Biology 3201 Unit 1

Section 2 - Notes Endocrine System

Operation of the Endocrine System

What is the Endocrine System?
The endocrine system is comprised of the hormone – producing glands and tissues of the
body.
Functioning of the Endocrine System
• The endocrine system functions along with the nervous system to help maintain
homeostasis.
• Endocrine system functions slower than nervous system but gives a more sustained
effect.
• The endocrine system carries out its functions based upon messages received from the
Hypothalamus.
o The hypothalamus monitors the blood and sends hormones from glands into the
blood when needed.
o Organs await the arrival of hormones.
o Specific hormones attach to specific receptors in cells. This happens in a “lock-
and-key” fashion.
o Organs that contain receptors for specific hormones are called target organs.

For example : Vigorous exercise triggers endocrine glands in the brain to release several
different hormones to regulate oxygen consumption, basal metabolic rate
and the metabolizing carbohydrates and fat for energy. As a result, the rate
and depth of breathing increases, heart rate and muscle contraction
increases and energy stores are quickly mobilized. Therefore, fuel is
available for an increase in skeletal muscle, heart, and brain activity, while
at the same time maintaining normal physiological processes.

The endocrine system also controls : blood sugar, metabolism, growth, reproductive
development and function and other physiological
activities.

Biology 3201 _Unit 1_Endocrine System Notes Page 1 of 14

Components of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is composed of glands and tissues.

2 Types of Glands

A. Endocrine - Glands that do not have ducts.

Hormones are dumped directly into the bloodstream for
transport to target cells.

B. Exocrine - Glands that have ducts. Hormones are secreted into ducts.
Ex: Sweat glands and Salivary glands
 Hormones
These are chemicals that circulate throughout the blood and exert some measure of control over
most every organ and tissue in the body.

TYPES OF HORMONES

Hormones are either Steroidal or Nonsteroidal.

1. Steroid Hormones – Hormones manufactured from a fatty substance called Cholesterol.

These substances are “fat soluble”.
Ex: Cortisol.

How Steroid Hormones Work

o These hormones enter a cell and binds to a protein receptor in the cell. This
creates a hormone-receptor complex.
o The hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus where it activates a specific
gene in the DNA.
o Activated gene produces an enzyme (protein) that initiates a chemical reaction
within the cell.

2. Non-Steroid Hormones – Hormones composed of proteins, peptides or amino acids.

These hormones are NOT fat soluble. They are unable to enter cells because they are not
solube in the cell membrane.

How Non-steroid Hormones Work

o A Hormone (called a ‘first messenger’) binds to receptors on surfaces of target
cell.
o The binding causes ATP to be changed into Cyclic AMP(cAMP).
o Cyclic AMP (Second messenger) causes chemical reactions to occur within the
cell.

Ex: Adrenaline, ACTH, LH, FSH, ADH

Summary of Steroidal .vs. Nonsteroidal Hormones

Hormone Solubility in Cell Location of End Result

Membrane Receptors
Steroidal Soluble Within cell Gene produces a
Protein
Nonsteroidal Insoluble Surface of cell cAMP causes chain
reactions

Biology 3201 _Unit 1_Endocrine System Notes Page 3 of 14

Antagonistic Hormones

These are hormones that work against each other or they have opposite effects on the body.

Ex: Insulin and glucagon

Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin

Tropic Hormones

These are hormones that regulate the hormone production of many other glands.

Ex: Thyroid Stimulating hormone, HGH

Endocrine/Hormone Disorders

Problems with most endocrine glands are either caused by Hyposecretion or Hypersecretion of a
hormone.

Hyposecretion: An under secretion of a hormone within the body.

Hypersecretion: An over secretion of a hormone within the body.

 Feedback Mechanisms and Operation of Hormones

Hormones regulate endocrine function on the basis of feedback mechanisms.

There are two types of feedback mechanisms.

1. Negative feedback Mechanism/loop

A mechanism that works to “reverse” or “decrease” changes in the
body.

Ex: Hypothalamus – Pituitary Feedback Mechanism

Operation of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary Feedback mechanism

Hypothalamus

Releasing Factor (Hormone 1)

Feedback inhibits
release of hormone 1
Pituitary Gland

Stimulating Hormone
(hormone 2) Feedback inhibits
release of hormone 2

Target Gland

Target Gland Hormone

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2. Positive Feedback Mechanism
A mechanism that serves to “increase” the effect of an action.

Ex: Oxytocin Feedback loop.

Uterine Water Breaks

Pressure exerted on Cervix

Uterine Contractions Increase

Increase Oxytocin released

 Glands of the Endocrine System
1. Pituitary Gland
• Located at the base of the brain. Called the “Master Gland”
• Connected to the Hypothalamus
• Nervous system sends signals via the hypothalamus to exert control over the pituitary.
• Comprised of two glands Æ Posterior Pituitary and Anterior Pituitary.

Anterior Pituitary
• Located toward front of head.
• Makes up largest portion of pituitary gland.
• Produces 6 different hormones.

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Hormone Name/Acronym Target Cell/organ Action
Somatotropin or Human Growth Bones, Tissues • Regulates growth and
Hormone -- HGH development of body
tissues.
• Increases intestinal
absorption of calcium
increasing cell divison and
growth in bones and
cartilage.
• stimulate protein synthesis
and lipid metabolism
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Adrenal Cortex • Causes the adrenal cortex to
produce cortisol and
aldosterone.
Prolactin (PRL) Mammary Glands • Stimulates milk production
(lactogenesis)
• Stimulates development of
mammary tissue.
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Thyroid Gland • Stimulates the release of
Thyroxine
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Ovaries, Testes • Causes the maturation of a
follicle within an ovary.
• Starts development of
sperm in males
Lutenizing Hormone (LH) Ovaries, Testes • Causes follicle to release an
egg. Forms a corpus lutem.
• Stimulates production of
testosterone in males
Biology 3201 _Unit 1_Endocrine System Notes Page 7 of 14
 Posterior Pituitary

• Located on back of pituitary gland.

• Smaller of two glands making up the pituitary.
• Stores hormones, but does not create any.
• Secretes 2 hormones

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

Hormone Name/Acronym Target Cell/Organ Action
Oxytocin • Uterine Muscles • Causes muscles to
• Mammary Glands contract to help expel
baby.
• Causes mammary
glands to contract to
release milk
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) • Blood • Regulates sodium
or Vasopressin • Arteries levels in blood
• Collecting Ducts of • Causes damaged blood
kidneys vessels to constrict to
reduce blood loss
• Causes kidneys to
retain water.

Note: ADH and Oxytocin are created by the HYPOTHALAMUS and

STORED in the posterior pituitary.

Problems associated with the Pituitary Gland

a. Dwarfism

Cause: Insufficient production of HGH during childhood.

Effect: Causes an abnormally short stature.

Treatment: Injections of HGH

b. Giantism

Cause: Excess production of HGH prior to puberty.

Effect: abnormal growth of long bones in the skeleton.

Treatment: microsurgery of pituitary , radiation treatment of gland tissue.

c. Acromegaly

Cause: Excess HGH production during adult years.

Effect: Causes thickening of bone tissue. Causes abnormal growth of head, hands
and feet. Also causes spinal deformities.

Treatment: Surgical removal of tumor causing too much HGH to be released.

Radiation of tumor
Injection of HGH blocking drug.

d. Diabetes Insipidus

Cause: Insufficient production of ADH.

Effect: increased thirst and dehydration

Production of high amounts of dilute urine
Enlarged urinary bladder.

Treatment: Injections of ADH to reverse effects.

2. Thyroid Gland
• Located in the throat
• Butterfly shaped

Function Æ produces Thyroxine and Calcitonin

Note: Iodine is needed in diet in order to produce Thyroxine.

Function of Thyroxine
Thyroxine increases metabolism rate and oxygen consumption.

Thyroxine is released from the thyroid gland when stimulated by TSH from the pituitary.

TSH --------- > Thyroid Gland -------- > releases Thyroxine

TSH and Thyroxine work on a negative feedback loop.

Biology 3201 _Unit 1_Endocrine System Notes Page 9 of 14

 Function of Calcitonin

• Moves calcium from the blood and into the bones. This lowers amount of calcium
in the blood.

Problems associated with Thyroid Gland

A. Hyposecretion of Thyroxine

1. Myxedema
• Condition where adults become obese, lose appetite and are often tired because of
under production of thyroxine.

Treatment: drugs that have Thyroxine in them

2. Congenital Hypothyroidism or Cretinism

• Condition in children where they are often short/stalky and often mentally
delayed.

Treatment: drugs having thyroxine

3. Goiter
• A condition caused by a lack of iodine in the diet. This causes a decreased
production of Thyroxine.
• Patients end up with swollen thyroid gland. Looks like a large growth on the neck.

Treatment: increase iodine intake.

Governments have added iodine to salt for years (Iodized salt) to
counteract this problem.

B. Hypersecretion of Thyroxine

i. Grave’s Disease
• Condition where there is an increased metabolism (“hyperness”) in a person.
• Increased sweating
• Muscle weakness
• Protruding eyes

Treatment: Surgical removal of thyroid gland

Thyroid blocking drugs.
3. Parathyroid Gland(s)
• Located on the surface of thyroid gland.
• Produces PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)

Function of PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)

• Causes bones to release calcium into the blood stream.

• Causes kidneys to reabsorb calcium from blood thus increasing amount of
calcium in the body.

4. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)

• Located near the small intestine.
• Contains specialized endocrine cells called Islets of Langerhans.
• Islets of Langerhans is made up both Alpha and Beta cells.
• Secretes Insulin and Glucagon

Function of Insulin (Created by the Beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans)

• Causes the conversion of Glucose into Glycogen that is stored in the liver.
• Causes excess glucose to be changed into fats.
• Helps regulate blood-sugar levels.

Function of Glucagon (Created by the Alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans)

• Causes the conversion of Glycogen (liver) into Glucose that is released into the
blood as needed.

Glycogen ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Glucagon
→ Glu cos e

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Operation of Insulin and Glucagon in sugar (glucose) regulation.

Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones. They work opposite each other to maintain
proper blood sugar levels.

They work by either increasing or decreasing the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

If the amount of glucose in the blood is high then insulin is secreted by the pancreas. This causes
cells to uptake the glucose from the blood and the blood glucose level decreases. When the blood
glucose level decreases glucagon is secreted and this causes the liver to convert glycogen into
glucose. Glucose is released into the blood stream and the blood glucose level rises.

Disorders of the Pancreas

a. Type 1 Diabetes (Diabetes Mellitus)

• Known as Juvenile or Insulin Dependent diabetes. Occurs in individuals under 20

yrs old.

Cause: Beta cells of Islets of Langerhans do not produce enough insulin.

Result: abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in blood.

Symptoms: Fatigue, thirst, weight loss, frequent urination, blindness

Treatment: Insulin injections (usually for rest of life)

b. Type 2 Diabetes
• Known as “adult onset diabetes”. Occurs in individuals over 40 yrs old.
• Insulin is produced by pancreas but cells “do not recognize” it. Cells do not use
the sugar found in the blood.

Treatment: Strict control of carbohydrate intake to reduce amount of sugar in blood.

5. Pineal Gland

• Located deep in the brain.

• Produces Melatonin

Function of Melatonin

• Causes a feeling of “sleepiness” and aids with sleep.

6. Thymus Gland
• Located between the lobes of the lung in the upper chest.
• Produces thymosin

Function of Thymosin

• Causes the production and maturation of lymphocytes into T-cells.

7. Adrenal Glands
• Located on top of the kidneys.
• Composed of two layers
o Outside Æ Adrenal Cortex (outside of gland)
o Inside Æ Adrenal Medulla (inside of gland)
• Both the Adrenal Medulla and Adrenal Cortex are controlled by the
Hypothalamus.

Adrenal Cortex

„ Releases three major hormones.

o Aldosterone (mineralocorticoids) Æ Regulates blood pressure and salt
levels in the blood.
o Cortisol (Glucocorticoids) Æ Reduces inflammation and causes glucose to
be made by the liver.
o Sex Hormones
ƒ Males Æ hormones called “Androgens”
Biology 3201 _Unit 1_Endocrine System Notes Page 13 of 14
 ƒ Females Æ hormones called “Estrogens”
Adrenal Medulla

„ Releases two major hormones

o Adrenaline (epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (norepiniphrine) Æ Released
during times of stress. The “Fight or Flight” hormone.
ƒ Increases heartrate, respiration rate, release of glucose by liver etc.

8. Gonads Æ Ovaries and Testes

a. Ovaries – found in females

„ Produces estrogen and progesterone

ƒ Estrogen Æ controls secondary sex characteristics in females
Prepares the uterus for pregnancy

ƒ Progesterone Æ Maintains uterus during pregnancy

b. Testes – found in males

„ Produces testosterone
ƒ Controls secondary sex characteristics in males.