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Stray voltage
Stray voltage is the occurrence of electrical potential between two objects that ideally should not
have any voltage difference between them. Small voltages often exist between two grounded
objects in separate locations, due to normal current flow in the power system. Large voltages can
appear on the enclosures of electrical equipment due to a fault in the electrical power system, such
as a failure of insulation.
Contents
Terminology
Definitions
Official definition (draft)
Working definition
Origins
Coupled voltages
Capacitive leakage through insulation
Induced voltages
A fallen power conductor from a
Degraded insulation on power conductors
transmission line forces current
Leakage from single-wire earth return through the earth; the resistance of
Neutral return currents through the ground the earth to current produces a
Electrolysis and corrosion voltage difference between the point
of contact and distant earth. If the
Public concerns about stray voltage rate of change of voltage with
Effects distance is large, a dangerous
Persons potential may exist between the feet
of a person in the area.
Farm animals
Legal proceedings in Wisconsin
Stray/contact voltage detection
See also
References
External links
Terminology
Stray voltage is any case of undesirable elevated electrical potential, but more precise terminology
gives an indication of the source of the voltage. Neutral to earth voltage (NEV) specifically
refers to a difference in potential between a locally grounded object and the grounded return
conductor, or neutral, of an electrical system. The neutral is theoretically at 0 V potential, as any
grounded object, but current flows on the neutral back to the source, somewhat elevating the
neutral voltage. NEV is the product of current flowing on the neutral and the finite, non-zero
impedance of the neutral conductor between a given point and its source, often a distant
substation. NEV differs from accidentally energized objects because it is an unavoidable result of
normal system operation, not an accident or a fault in materials or design.
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Definitions
Official definition (draft)
In 2005, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) convened Working Group
1695 in an attempt to lay down definitions and guidelines for mitigating the various phenomena
referred to as stray voltage. The working group attempted to distinguish between the terms stray
voltage and contact voltage as follows:
Stray voltage is defined as "A voltage resulting from the normal delivery and/or use of
electricity (usually smaller than 10 volts) that may be present between two conductive surfaces
that can be simultaneously contacted by members of the general public and/or their animals.
Stray voltage is caused by primary and/or secondary return current, and power system
induced currents, as these currents flow through the impedance of the intended return
pathway, its parallel conductive pathways, and conductive loops in close proximity to the power
system. Stray voltage is not related to power system faults, and is generally not considered
hazardous."[1]
Contact voltage is defined as "A voltage resulting from abnormal power system conditions
that may be present between two conductive surfaces that can be simultaneously contacted by
members of the general public and/or their animals. Contact voltage is caused by power
system fault current as it flows through the impedance of available fault current pathways.
Contact voltage is not related to normal system operation and can exist at levels that may be
hazardous."[2]
Working definition
In spite of the above definitions, the term stray voltage continues to be used by both utility
workers and the general public for all occurrences of unwanted excess electricity. For example, at
the annual "Jodie S. Lane Stray Voltage Detection, Mitigation & Prevention Conference", held at
the Con Edison headquarters in New York City in April 2009, which attracted the presidents of
most major utilities from throughout the United States and Canada, the utility leaders continued
to use stray voltage for all occurrences of unwanted excess electricity. The term contact voltage
was used only once, possibly because "contact voltage" is generally the fault of the supply, network
or installation company. Few companies are willing to openly discuss faults of theirs, let alone
ones as life-threatening. It would seem that stray voltage is now the common term for all
unwanted voltage leakage as it categorises the fault as part of normal operation, therein limiting
liability.
In New York City, a woman named Jodie S. Lane was electrocuted by a five-foot by eight-foot road
utility vault plate energized by an "improperly insulated wire" in January 2004.[3] In the coverage
of the growing concern regarding the role of public utilities in electrical safety in the urban
environment that her death triggered, both the media and the New York state regulatory agency
used stray voltage was for neutral-to-earth voltage (NEV), but conceded that the notoriety of the
Jodie S. Lane incident had caused stray voltage to be a term that is well recognized by the public.
At that point, the regulator used stray voltage for any "voltage conditions on electric facilities that
should not ordinarily exist. These conditions may be due to one or more factors, including, but not
limited to, damaged cables, deteriorated, frayed or missing insulation, improper maintenance, or
improper installation."[4] In the same document, the commission accepted NEV to be a naturally
occurring condition.
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Since that time, the term “stray voltage” has had at least two very different definitions. This
situation is cause for confusion among utilities, regulators, and the public.[5] The term "stray
voltage" is commonly used for all unwanted electrical leakage, by both the general public and
many electrical utility professionals. Other more esoteric phenomenon that also result in elevated
voltages on normally non-energized surfaces, are also referred to as “stray voltage.” Examples are
voltage due to capacitive coupling, current induced by power lines, EMF, lightning, earth potential
rise, and problems stemming from open (disconnected) neutrals.
Origins
Coupled voltages
Ungrounded metal objects close to electric field sources such
as neon signs or conductors carrying alternating currents can
have measurable voltage levels caused by capacitive coupling.
Since voltages detected by high-impedance instruments
disappear or become greatly reduced when a low impedance is
substituted, the effect is sometimes called phantom voltage
(or ghost voltage).[6] The term is often used by electricians,
and might be seen, for example, when measuring the voltage
at a lighting fixture after removing the bulb. It is not unusual
to measure phantom voltages of 50–90 volts when testing the
wiring of ordinary 120 V circuits with a high-impedance
instrument. While the voltage produced may read almost to
the full supply voltage, the capacitance or mutual inductance
between the wires of building wiring systems is typically quite
The very small capacitance between
low and incapable of supplying significant amounts of overhead lines and a fluorescent
current.[7] lamp tube (in the foreground of the
photo) provides enough current to
However, in overhead transmission work on or near high- cause the lamp to glow.
voltage lines, safety rules require connecting a conductor to
earth ground during maintenance, since induced voltages and
currents on a conductor may be sufficient to cause electrocution or serious injury.
Capacitive leakage through insulation
Alternating current is different from direct current in that the current can flow through what
would ordinarily seem to be a physical barrier. In a series circuit, a capacitor blocks direct current
but passes alternating current.
In power transmission systems, one side of the circuit, known as the neutral, is grounded to
dissipate static electricity and to reduce hazardous voltages caused by insulation failure and other
electrical faults. It is possible to get a shock by only touching the hot wire, due to the person's body
being capacitively coupled to the ground upon which the person stands, even if the person is
standing on an insulated surface.
Induced voltages
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Classical electromagnetic induction can occur when long conductors form an open grounded loop
under and parallel to transmission or distribution lines. In these cases, current is induced in the
loop when a person makes contact with it and ground. Since this involves real current flow, it is
potentially hazardous. This type of induced current occurs most often on long fences and
distribution lines built under high-power transmission lines.[8][9]
Degraded insulation on power conductors
Stray voltage may be caused by damaged or degraded insulation. Failing insulation is essentially a
high impedance fault which will allow current to flow through any available path to ground, a
condition which can cause shocks or fires if left unmitigated. This leakage can occur when there is
damage caused by physical, thermal, or chemical stresses to insulation on power lines, especially
but not limited to underground or underwater cables. Examples of this damage are swollen or
cracked insulation from overheating, abrasions caused by digging or ground seizing, and corrosion
damage from salt or oil exposure. Electrical leakage can also occur due to moisture, salt, dust, and
dirt buildup on open air insulators in overhead power distribution. If the leakage in these cases is
severe enough, it can lead to a pole fire.
Leakage from single-wire earth return
The term "stray voltage" is used for the gradient (rate of change with respect to distance) of
electrical potential in the surface of the soil, associated with single-wire earth return electricity
distribution systems used in some rural locations. This gradient is low at points far away from the
earth return connections, but increases near the ground rods where the metallic circuit enters the
earth.
Neutral return currents through the ground
In three phase four-wire ("wye") electrical power systems, when the load on the phases is not
exactly equal, there is some current in the neutral conductor. Because both the primary and
secondary of the distribution transformer are grounded, and the primary ground is grounded at
more than one point, the earth forms a parallel return path for the neutral current, allowing part of
the neutral current to continuously flow through the earth. This arrangement is partially
responsible for stray voltage. [10]
Stray voltage is a result of the design of a 4 wire distribution system and as such has existed as long
as such systems have been used. Stray voltage became a problem for the dairy industry some time
after electric milking machines were introduced, and large numbers of animals were
simultaneously in contact with metal objects grounded to the electric distribution system and the
earth. Numerous studies document the causes,[11] physiological effects,[12] and prevention,[13][14]
of stray voltage in the farm environment. Today, stray voltage on farms is regulated by state
governments and controlled by the design of equipotential planes in areas where livestock eat,
drink or give milk. Commercially available neutral isolators also prevent elevated potentials on the
utility system neutral from raising the voltage of farm neutral or ground wires.
Electrolysis and corrosion
Dissimilar buried metals such as copper and steel can function as the poles of a galvanic cell, using
moist soil as the electrolyte. Stray direct currents in soil may counteract the anti-corrosion effect of
a cathodic protection system. Design of high voltage direct current transmission systems must take
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care so that current flowing in the earth does not cause objectionable corrosion to buried objects
such as pipelines.
Typically an electric railway will have at least one of the rails used as a return conductor for the
traction current. This rail is in contact with the earth at many places throughout its length. Since
current will follow every parallel path between source and load, some part of the traction current
will also flow through the earth. Where the railway uses direct current, this stray current can cause
damage to other buried metallic objects by electrolysis and accelerate corrosion of metal objects in
contact with the soil.
Public concerns about stray voltage
In metropolitan areas, stray voltage issues have become a major concern. Many of these areas have
large amounts of aging underground and aboveground electrical distribution equipment in
crowded public spaces. Even a low rate of insulation failures or current leakage can result in
hazardous exposure of the general public.
Consolidated Edison in New York City has had frequent incidents of stray voltage,[15][16] including
the electrocution death of Jodie S. Lane in 2004, while walking her dog in Manhattan.[15] In 2009,
the Jodie S. Lane Public Safety Foundation[17] announced a publicly accessible website with maps
showing thousands of reported stray voltage locations in New York City. In addition, the
Foundation sponsors the "Jodie S. Lane Stray Voltage Detection, Mitigation & Prevention
Conference", an annual meeting attended by power utilities and regulators from around the
country to discuss stray voltage detection programs. The Foundation also initiated and advocates
regular mobile scanning by utility companies for stray voltage hazards.
In Boston, NSTAR Electric (formerly Boston Edison) has also had problems with hazardous stray
voltages, which have killed several dogs during the 1990s.[18] As a result, the City of Boston
government started a program to detect, report on, and repair stray voltage hazards.[19]
Toronto Hydro pulled all employees off regular duty on the weekend of January 30, 2009 to deal
with ongoing stray voltage problems in the city.[20] This came after as many as five children were
shocked [21] though none suffered serious injury. The stray voltage problem had claimed the lives
of two dogs in the previous few months.[22]
In March 2013, Californian Simona Wilson won a $4 million lawsuit against her power company
after stray voltage from a substation near her house repeatedly shocked her and members of her
family whenever they were in the shower.[23]
The United States Social Security Administration, Administrative Law Judge, Edward Bergtholdt,
in an August 17, 2000 decision awarded Michael Gunner permanent disability from exposure to
stray voltage.
Effects
Persons
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Small stray voltages may never be noticed and may only be detected with a voltmeter. Larger
voltages may have a range of effects, from barely perceptible to dangerous electric shocks, or
unintended electrical heating resulting in fires. Normally, metal electrical equipment cases are
bonded to ground to prevent a shock hazard if energized conductors accidentally contact the case.
Where this bonding is not provided or has failed, a severe hazard of electric shock or electrocution
is presented when circuit conductors contact the case.
In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or
animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and
many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin
has a higher resistance than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed
become significant for a wet or surgical situation. Potential differences between pool water and
railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to
earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However,
contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very
dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from
mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage
from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship
issues.
Contact voltage energizes objects which are normally safe – fences, telephone booths, street signs,
etc. Anywhere buried electric wiring exists, a failure can occur in that wiring and create conditions
that allow electricity to flow into the immediate surroundings. Some systems have protective
devices such as circuit breakers or Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI), designed to isolate
such a fault. However, in the absence of protective devices, if the devices fail, or if they are not
installed correctly, a fault will go undetected until it either causes a failure of the circuit or until it
is found by a person.
Farm animals
Stray voltage can have harmful effects on animal health and productivity.[24] Some dairy farmers
have claimed damage to yields or stock caused by it.[25]
Dr. Douglas J. Reinemann, Professor of Biological Systems Engineering at University of
Wisconsin–Madison, reported on stray voltages on dairy farms in 2003.[26] Investigation of stray
voltage claims must also consider other animal health concerns.
Legal proceedings in Wisconsin
In 2003, the Wisconsin Supreme Court upheld a judgement of $1.2 million against the Wisconsin
electrical utility WEPCO in Hoffman v. Wisconsin Electric Power Company. The Hoffman family,
dairy farmers near New London, had sued WEPCO after several years of declining production.
WEPCO had measured on the farm currents due to stray voltage below one milliampere, the "level
of concern" set by the Wisconsin Public Service Commission, but the court ruled on procedural
grounds that the utility could be found negligent under common law even though they met the
state standard. The Hoffmans had presented, the court said, a viable alternative theory that stray
voltage had caused them economic harm.[27]
In 2017 a jury sided with farmers Paul and Lyn Halderson for a $4.5 million settlement against
Xcel Energy. The Haldersons claimed stray voltage from power lines hurt their 1,000 cow herd and
lowered milk production. The jury found that Xcel subsidiary — Northern States Power — was
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"negligent with respect to the delivery of electrical service." The jury awarded $4.09 million for
economic damages and another $409,000 for "inconvenience, annoyance and loss of use and
enjoyment" of property. [28]
Stray/contact voltage detection
Stray voltage is generally discovered during routine electrical work, or as a result of a customer
complaint or shock incident. A growing number of utilities in urban areas now conduct routine
periodic and systematic active tests for stray voltage (or more specifically, contact voltage) for
public safety reasons. Some incipient electrical faults may also be discovered during routine work
or inspection programs which are not specifically focused on stray voltage.
Equipment used to detect stray voltage varies, but common devices are electrical tester pens or
electric field detectors, with follow-up testing using a low-impedance voltmeter. Electrical tester
pens are hand-held devices which detect a potential difference between the user's hand and the
object being tested. They generally indicate on contact with an energized object, if the potential
difference is above the sensitivity threshold of the device. Reliability of the test can be affected if
the user is at an elevated potential him/herself, or if the user is not making firm contact with a
bare hand on the reference terminal of the tester.
Capacitive coupling is the mechanism used by electrical tester pen devices. Because the
capacitance between an object and a current source is typically small, only very small currents can
flow from the energized source to the coupled object. High-impedance digital or analog voltmeters
may measure elevated voltages from non-energized objects due to this coupling, in effect providing
a misleading reading. For this reason, high-impedance voltage measurements of normally non-
energized objects must be verified.
Verification of a voltage reading is performed using a low-impedance voltmeter, which usually has
a shunt resistor load bridging the voltmeter terminals. Since very little current can flow from a
coupled surface through the small shunt or meter resistance, capacitively coupled voltages will
collapse to zero, indicating a harmless "false alarm". By contrast, if an object being tested is in
contact with a current source, or coupled by a very large capacitance (possible but unlikely in this
context), the voltage will drop only slightly as dictated by Ohm's Law. In this latter case, real power
is being delivered, indicating a potentially hazardous situation.
Electric field detectors detect the electric field strength relative to the user's body or mounting
platform. By sensing electric field gradients at a distance, they can detect energized objects without
making direct contact, making these instruments useful for scanning or screening large areas for
potential electrical hazards. A low electric field reading also provides a definitive indication that no
objects are energized within a tested area. Electric field detectors respond to all field sources, and
any positive indications must be verified with a low-impedance voltmeter to eliminate false
positives. Electric field proximity sensing also has other industrial applications from
manufacturing to building security.
Since stray voltage can not be seen, smelled or heard, there is no easy way for the public to know
when a dangerous condition exists. Periodic testing is an important precaution, but it is possible
that a dangerous condition can develop without warning.
See also
Disturbance voltage
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Earth potential rise
Earthing system
Electrical bonding
Gas leak
Neutral and ground
Shaft voltage
References
1. "Draft Stray Voltage Definition" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110610165546/http://grouper.ie
ee.org/groups/td/dist/stray/files/StrayVoltageDefinition.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Stray and Contact
Voltage Working Group. Archived from the original (http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/td/dist/stray/f
iles/StrayVoltageDefinition.pdf) (PDF) on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
2. "Draft Contact Voltage Definition" (http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/td/dist/stray/files/ContactVolta
geDefinition.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Stray and Contact Voltage Working Group. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20110610165820/http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/td/dist/stray/files/ContactVol
tageDefinition.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
3. "Con Ed Cites Record in Electrocution Report" (https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/13/nyregion/
con-ed-cites-record-in-electrocution-report.html). New York Times. March 13, 2004.
4. NYS Public Service Commission, Case 04-M-0159, “Order Instituting Safety Standards”
(issued Jan 5, 2005)
5. Burke, J: “The Confusion Surrounding ‘Stray Voltage’”, IEEE Rural Electric Power Conference,
6–8 May 2007, C1-C5.
6. Phantom voltage is also a term used in audio engineering, where a voltage is intentionally
applied between the ground wire and both wires of a balanced audio line, to provide power for
a microphone or other device. This concept is usually referred to as phantom power.
7. "Phantom Voltages" (http://www.nema.org/stds/eng-bulletins/upload/Bulletin-88.pdf) (PDF).
Retrieved 2008-01-08.
8. Jaffa, KC: "Magnetic Field Induction From Overhead Transmission and Distribution Power
Lines on Parallel Fences", "IEEE Trans. on Power App. and Sys., 100(4):1624-36
9. Patel, S, Lambert, FC: "Induced Stray Voltages from Transmission Lines", IEEE PES T&D
Conf & Expo 2006, 21–24 May 2006, 254-9
10. Jamali, Babak; Piercy, Ray; Dick, Peter (2010-05-04). "Stray Voltage Mitigation" (https://www.w
ebcitation.org/query?url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.oeb.gov.on.ca%2FOEB%2F_Documents%2F
EB-2007-0709%2Freport_Kinectrics_20080530.pdf&date=2010-05-04). Kinectrics. Archived
from the original (http://www.oeb.gov.on.ca/OEB/_Documents/EB-2007-0709/report_Kinectrics
_20080530.pdf) (PDF) on 2010-05-05.
11. Surbrook, TC, Reese, ND, & Kehrle, AM: “Stray Voltage: Sources and Solutions”, IEEE Trans.
Ind. App. 22(2) 210-215
12. Norrell, RJ et al.: “Behavioral studies of dairy cattle sensitivity to electrical currents”, Trans.
ASAE, 26(5) 1506-1511.
13. Donald, J, Hertz, CM, Winsett, I: “Results of initial field installations of magnetic saturation
blockers for mimization of stray voltage on dairy farms” ASAE paper 156-170, 1984.
14. Surbrook, TC, et al.: “Designing facilities to prevent stray voltage”, Proc. 2nd Nat. Dairy
Housing Conf., 1983
15. Chan, Sewell (2006-03-04). "Con Ed Finds 1,214 Stray Voltage Sites in One Year" (https://ww
w.nytimes.com/2006/03/04/nyregion/04voltage.html?ex=1299128400&en=f53afd789fa5445f&e
i=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss). The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-24.
16. Alex Schmidt (February 8–14, 2006). "Is it a shock? Doubts grow about Con Ed stray voltage"
(http://www.thevillager.com/villager_145/isitashockdoubts.html). The Villager. Retrieved
2010-08-07.
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17. "Stray Voltage in New York City" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110208052814/http://strayvolt
agenyc.org/). StrayVoltageNYC.org. Jodie S. Lane Public Safety Foundation. Archived from
the original on 2011-02-08. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
18. Howe, Peter J. (July 28, 2005). "City, NStar on hunt for power leaks; Electrocution of three
dogs spurred effort" (http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2005/07/28/city_nstar_on_hunt_f
or_power_leaks/). Boston Globe. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
19. "Electrical Safety" (http://www.cityofboston.gov/environmentalandenergy/conservation/electrica
lsafety.asp). cityofboston.gov. City of Boston. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
20. "Toronto Hydro Suspends Operations To Focus On Stray Voltage Problem" (http://www.citynew
s.ca/news/news_31536.aspx). CityNews. 2009-01-31. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
21. "T.O. Hydro Pulls Out Every Worker To Fix Stray Voltage After Five Children Shocked On
Streets" (http://www.citynews.ca/news/news_31533.aspx). CityNews. 2009-01-30. Retrieved
2010-08-07.
22. "Owner Stunned After Dog Electrocuted By Faulty Hydro Wiring During Walk - CityNews" (htt
p://www.citynews.ca/news/news_30927.aspx). CityNews. 2009-01-13. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
23. Woman Shocked in Shower by Stray Voltage Wins $4 Million Lawsuit (http://shine.yahoo.com/
healthy-living/woman-shocked-in-shower-wins--4-million-lawsuit--is-your-shower-safe--192310
440.html) Yahoo News, 21 Mar 2013. Retrieved 22 Mar 2013.
24. Thomas J. Divers, Simon Francis Peek (ed),Rebhun's diseases of dairy cattle, Elsevier Health
Sciences, 2008, ISBN 1-4160-3137-5 pp. 389-390
25. Robert E. Nabours, Raymond M. Fish, Paul F. Hill Electrical injuries: engineering, medical, and
legal aspects, Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, 2004, ISBN 1-930056-71-0 pp. 559-
566
26. What do we know about stray voltage? Douglas R. Reinemann, retrieved 2010 May 18 (http://
www.uwex.edu/uwmril/pdf/StrayVoltage/03_What_do_we_know_about_Stray_Voltage.pdf)
27. "Wisconsin Supreme Court Upholds $1.2 Million Stray Voltage Judgment" (http://www.boardma
nlawfirm.com/muni_newsletter/muniAug03.pdf) (PDF). Boardman Municipal Law Newsletter.
August 2003. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
28. "Wisconsin dairy farm wins $4.5 million judgment against Xcel over stray voltage" (http://www.s
tartribune.com/wisconsin-dairy-farm-wins-stray-voltage-case-against-xcel/439737603//). Star
Tribune. August 2017. Retrieved 2017-08-15.
External links
University of Wisconsin–Madison Report on Stray Voltage (http://www.uwex.edu/uwmril/stray_
voltage/svmain.htm)
'Electrified Cover Safeguard' website (http://www.manholesafety.com/)
'Stray voltage' website (http://www.strayvoltage.org/) from the LaCrosse Tribune, including their
award-winning coverage
Self-Help Guide: Stray Voltage Detection (http://www.mrec.org/pubs/svd.pdf), Wisconsin Farm
Electric Council (2/1997), well written, for farmer-consumers, at
Midwest Rural Energy Council (http://www.mrec.org/sv-info.html) Stray Voltage portal
Wisconsin Public Service Stray Voltage site (http://www.wisconsinpublicservice.com/farm/stray.
aspx)
Public Service Commission of Wisconsin Stray Voltage documents (http://psc.wi.gov/utilityinfo/
electric/strayvoltage.htm) (technical)
Pacific Gas and Electric Power Quality Bulletin No. 2, "Stray Voltage" (http://www.pge.com/doc
s/pdfs/biz/power_quality/stray_volt.pdf) (10/2004)
First conference about "Stray currents in our environment" - November 29, 2007, Ester
Technopole Limoges, France (http://courant-vagabond.ovh.org)
Stray voltage description and mitigation (http://www.oeb.gov.on.ca/OEB/_Documents/EB-2007-
0709/report_Kinectrics_20080530.pdf)
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