
owi
ngappl
icat
ionsi
never
ydayl
if
e

 Rai
singf
lag.

 Rai
singbr
ickupbyt
hebui
lder
s.

 Rai
singwat
erf
rom t
hewel
l.

 Load(
L)=t
ensi
oni
nrope(
T)=ef
for
t(E)
.

 Si
ngl
emovi
ngpul
ley

T E

 Thet
otalfor
cesuppor
ti
ngt
hel
oadi
sgi
venbyt
het
ensi
on(
T)pl
us
ef
for
t(E).

 Tensi
onf
orcei
sequal
tot
wicet
heef
for
t.(
2E)
.

 Thel
oadi
sequal
tot
wicet
heef
for
t(2E)
.

A.=L
M.
E

A.=2E
M.
E

99
 M.
A.=2

 Theef
for
tmovet
wicet
hedi
stancemovedbyt
hel
oad

R.di
V. stancemovedbyeff
ort=2
dist
ancemovedbyload

 2T=L

T=E

2E=L

 Bl
ockandt
ackl
epul
ley

T1 T2
E T1
E
T2 T3

T4

 Consi
stsoft
wopul
l
eyset
s.

 Oneseti
sfi
xedandt
heot
heri
sal
lowedt
omove.

 Pul
leysareusual
lyassembl
edsi
debysi
dei
nabl
ockorf
rameont
he
sameaxle.

 Thepul
leysandr
opesar
ecal
ledt
het
ackl
e.

 4T=L

T=L

4E=L

100
NOTE:

 I
naper f
ectpul
leysystem,t
hemechani
caladvant
ageisequalt
othevel
ocit
y
r
ati
oandbot hareequaltot
henumberofsect
ionsoft
hestri
ngsupport
ing
t
heload.

 Theweightoft
hebl
ockinthelowersecti
onofthesyst
em andf
ract
ioni
nthe
pul
leyr
educesthemechani
caladvantageoft
hesystem.

 Veloci
tyr
ati
oofapul
leysyst
em i
snumer
ical
lyequalt
othenumberofst
ri
ng
secti
onssuppor
ti
ngt
heload.

SREWSANDBOLTS

 Ar
euseddai
lyt
ohol
dthi
ngst
oget
her
.

Bol
t
Sr
ew

 Thedi
stancebet
weent
het
wosuccessi
vet
hreadsi
scal
ledpi
tch.

 Whenthescrewi
stur
nedthr
oughonerevol
uti
onbyaforceappl
iedatthe
screwhead,
thel
owerendmovesupordownthroughadist
anceequaltoi
ts
pit
ch.

 Theworki
ngofscr
ewsandbol
tsi
sbasedont
hepr
inci
pleofani
ncl
ined
pl
ane.

THEWHEELANDAXLE

 Screwdr
iver
,st
eer
ingwheel
,aboxspanner
,abr
assandwi
ndl
essar
e
exampl
esofwheelandaxl
e.

 Revol
uti
onofthewheel,ef
for
tmovesthr
oughadi
stance2πRwhi
let
hel
oad
movesthroughadi
stanceof2πrwher
e

R=wheelr
adi
us

R=axl
eradi
us.

 Thevel
oci
tyr
ato=di
i stanccoveredbyef
for
t
di
stancecoveredbyl
oad

101
 R.=2πR
V.
2πr

R.=R
V.
r

 Mechanicaladvant
agemaybecal
cul
atedusi
ngt
hepr
inci
pleofconser
vat
ion
ofener
gy

i
.e.Wor
kdonebyef
for
t=wor
kdoneont
hel
oad

Ef
for
tx2πR=l
oadx2πr

A.=L
M.
E

A.=2πR
M.
2πr

A.=R
M.
r

 I
nwheelandaxl
e,M.
A.=V.
R.

GEARS

 Ar
etoot
hedwheel
sofdi
ff
erentdi
amet
ers.

 Theyt
urnt
oget
herwi
tht
hei
raxl
es.

 Ar
edesi
gnedt
orai
seorl
owert
hespeedoft
her
otat
ion.

 Ef
forti
sappl
iedononeaxl
ewhi
let
hel
oadact
sonanot
heraxl
eoft
hegear
wheel.

 I
nputgearwheel
/thedr
ivi
ngwheelpr
ovi
dest
heef
for
t.

 Theout
putwheel
/dr
ivenwheelwor
ksagai
nstt
hel
oad.

 Whenthegear
sar
efi
tt
edi
ntoeachot
her
,theyar
esai
dtobeengagedor
meshed.

 Thel
argergearwi
thmor
eteet
hal
wayst
urnssl
owl
y.

RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENTHETWOGEARS

 Numberoft
eet
honasmall
wheel= speedofrotati
onofl
argewheel
Numberoft
eet
honalar
gewheel speedofrotati
onofsmall
erwheel

 whent
het
imeofr
otat
ioni
sthesame:

102
 R.= Speedofr
V. ot
ati
onofdr
ivi
ngwheel
Speedofr
otat
ionoft
hedri
venwheel

R.=Revol
V. uti
onpersecondoft
hedr
ivi
ngwheel
Revol
uti
onpersecondoft
hedr
ivenwheel

R.= numberoft
V. eet
honthedr
ivenwheel(l
oad
Numberofteethont
hedri
venwheel(Eff
ort
)

 Vel
oci
tyr
ati
omaybegr
eat
erorl
esst
hanone.

 I
ncar
s,V.
R.canbechangedatwi
ll
.

 Thegearboxhasasetofgear
sthatcanbecombi
nedi
nanumberofways.

 Incli
mbi
ngupahi
ll
,themechani
caladvant
ageandvel
oci
tyr
ati
ohavet
obe
high.

 Asmal
lergearshoul
ddr
iveal
argegearwheel
.

 Onfl
atr
oadorgoi
ngdownt
hehi
ll
,thewei
ghtoft
hecari
snotpar
toft
he
l
oad.

 Thi
srequi
resl
owermechani
caladvant
ageandl
owvel
oci
tyr
ati
o.

CHAI
NSANDBELTS

 Awheelcanbedr
ivenbyanot
herwheelal
thought
heyar
enoti
ndi
rect
cont
act
.

e.
g.conveyorbel
ts

 Thi
shasthesamevel
oci
tyr
ati
oast
hatofapai
rofgearwheelofr
adi
ibut
noti
ncontact
.

 Theonlydi
ffer
encei
sthatt
het
wowheel
srot
atei
nthesamedi
rect
ionunl
ike
thegearwheel
s.

 At
oot
hedwheelcanal
sobedr
ivenbyanot
heronenoti
ncont
act
.

e.
g.bi
cycl
echai
n.

 Thevel
oci
tyr
ati
oisobt
ainedi
nthesamewayasi
nthegear
ssyst
em

HYDRAULI
CMACHI
NE

 Consi
stoft
wopi
stonsofdi
ff
erentdi
amet
ersandl
iqui
dcont
ainedi
navessel

 Thebi
ggerpi
stoni
scal
ledt
hevam pi
stonwhi
let
hesmal
leronei
scal
ledt
he

103
 pumppi
ston.

UNI
TELEVEN

ELECTRI
CCURRENTANDPOTENTI
ALDI
FFERENCE

BASI
CSYMBOLS

Namet
hef
oll
owi
ngbasi
cci
rcui
tsymbol
s

 Cel
l

 Bat
ter
y

 Powersuppl
y

 Openswi
tch

 Cl
oseswi
tch

 Wi
rej
oined

 Connect
ingwi
re
V

 Lamp

 Ammet
er

104
  Vol
tmet
er

 Resi
stor

 Var
iabl
eresi
stor

 Di
ode

 Ther
most
at

 Li
ghtdependi
ngr
esi
stor

 Li
ghtemi
tt
ingdi
ode(
LED)

COMPONENTSOFACI
RCUI
T

Connect
ingwi
re Cel
l

Bul
b Swi
tch

ELECTRI
CCURRENT

 I
sther
ateoff
lowofchar
ges

 I
sthemovementofchar
gedpar
ti
clescal
ledel
ect
rons.

 Theconduct
ingpat
hthr
oughwhi
chel
ect
ronsmovei
scal
ledel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
t.

105
 I=Char
ge(Q)
Ti
me(s)

I=Q
t

 TheSIuni
tofcur
renti
stheamper
e(A)
.

 Amper
eist
heamountofchar
gepersecond.

A=Coul
omb
Seconds

 Smal
lestcur
rentcanbemeasur
edi
nmi
ll
iamper
es(
mA)andmi
croamper
es
μ)
(A

1mA=1x10-3A

1μA=1x10-6A

DETERMI
NINGTHETOTALCHARGEPASSI
NGTHROUGHAPOI
NTI
NACI
RCUI
T

 Is(n)el
ectr
onspassthr
oughapointAandthateachel
ectroncar
riese
coulombsofcharget
henthet
otalchar
ge(Q)passingt
hroughpointAis
equaltothe(ne)

Q=ne

ButQ=I
t

∴I
t=ne

I=ne
t

Exampl
e

1.Calcul
atetheamountofchar
gethatpassest
hroughapoi
nti
naci
rcui
tin3
secondsifthecur
renti
ntheci
rcui
tis0.
5A.

Q=I
t

Q.=0.
5Ax3sec

Q=1.
5C

Exer
cise

1.Howlongwoul
ditt
akef geof1200μCt
orachar ofl
owwhenacur
rentof
0.
01Aisfl
owi
nginacir
cuit
.

106
 2.Findtheamountofcurr
entpassi
ngt
hroughal
ampi
f600Cofchar
gef
lows
throughi
tin4minutes.

MEASURI
NGOFELECTRI
CCURRENT

 I
smeasur
edusi
ngani
nst
rumentcal
ledanammet
er.

 Anammet
eri
sconnect
edi
nser
iesi
naci
rcui
t.

 Posi
tivetermi
nalofanammeteri
sconnectedtoaposi
ti
vet
ermi
nalofa
cel
l/
batteryagai
nwitht
henegati
vesconnect
ed.

CURRENTI
NSERI
ESCI
RCUI
T

 I
sthesameatanypoi
nti
naci
rcui
t.

i
.e.I
1=I
2=I
3

I
I
1
1 I
2 I
3

CURRENTI
NPARALLELLCI
RCUI
T

 Thet
otalcur
renti
nequalt
othesum oft
hecur
rentcomponent
sint
heci
rcui
t.

 I
tisnott
hesameatdi
ff
erentpoi
nts.

i
.e.I
T=I
1+I
2+I
3

I
T

I
1

I
2

107
POTENTI
ALDI
FFERENCE(
pd)

 I
sthewor
kdonei
nmovi
ngonecoul
ombofchar
gef
rom onepoi
ntt
oanot
her
.

 TheSIuni
tofpot
ent
ialdi
ff
erencei
svol
t(V)
.

t= Joul
Vol e
Coul
omb

V)= wor
∴ pd( kdone(
J)
char
gemoved(C)

THEVOLT

 Isonejoul
eneededt
omoveonecoul
ombofchar
gef
rom onepoi
ntt
o
another
.

 Pdi
ndi
cat
est
heener
gygi
vent
oeachcoul
ombofchar
gei
naci
rcui
t.

MEASURI
NGPOTENTI
ALDI
FFERENCE

 I
smeasur
edusi
ngandi
nst
rumentcal
ledt
hevol
tmet
er.

 Volt
met eri
sconnect
edi
npar
all
eli
ntheci
rcui
tbecausei
thashi
gh
resi
stance.

ELECTROMOTI
VEFORCE(
emf
)

 Ist
heenergyavai
labl
ebet
weent
het
ermi
nal
soft
hecel
lpercoul
ombf
ort
he
compl
etecir
cuit
.

i
.e.

VOLTAGEI
NSERI
ESCI
RCUI
T

 Theemfi
sequal
tosum oft
hepd.

i
.e.sum oft
hevol
tagei
ntheci
rcui
tgi
vest
otalvol
tage.
VT

I
V1
1 V2
V3

108
 VT=V1+V2+V3

VOLTAGEI
NPARALLELCI
RCUI
T

 I
sthesameacr
osst
hecomponent
sint
heci
rcui
t.

V0

V1

V2

V0=V1=V2=V3

UNI
TTWELVE

ELECTRI
CALRESI
STANCE

ELECTRI
CALRESI
STANCE

 I
tist
heopposi
ti
ont
othef
lowofanel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
naci
rcui
t.

 I
tist
hevol
tageperuni
tcur
rent
.

R=V
I

 I
tismeasur
edi
nohms(
Ω).

1Ω=V
A

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGRESI
STANCE

 Thel
engt
hofaconduct
or.

 Thecr
osssect
ionalar
eaofaconduct
or.

109
  Typeofmat
eri
alaconduct
ori
smadeof
.

 Temper
atur
e.

OHM’
SLAW

 Stat
est hatt
hecurrent(
I)flowi
nginaconductori
sdir
ect
lypr
oporti
onalto
thepotenti
aldif
fer
ence(V)acrossiti
fthetemper
atur
eandotherphysi
cal
quanti
tiesoftheconductorremai
nconstant.

VαI

V=KI

K=V
I

 Ohm’
slawest
abl
ishedbyGeor
geSi
monOhm.

 Mostmet
alsandsomenon-
met
alsobeyt
hisl
aw.

OHMI
CCONDUSTORS

 Ar
eal
lconduct
orst
hatobeyOhm’
sLaw.

NON-
OHMI
CCONDUCTORS

 Ar
eal
lmat
eri
alswhi
chdonotf
oll
owOhm’
sLaw.

VαI

V=KI

K=V
I

ButR=V
I

 Theref
ore,r
esi
stanceisdefi
nedastherat
ioofp.
d(V)acr
osst
heendsofa
conductort
othecurrent(
I)passi
ngthr
oughit
.

TYPESOFRESI
STORS

 Fi
xedr
esi
stor
s

 Ar
etheoneswhoser
esi
stancei
sal
mostconst
ant
.

 Ar
emadef
rom var
iet
yofmat
eri
als.

110
  Car
bon.

 Car
ri
ermat
eri
als.

 Thesear
ebakedandcover
edwi
thcer
ami
ctube.

 Col
ourcodef
orcar
bonr
esi
stor
s

 Hasf
ourcol
ourcodes.

 Fi
rstcodeandsecondgi
vesf
ir
standseconddi
git
sfr
om t
he
l
eft
.

 Thet
hir
dgi
vesnumberofzer
osaddedt
othet
wodi
git
s.

 Thef
our
thcol
ourgi
vest
oler
ance.

 Tabl
ebel
owshowscol
ourcodesandt
hei
rval
ues

Col
ou Bl
ac Br
ow Re Orang Yel
lo Gree Bl
u Vi
ole Gre Whi
t
r k n d e w n e t y e

Val
ue 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

 Tabl
ebel
owshowscol
ourcodesf
ort
oler
ance

Col
ou Re Gol Si
lve No
r d d r col
our

± 2 5 10 20

1st 2nd3rd4th

f1sti
 I sgreen,2ndi
sbl 3rdi
ue, eenand4thi
sgr ssi
lver
,the
r
esist
orhasthevalueof5, 000 ±10%
600,

 St
andar
dnot
ati
on

 I
nsomef
ixedr
esi
stor
s,t
her
esi
stancei
spr
int
edont
her
esi
stor
.

 Tosimpl
if
ycolouredr
esi
stor
s,mostoft
hem havest
andar
d
not
ati
onsasfoll
ows

 R27=0.
27Ω

 2R7=2.
7Ω

 3R0=3000Ω

111
  47R=47kΩ

 2M2=2.
2MΩ

 Var
iabl
eresi
stor
s

 Ar
etheoneswhoser
esi
stancescanbevar
ied.

 Usest
hef
oll
owi
ngsymbol
s

 Ar
eoft
wot
ypesnamel
y

 Ci
rcul
art
ypeofr
heost
at
Met
alsl
ide

Knob Rot
ati
ng
ar
m
3
2

Carbonfi
lm orf
ine 1
constant
anwire

 Aknobi
sconnect
edt
other
otat
ingar
m.

 Theknobturnstherot
ati
ngar
m car
bonf
il
mforsmal
l
cont
rolofcurr
ent.

 Wheniti
sconnectedt
oter
minal1and3,yougeta
maxi
mum resi
stancewhi
chcannotbechanged.

 Terminals2and3ar
eusedt
ocont
rol
/var
ythe
resi
stance.

 St
rai
ghtvar
iabl
erheost
at

 Mostcommonl
yusedi
nthel
abor
ator
ies.

 Terminal
s1and3provi
def i
xedr
esi
stancewhi
le1and2
provi
deavar
iabl
eresi
stance.

Ter
minal 2
112

1 3
I
NTERNALRESI
STANCE(
r)

 Whenthecellisdri
vingcur
rentt
hroughi
tsel
f,i
tlosessomevol
tagecal
led
i
nter
nalr
esistance.

 Thisresul
tsf
rom pr
oper
ti
esoft
hesubst
ancesusedi
ntheconst
ruct
ionof
thecell
.

USESOFELECTROMOTI
VEFORCE

1.Dr
ivi
ngt
hecur
rentt
hrought
hecel
ltoover
comei
nter
nalr
esi
stance.

2.Dr
ivi
ngt
hecur
rentt
hrought
heext
ernalr
esi
stance(
r).

 Thetot
alemfi sgi
venbyp.
d.acr
ossext
ernalr
esi
stance(
R)+p.
d.acr
oss
i
nter
nalresi
stance(r
).

ε=I
R+I
r

ε=I
(R+r
)

UNI
TTHI
RTEEN

ELECTRI
CCI
RCUI
T,ENERGYANDPOWER

ELCTRI
CCI
RCUI
T

 I
sther
ateofener
gyconsumpt
ionbyadevi
cei
nagi
vent
imeandcost
.

ARRANGEMENTSOFRESI
STORSI
NACI
RCUI
T

 Resi
stancei
nser
iesci
rcui
t

RT

I
R1
1 R2
R3

113
 VT=V1+V2+V3

ButV=I
RandIi
sthesameatever
ypoi
nti
nser
ies.

∴I
RT=I
R1+I
R2+I
R3

Di
videbyIatever
ypoi
nt

I
RT I
(R +R2 +R)
= 1 3

I I

RT=R1+R2+R3

 I
nseries,t
hesum oftheresi
stancei
nthecomponent
sisequalt
othe
t
otal
resist
ancei
nt hecir
cuit
.

 Resi
stancei
npar
all
elci
rcui
t

RT

R1

R2

I
T=I
1+I
2+I
3

ButI=VandVi
sthesameatever
ypoi
nti
npar
all
elci
rcui
t.
R

∴ V =V +V +V
RT R1 R2 R3

V =V(1 + 1 + 1)
RT RT RT RT

Di
vidi
ngbyVbot
hsi
des

1=1+1+1
RT R1 R2 R3

 Sum oft
heinver
seoftheresist
ancei
nthecomponent
sisequalt
othe
i
nver
seofthetotalr
esi
stance.

ELECTRI
CALENERGY

114
  I
stheamountofwor
ktobedone.

 Whencurr
entf
lowsthr
oughtheconduct
ors,
isconver
tedi
ntof
ormsof
ener
gysuchasheat
,sound,
li
ght,
etc.

 Mostappl
iancesgi
veoutheat
.

 So,
elect
ri
cit
yhasheat
ingef
fect
.

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGHEATI
NGEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT

1.Amountofcur
rent
.

2.Resi
stanceofaconduct
or(
subst
ance)
.

3.Ti
mef
orwhi
chcur
rentf
lows.

4.Thepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erenceacr
ossaconduct
or.

FORMULAFORELECTRI
CALENERGY

I=V
R

V=W
Q

∴ W =VQ……………………………………….
.(
i)

ButI=Qwher
eti
sinseconds.
t

∴ Q=I
t………………………………………….
..
(i
i)

ButV=I
R
2
∴ W =IRt……………………………………….
.(i
ii
)

ButI=V
R
v2Rt
∴ W =()
R
2
W =Vt……………………………………………(
iv)
R

ButW =E
2
∴ E=Vt
R

115
Exer
cise

1.Acur
rentof2.0Aispassedt
hrougharesist
orof20Ωfor1.0hour
s.Cal
cul
ate
t
heel
ectri
calener
gyconvert
edintoheatenergyi
ntheresi
stor
.

2.Fi
ndanelect
ri
calener
gyconsumedinacir
cui
tifthecurr
entwasal
lowedt
o
fl
owfor3hourswhoseresi
stancei
s1Ωandcurrentof3A.

3.Anel
ectr
ici
ronconsumed2.
592mjofenergyi
n1hourwhenconnectedto
t
hemainspowersuppl
yof240V.Cal
cul
atethecur
rentt
hrought
hefi
lament
i
ntheel
ectr
ici
ron.

ELECTRI
CALPOWER

 I
sther
ateofel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
ntoot
herf
ormsofener
gy.

Power=Energy
ti
me

P=E…………………………………………….
.(i
)
t

ButE=QV

P=QV……………………………………………(
ii
)
t

ButQ=I
t

P=I
tV
t

P=I
V………………………………………….
(i
ii
)

WhenV=I
R
2
P=IR……………………………………….
.(
iv)

WhenI=V
R
2
P=VR
R2
2
PV …………………………………………(
v)
R

Exer
cise

1.At
orchbul
bisl
abel
led2.
5V,
0.3A.Cal
cul
atet
hepoweroft
hebul
b.

116
 2.Anel
ect
ri
cbul
blabel
led40w,
240V.Cal
cul
ate

a.Ther
esi
stanceoft
hef
il
amentusedi
nthebul
b.

b.Thecur
rentt
hrought
hef
il
amentwhent
hebul
bwor
ksnor
mal
ly.

POWERRATI
NG

Appl
iance Power
rat
ing

Fi
lament 85w–
150w
Ref
ri
ger
ator
150w
Tel
evi
sion
200w
El
ect
ri
cir
on
750w
COST Room heat
erand OFELECTRI
CALENERGY
gr
il
l 1–3kw
 Thecommer ci
aluni
tsof
El
ect
ri
cket
tl
e 2–3kw el
ect
ricalener
gyareworked
outf
rom theequati
onE=Pt
I
mmer
sionheat
er 3kw wherePi spoweri
nkwandti n
El
ect
ri
ccooker 3–5kw hour
s.

 Ther
efor
e,i
tsuni
tis
ki
lowat
thour(
kwh)
.

 InMalawi,
ESCOM isr
esponsi
blef
orchar
gingt
heel
ect
ri
calener
gyusedby
anyappli
anceort
hehouses.

 Amountofener
gyusedi
scal
cul
atedbysubt
ract
ingpr
evi
ousr
eadi
ngf
rom
cur
rentr
eadi
ng.

 Thi
sismul
ti
pli
edbycostperkwh.

 Ener
gy,
Mines,
NaturalResour
cesandEnergy(
MAREP)char
gest
axof4.
5%
andMal
awiEnergyRegulat
oryAut
hori
ty(
MERA)charges1%.

 Sur
taxof16.
5%f
orconsumpt
ioni
schar
gedoni
t.

Exer
cise

1.Whatisthecostofheati
ngwateri
natankwi
tha3kwheat
erf
or90mi
nut
es
i
fthecostofelect
ri
cit
yisK25.
4perunit
.

2.Cal
cul
atet
hetotalbi
llf
orusi
ngat el
evi
sionsetr
ated200wfor10days,
and
el
ect
ri
cket
tler
ated2.5efor30daysattherat
eofK25.4peruni
tandasurt
ax

117
 of16.
5%oft
heconsumpt
ion.

DOMESTI
CWI
RING

 Thedomest
icsuppl
yis240Vacwi
thf
requencyof50Hz.

 I
ssuppl
iedbyt
wocabl
esf
rom al
ocalsub-
stat
ion.

 Cabl
esar
eli
vewi
re(
L)andneut
ralwi
re(
N).

 Li
vewi
rei
sli
nkedtotheposi
tivet
ermi
nalofacel
lorbat
ter
ywhi
leneut
ral
wi
ret
othenegat
ivet
erminal
.

 Theswi
tchi
ntheci
rcui
tmustbef
it
tedi
nthel
ivewi
re.

 Thi
sist
oswi
tchonorof
f.

COLOURCODESFORWI
RESUSEDI
NTHEHOUSEWI
RING

1.Br
ownf
orl
ive(
redi
scommonl
yusedi
nMal
awi
)

2.Bl
uef
orneut
ral
.

3.Gr
een/
yel
low/
greenst
ri
pedyel
lowf
orear
th.

 Makesur
ethatt
heear
thl
eadgoest
othemet
alcaseoft
heappl
iance.

FUSE

 I
sashor
tthi
npi
eceofwi
reofl
owmel
ti
ngpoi
nt.

 I
tmel
tsassoonast
hecur
rentexceedsi
tsr
atedval
ue.

 I
sfi
tt
edi
ntheci
rcui
ttopr
eventdanger
ousl
ylar
gecur
rentf
rom f
lowi
ng.

 Shoul
dbef
it
tedi
nli
vewi
rel
iket
heswi
tch.

THREEPI
NPLUGSANDSOCKET

118
 THREEEPI
NPLUG SOCKET

THREEEPI
NPLUG

 Not
ethatt
heear
thpi
nisl
ongert
hant
heot
herpi
ns.

119
  Thel
ivepi
nisont
her
ighthandsi
deoft
hepl
ugwhenconnectt
othesocket
.

EARTHCONNECTI
ON

 Ear
thconnect
sthemet
alcaseofanappl
iancet
othegr
ound.

 Thi
spr
event
sitf
rom becomi
ngl
ive(
prevent
sshock)
.

 Ift
her
eisnoear
thi
ng( usi
ngtwopinpl
ug)
,aper
sonwhot
ouchest
hemet
al
casewoul
dgetanelectr
icshock.

 Appl
ianceswi
thnon-
met
all
iccasecanbeconnect
edusi
ngat
wopi
npl
ug.

HOUSEHOLDWI
RING

 Ever
ycir
cuitconnect
edi
npar
all
elwi
thpowersuppl
yi.
e.acr
ossl
iveand
neut
ral
wire.

 Thi
sgi
vesever
yci
rcui
tto240Va.
c.

 Theel
ect
ri
cit
yrecor
dst
heel
ect
ri
calener
gyconsumedi
nthewhol
ehouse.

 Consumerboxdi
str
ibut
escur
rentt
osever
alsepar
ateci
rcui
ts.

 Consumerboxal
sohousest
hemai
nswi
tch.

 Thel
ight
ingci
rcui
tscont
ainsal
lli
ght
sfort
hewhol
ehouse.

120
  Theringmai
ncircui
tprovi
desparall
elci
rcui
tconnect
ionst
oeachel
ect
ri
cal
appl
iancepl
uggedint
ot hesocket
.

ELECTRI
CALHAZARDS

 Hazardsar
eallsi
tuat
ionst
hatposeat
hreatt
oli
fe,
heal
th,
proper
tyor
envi
ronment.

 Thesei
ncl
ude

1.Poorwi
ri
nganddef
ect
iveel
ect
ri
cwi
res.

2.Wat
erout
let
sbei
ngcl
oset
oel
ect
ri
cout
let
s.

3.Pour
ingwat
eronel
ect
ri
cfi
re.

4.Cover
ingelect
ri
calcor
dsandwi
reswi
thheavyel
ect
ri
calcovercanl
eadt
o
over
heati
ng.

5.Overl
oadi
ngt
heout
letl
eadi
ngt
oover
heat
ingandel
ect
ri
calf
ir
e.

6.Useofl
ongext
ensi
oncor
dswhi
chcancauset
ri
ppi
ngoracci
dent
.

7.Touchi
ngel
ect
ri
calappl
iancewi
thwethandsl
eadi
ngt
oel
ect
ri
calshock.

8.Br
okensocket
sandel
ect
ri
calappl
iancesl
eadi
ngt
oel
ect
ri
calshock.

ELECTRI
CALSAFETY

1.Donott
ouchnakedel
ect
ri
ccabl
eswi
thbar
ehandst
oavoi
del
ect
ri
cshock.

2.Al
wayspayat
tent
iont
othewar
ningsi
gnal
sgi
venoutbyappl
iances.

3.Uset
her
ightsi
zeci
rcui
tbr
eaker
sandf
uset
oavoi
dover
loadi
ng.

4.Ensurethatpotent
ialdanger
ousel
ect
ri
caldevi
cesornakedwi
resar
eoutof
reachofchil
dren.

5.Youshoul
davoi
dcubet
apsandot
herout
let
-st
ret
chi
ngdevi
ces.

6.Al
waysr
epl
acebr
okenpl
ugsandnakedwi
res.

7.Uset
hecor
rectappl
iancesi
nacor
rectsockett
oavoi
dover
loadi
ng.

121