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LEVEL 100

FIRST SEMESTER

BY

MODESTUS FOSU (PHD)

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Contents
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Language and Communication......................................................................................... 5
1.2 Planning (with SWOT Analysis)...................................................................................... 6
1.2.1 Managing your Time................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 How to manage your time effectively ....................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Your Body Block ...................................................................................................... 7
1.2.4 Essentials of Time Management ............................................................................... 7
1.2.5 Time Wasters ............................................................................................................ 8
1.3 Learning ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.1 How do we learn? ................................................................................................... 11
1.3.2 Effective learning styles .......................................................................................... 12
1.3.3 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model ...................................................................... 13
1.3.4 Factors Affecting Effective Learning ..................................................................... 13
LISTENING AND HEARING ..................................................................................................... 14
1.3.5 Purposes for Listening: ........................................................................................... 14
1.3.6 Kinds of Listeners: .................................................................................................. 14
1.3.7 Things to Know Before Listening........................................................................... 15
1.3.8 Listening for Information (Strategies) .................................................................... 15
ACADEMIC WRITING ............................................................................................................... 17
1.3.9 Nature of Academic Writing ................................................................................... 17
1.3.10 Taking or Making Notes ......................................................................................... 18
1.3.11 Taking Notes in Lectures and Seminars ................................................................. 21
OUTLINING................................................................................................................................. 22
1.3.12 Uses of the outline .................................................................................................. 22
1.3.13 Main Characteristics of the Outline ........................................................................ 23
1.3.14 Abbreviation during Note Taking/Making ............................................................. 27
EFFECTIVE READING STRATEGIES ..................................................................................... 31
1.3.15 Ways of Reading ..................................................................................................... 31
1.3.16 Effective Reading 2 (SQ3R) ................................................................................... 38
1.3.17 Effective Reading 3 (PQRRRR or PQ4R) .............................................................. 40
INTEGRATING INFORMATION INTO ESSAYS .................................................................... 41

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 1.3.18 Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarising .............................................................. 41
1.3.19 Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries? ................................................ 42
1.3.20 How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries .............................................. 43
1.3.21 Sample essay for Summarising, Paraphrasing, and Quoting .................................. 43
1.3.22 Example Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation from the Essay: ........................... 45
1.3.23 Using Quotations .................................................................................................... 46
1.3.24 Using paraphrases ................................................................................................... 48
1.3.25 Using Summaries .................................................................................................... 50
Documentation .............................................................................................................................. 57
1.3.26 Avoiding Plagiarism ............................................................................................... 57
1.3.27 Referencing ............................................................................................................. 58
PARAGRAPH DEVELPMENT ................................................................................................... 59
1.3.28 The Single Paragraph Structure .............................................................................. 59
THE WRITING PROCESS .......................................................................................................... 66
1.3.29 The Rhetorical Situation ......................................................................................... 67
WRITING AN ESSAY OR A RESEARCH PAPER ................................................................... 69
1.3.30 The First Draft......................................................................................................... 69
1.3.31 The Review ............................................................................................................. 70
1.3.32 The Final Draft ........................................................................................................ 70
1.3.33 Structuring Essays ................................................................................................... 70
1.3.34 Writing the Introduction ......................................................................................... 71
1.4 i. Introduction: .............................................................................................................. 72
1.4.1 Introductory Paragraph ........................................................................................... 72
1.5 ii. Body: ........................................................................................................................ 72
1.5.1 Body — First paragraph: ........................................................................................ 72
1.5.2 Body — Second paragraph: .................................................................................... 72
1.5.3 Body — Third paragraph: ....................................................................................... 72
1.6 iii. Conclusion: ............................................................................................................. 73
1.6.1 Concluding paragraph: ............................................................................................ 73
1.7 OTHER PASSAGES FOR PRACTICE ........................................................................ 73
1.7.1 Passage I.................................................................................................................. 73
1.7.2 Passage 2: Read the passage carefully and summarise it in about one hundred
words. ...................................................................................................................... 74

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 1.7.3 Passage 3: Exercise on Summary Writing .............................................................. 75
1.7.4 Passage 4: Summary Writing .................................................................................. 77
1.7.5 Sample passages for Exercises: ...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 80

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 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Language and communication

Communication implies sharing information and meaning. It is a form of expression through

which we share ideas, feelings, needs, expectations, etc. with other people. Communication is a
complex process involving the sender (speaker/writer) of a message, the message, the channel
used to transmit the message, and the receiver (audience) of the message. One of the most
important aspects of communication is understanding. People involved in communication must
understand each other or one another to make communication successful and effective. Two
factors that aid understanding are language and culture. In other words, sharing meaning or
understanding becomes possible when the language used in communication and the culture within
which meaning is negotiated are understood by those communicating.

When you communicate, you need to be clearly understood. Communication fails when, for some
reasons, any of the parties involved do not understand what is being communicated. Failure to
communicate may arise either through a lack of clarity or not sufficiently engaging with the issue
and audience in an interesting manner. Such a failure cannot be blamed on the language or culture;
it is always the making of the sender. The sender has the responsibility to sufficiently consider the
needs of the audience in order to make the process successful. This is an audience-focused
approach to communication.

Language is the primary means of communication. This course focuses on human language,
specifically speaking and writing. To be a good communicator, you need to understand the
relationship between language and communication, i.e. the ability to use language effectively to
achieve communication needs. As a student, you will need to communicate to various audiences
and under different circumstances. In class, you may ask questions, respond to questions,
contribute to issues under discussion, etc. All the assessment procedures pertaining to your final
qualification such as class tests, term papers, academic projects, examinations, etc. all involve
communication to some audience(s). You might also want to contest a JCR/SRC position such as
president, vice president, secretary, etc. and here too, you would be required to communicate who
you are and what you can do to your fellow students for them to elect you.

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The LSS course therefore aims at building students’ language skills. It is meant to help you to
respond to the challenging communication demands of academic work and also enable you become
a skilled and good communicator outside the classroom.

1.2 Planning (with SWOT analysis)

To be successful at anything in life, you must make an effective use of your time and other
resources available to you. This requires that you consciously plan your overall life and activities
in relations to particular tasks facing you, whether short or long term. One of the key requirements
in planning is self-evaluation. Examine yourself and evaluate your strengths and weaknesses, as
well as opportunities available to you and threats militating against your strengths and
opportunities all relative to school work. The main focus should be on how you manage your time,
as a student, as discussed in details below.

1.2.1 Managing your time

At GIJ, you will be required to follow a timetable for a certain number of classroom
teaching/learning hours concerning your courses every week. The courses timetable is a weekly
schedule, and you need to make time to meet such obligatory schedules. The remainder of the time
will need to be planned or scheduled to cater for the rest of your endeavours, such as shopping,
outing, entertainment, etc. It is important that you spend some amount of the remaining time per
week to do private studies and this needs to be planned and incorporated into a study schedule.

It is a good idea to think of your study as a job. It will require a lot of dedication, motivation
and commitment to be successful. But, of course, like all jobs, studying can be done either
effectively or efficiently, or ineffectively and inefficiently. The way to improve study habits is to
manage TIME EFFECTIVELY.

1.2.2 Manage time effectively

Now that you have embarked on a new phase of your life at GIJ, there are a number of things that
you should consider carefully. You may, for example, find that now you have to manage your
own budget; do your own shopping, cooking, washing and ironing, etc. In addition to dealing with
these aspects of student life, you may also have to get used to the fact that for most of you, family
and friends may not be around all the time.

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You may have other new experiences and situations, too. Some of these include staying out late at
night without worrying about parental concern, living in different accommodation with strangers,
adjusting to their habits and preferences, some of which may be completely opposite to yours. In
addition to all these experiences, you have to learn and attend lectures and tutorials, and manage
some time to have personal studies as well.

Managing your time well means having a good balance between studying and social activities.
You will realise that you will need to study more than you have ever done. There will be a lot of
opportunities to attend clubs, parties, drink-ups, and so on. To beautifully fulfil these conflicting
demands, you will need to properly schedule your time. What we should remember is that time
cannot be saved, and time lost can never be recovered! We can only use time well or waste it.
Thus, what you do with your time is entirely your responsibility since as a mature person now, you
have your life goals, which you must work to achieve!

1.2.3 Your body clock

Our body speaks to us. You should be able to recognise times when you are energised and eager
to do something. At other times, you may just not feel like doing anything at all. You may be a
‘night owl’ and like to study in the middle of the night, or alternatively you may be an ‘early bird’
and prefer to get up very early in the morning to study. It is important to match your peak studying
powers with the time available to study. You need to take advantage of the natural laws affecting
your body in scheduling study during peak time to maximise learning opportunities. It is possible
to increase your output considerably without making major changes to your lifestyle by staying up
desperately ‘burning the midnight oil’ or having to get up before dawn breaks.

1.2.4 Essentials of time management

1.2.4.1 Prioritising your time

Have you considered what you do with you 86,400 seconds or 168 hours each week? Can you say
with certainty which activities provide you with the most output and which take up most of your
time but achieve little? Are you aware of your peak energy times and have you scheduled the most
difficult activities for those times. Now that you have started at this university, it is a good time
to take a look at how you spend your time, because you will need to use it wisely in order to pass
the assessments you have to complete before you obtain your qualification.

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 Activity: Time allocation

Think back over the last week and write down what you did and for how long on each day
from Monday to Sunday. What do you find out? Are you able to account for your 168
hours of the week? Have you realised that there are large chunks of time for which you are
unable to say with certainty what you did? Or have you found out that you spend a great
deal of time daydreaming, listening to music, chatting on social media, etc.?

1.2.5 Time wasters

It is a feature of being human to waste time; everyone does it to some extent. The important thing
is to recognise when you are relaxing in order to ‘recharge your batteries’, and when you are
daydreaming to avoid getting down to your studies.

1.2.5.1 Self-inflicted time wasters

1.2.5.1.1 Procrastination

Everyone puts off doing tasks that are boring, difficult, laborious or disagreeable. If you are a
student who puts off until later what you could do now, you should consider ways to deal with it
since it could seriously affect your academic performance. One of the best ways of fighting
procrastination is by making sure you set a deadline – and then stick to it. It is advisable to use
prompts so that you do not ‘forget’ to do something. For example, you can write reminders for
yourself on ‘post-it’ notes and stick them up somewhere that you can see regularly or on something
you use often such as a fridge, TV, mirror, etc. Remember that with all tasks, difficult or easy, the
sooner you get underway, the sooner you will complete the work. There is a saying that: “What
you have to do, do it now because tomorrow is yesterday.”

1.2.5.1.2 Perfectionism

It is easy to get so engrossed in trying to do something perfectly that there is no time left for other
important tasks. For instance, you may want to do a special dish so nicely that you spend all the

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time on the cooking, leaving no time for your scheduled studies. Sometimes, your idea of
perfection regarding a particular task can make you feel inadequate or not ready to even start the
work leading to unhelpful delays. For instance, you may think you do not know enough to do a
particular school assignment very well. So, you will be chasing a school colleague or other people
for help when you could start doing something on your own. This should not be the case at all! No
one is perfect; all we can do is to strive for perfection as best as we can, and this should not make
us waste our time.

1.2.5.1.3 Lack of self-discipline

Having committed yourself to a course of study, it is essential to maintain the resolve to carry it
through to success. Everyone has to complete work that at times may not be enjoyable, or seems
too difficult, but perseverance is usually the answer. It calls for self-discipline at the highest level
since there are always tempting distractions around us. Keep your planned school schedules and
your personal study times and stick religiously to them.

1.2.5.1.4 Worrying

It is easy from time to time to become overwhelmed by the amount of study you have to do to
complete a course. But it is much better to use energy productively doing what you can do best,
rather than being overwhelmed by worry. Avoid spending time worrying about assessments. If
you keep yourself busy planning, organising and doing your school work, there will be no time to
worry.

1.2.5.1.5 Personal disorganisation

Are you disorganised, untidy, unable to find things on your desk or in your room? If your answer
to any of the above is ‘Yes’, then you need to change. Make yourself tidy up-at the very least every
night -- put away your books and study items, pens, pencils, calculators, notebooks and files at
designated, easy to find places. Remain focused on one task at a time and make sure that it is
completed before starting something new. At the first sign of an interruption, do not break from
what you are doing, leaving it unfinished.

1.2.5.1.6 Over commitment

If you are unable to say ‘No’, then now is the time to be selfish. Remind yourself that you want
to complete this course successfully -- this is your passport to a rewarding career. For example,

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saying ‘No’ to a friend asking you to go out for a drink need not offend him/her. Offer an
alternative; for example, tell him/her that you are busy just now, but would like to go to the
bar/club/theatre at the weekend.

1.2.5.1.7 Lack of priorities

You have to consider and impose a kind of order in terms of importance on things that you have
to do. This way, you identify your priorities (things that are more pressing/important) from others.
The idea is that you deal with items on your priority list before paying attention to other things if
there is time. If you have not prioritised the demands on your time, you may try to do too many
things at once, be unable to concentrate on the important tasks and be tempted to spend too much
time on trivialities. Complete daily and weekly ‘have’, ‘ought’ and ‘like’ to do lists and prioritise
your activities with the lists.

1.2.5.2 External time wasters

1.2.5.2.1 Telephone

If you are busy, ask the person to ring back; offer to ring them when you are free; get someone
else to answer the phone and take a message, or use an answering machine,

1.2.5.2.2 Visitors

Be polite, but firm. Tell student colleagues that you are busy, but could meet them at some other
time.

1.2.5.2.3 Intrusions

Close the door, do not answer the telephone.

1.2.5.2.4 Television

It is very easy to be tempted to watch more television than you intended. If you are a fan of a
particular soap, do not be lured into watching the remaining programmes for the evening.

1.2.5.2.5 Waiting

A lot of time is wasted waiting – for the dentist, tutor or other students. This need not be wasted
time; take a book to read, review lecture notes, etc.

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1.2.5.2.6 Coffee bar conversations

These may be enjoyable, but do not overdo it.

1.2.5.2.7 Crises

Most of us face several crises in our lives, some are beyond our control, but some are self-generated
because we ignore critical deadlines.

1.3 Learning

What comes to mind when you think about learning? Most people will tend to think about school,
maybe a teacher, or their classroom experience. These associations indicate some of the implicit
assumptions we make about the nature of the learning process. However, a moment’s reflection
will reveal that learning is much more than this. Learning is the acquisition of knowledge,
consciously or unconsciously, which we use in our life. We acquire knowledge through various
information we assimilate.

While we do learn in structured (formal, orderly and organised) learning environments, we also
acquire a great deal of our knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in an unstructured way. For
example, we learn to speak a language, we learn how to live with others, and we learn what is
dangerous and what is not, and so on. As students, it may be very useful to learn in an unstructured
way and impose structure and order on the ways we learn. Before we are able to do this effectively
we must understand the learning process.

1.3.1 How do we learn?

There are many competing explanations about how people learn, all of which can offer something
to assist us in understanding this process. Think back to your earlier learning experiences; for
example, how did you learn to talk, walk, read, count, play sport, fish, sew, iron, sing, etc.? You
were motivated by desire or need. You may have learned them with the assistance and guidance
of others, or possibly you learned them by your own endeavours.

Some learning is related to physical development and some is linked to intellectual development.
An illustration of how learning is linked to physical development is that at a certain point a baby
will stand up and take a tentative step, plopping down to the ground with a bump. However, the

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baby is encouraged to try and try again until it successfully walks. This is one way that individuals
learn, by trial and error.

Some people learn through coaching while others may prefer to read all about the mechanics of
say, playing a game or through observation. For each person there is a way to learn that is more
appropriate than others. It is important to find out which approach to learning you have a
preference for. Armed with knowledge about your learning preferences, you can match them, as
far as possible, to learning experiences that you encounter. Where this is not possible, you can
know what your learning strengths are and act to overcome or minimise the weaker areas in the
ways you learn. This will allow you to use your judgement to solve increasingly complex problems
by building on previous learning.

Activity: Learning experiences:

• Is it easier for you to learn from:

(a) Experiences, actually doing something, or
(b) Reading about what you should do?
• Is it easier for you to learn:
(a) In small steps, a little at a time, or
(b) By observing the behaviour of others and imitating it?
• Do you prefer to learn
(a) By being told what to do, or
(b) By being shown the way to do something?
• Is learning a pleasurable, relatively easy experience for you, or is it something you have to
work hard at?

1.3.2 Effective learning styles

Each person learns in a unique way because individuals perceive and process experience in
different preferred ways. Therefore learning is very much a matter of personal preference or style.
Personal learning style will be influenced by many factors, for example, one’s parents, home
environment, and one’s personal history such as number of brothers and sisters, etc. In addition
personal life experiences, teachers and friends will all have a major influence on individual
learning style.

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1.3.3 Kolb’s experiential learning model
During the 1970s, the psychologist David Kolb identified what he called the Experiential Learning
Model in which he described a four-stage cycle which explained learning. He says that the first
stage, concrete experience, is followed by observations and reflections, which in turn lead to
Formation of abstract concepts and generalisations and these are followed by testing implications
of concepts in new situations. What this means is that the learner:

• Does something (doing) (concrete experience)

• Reflects upon what he or she has done (thinking) (reflective observation)
• Theories about possible different actions(speculating) (abstract conceptualisation)
• Tries out something else (experimenting) (active experimentation)

Kolb points out that this cycle continuously recurs. He says that learners test concepts through
actions and modify them as a result of experiences.

Kolb proposes that each learner has a tendency towards a particular part of the cycle and that this
is exhibited as a preference for specific types of learning activities that appeal to the individual’s
learning strengths. This tendency or inclination will shape how the learner prefers to learn and the
effectiveness of the learning experience. He argues that the key to effective learning is to be able
to adopt a particular approach when it is appropriate, in other words, to be able to be flexible.

1.3.4 Memory as a factor affecting effective learning

Memory is the ability of the brain to store thoughts and knowledge. It facilitates use of what has
been stored in the brain so that it can be retrieved or reproduced to be used in the present. Memory
is fundamental to learning and without it learning would be impossible. Memory permits recall or
retrieval of information, or recognition that particular information has been encountered before.
Most information can be recalled when it is needed -- this is known as recall. When you identify
information presented to you this is called recognition. Multiple choice examinations are tests of
recognition.

Memory has a number of phases: immediate, short-term and long term memory. Immediate
memory is the ability to retain information for seconds, such as the scenery or streets passed in a
car or on the bus when travelling. Short-term memory is the ability to retain information long
enough to use it, perform a task, or pursue a train of thought. An example is looking up a telephone

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number and remembering it long enough to dial it. Storage and retention of information over an
extended period of time, at least months, possibly a lifetime, occurs in long-term memory. It is
possible to improve memory by remembering information through association; for example, most
people will have particular memories that are associated with songs, sights or smells from their
personal history

1.3.4.1 Blockages to learning

It is easy to construct lists of what hinders or blocks learning – not enough time, too many other
important things to deal with, parents and other significant people telling us we are not as clever
as our peers or our brothers and sisters. However, what stops your learning is yourself -- your own
mental attitude.

LISTENING AND HEARING

When you really listen, you think about what you are hearing: you are an active participant in the
discourse.

1.3.5 Purposes for listening:

i. listening for information
ii. critical listening
iii. conversational listening
iv. recreational listening

1.3.6 Kinds of listeners:

Active listeners weigh information and evaluate what they are hearing.

Passive listeners are uninvolved in what they are hearing. They allow their minds to wander, being
alerted only when the speaker pauses, changes pace, or gives special emphasis to key words or
phrases. Passive listeners often have trouble telling the difference between fact and fiction,
between dependable information and a ‘slick sales talk’, and between digressions and supporting
examples.

Good Listening starts with a positive attitude. Do you listen because you have to? Do you listen
because you feel the need to listen to someone?

Strategies:
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 1. Arrive early or on time, and be ready to begin listening at the scheduled starting time for
the class, presentation, or conference.
2. Get your note-taking materials ready ahead of time. Do not shuffle paper or dig for a pencil
after the speaker begun. Put unrelated books and other materials away.
3. Sit in a comfortable but alert position, keeping the speaker in your line of vision. Do not
gaze around the room or out the window.
4. Listen quietly and avoid distracting yourself and others. Make yourself aware of
unconscious habits that might distract the speaker, other listeners, or yourself, such a
tapping your pencil or cracking your knuckles. Do not whisper or motion to other members
of the audience.
5. Clear your mind of other concerns so that you can concentrate. Keep a positive attitude,
plan to be interested, and expect to benefit from what you hear.

1.3.7 Things to know before listening.

1. What is the speaker’s topic? What do I already know about it?
2. Who is the speaker? What qualifies the speaker to talk about this subject?
3. What is the speaker’s purpose—to inform, to persuade, to entertain?
4. What is my purpose in listening?
5. Do I expect to be interested? Do I have a positive attitude and an open mind? Am I prepared
to change my mind?

1.3.8 Listening for information (strategies)

1.3.8.1 1. Listen for signals

Signal of purpose:

Examples: My purpose is to…/ I would like you to learn about…

Signal of background information

Examples: Let me explain how this situation came about…

Signal of key points:

Examples: this topic has two main parts…/I have three ideas/issues on this…

Signal for supporting material:

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Examples: Let us take an example…/In a recent survey…

1.3.8.2 2. Listen for transitions

Transitional words and phrases connect different ideas, information, or sections of a speech.
Transitions tell you what the speaker considers important.

Examples: ‘Instead’, ‘next’, ‘consequently’, ‘As a result’, ‘Another problem is’, etc.

1.3.8.3 3. Listen for summaries.

A summary statement restates briefly the purpose, a main idea, or some key information.

Summary Cues: ‘what I have been saying adds up to…’ ‘Let me summarise…’, ‘In sum’, etc.

1.3.8.4 4. Listen for main ideas.

Your purpose for listening for information is to grasp the speaker’s main ideas. The signals,
transitions, and summaries would tell you what the main ideas are.

1.3.8.5 5. Listen for supporting details.

A good speaker provides support for every key point or main idea. For example, if you are listening
to instruction or to demonstration, you need to learn every step. In other cases, such as a report,
you may need the supporting information only to understand and remember the main idea.

1.3.8.6 6. Listening to take notes.

Listen for a few moments to get a sense of the speaker’s direction, and then begin to take your
notes. Jot down the specific purpose, the thesis statement (a sentence that states the topic and
purpose of the entire essay), the main idea (topic sentence) and at least one supporting idea for
each main idea. If you have trouble identifying any of these points, make a note of the problem.
Jot down any questions or points of disagreement that occur to you. Your notes are to serve as
simple reminders. They should be brief and specific instead of lengthy and detailed. Do not try to
write down everything you hear.

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 ACADEMIC WRITING
Academic writing refers to a writing style used in abstracts, academic essays, annotated
bibliographies, research proposals and works, among others. An abstract is a summary of a longer
academic work, while an annotated bibliography is an entry of an academic work in a collection.
It is usually the title of the work followed by a brief description or evaluation of the subject and
scope of the work.

1.3.9 Nature of academic writing

Academic writing uses Standard English and follows writing conventions acceptable and
pertaining to institutions of higher learning. It is a formal writing style used to present an informed
argument for the general purpose of constructing knowledge. It therefore states a thesis, supports
it with evidence writing (usually gathered by research), and documents all sources. The language
is relatively ‘high’, with a reasonable occurrence of technical words/expressions and Latinate
expressions. Latinate expressions are English words of classical Greek, Latin and French origin.
Similarly, relatively complex sentence structures are used in academic writing.

Those involved in this type of writing are (but not limited to) students in higher institutions of
learning, research fellows and, of course, lecturers. And the main purpose of academic writing is
to generate knowledge and to disseminate such knowledge.

Academic writing involves, but not limited to, the following:

i. The writing process: this involves planning, note-making, organising, proofreading
etc., an essay.
ii. Elements of writing: this involves looking at the skills that are needed for all types of
assignments, such as making definitions and giving references, etc.
iii. Accuracy in writing: this involves looking at the grammar that is necessary for
proofreading an essay.
iv. Study/reading strategies: this involves discussing such strategies that are essential for
private studies; for example, making good summaries of material read.
v. Accessing, using and acknowledging sources: an important element of this aspect is
avoiding plagiarism.

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1.3.10 Taking or making notes
When we take or make notes we keep a written record of information we have heard during a
lecture, or read in a book. Note taking involves writing down information we have heard. Making
notes involves writing down relevant information we find in a book or document that we are
reading. Thus, whether we are taking or making notes, we are recording information which we
would like to use later.

1.3.10.1 Purpose

One very important purpose of taking or making notes is to enable the student to recall correctly
at a later time the information obtained at the lecture or from the book.

1.3.10.2 Importance

The ability to take or make good notes is an important skill that a student needs in all aspects of
his/her studies—at lectures, seminars, in the library or in using the Internet. This activity has been
acknowledged as a very useful exercise since:

• It involves the student in the learning process and therefore, helps him/her to concentrate
and put down someone else’s ideas/opinions in his/her own way to facilitate future recall
and learning.
• It (especially note taking) is also essential in helping the student prepare for examinations.

1.3.10.3 Characteristics of notes

The main points to remember when taking or making notes are:

1. Notes are a form of summary. Thus, it is advisable not to attempt to put down every word
the lecturer utters or copy whole portions of the book or document you are studying.
2. There are different kinds of lectures or books/documents. Some lectures are intended to
transmit facts. Others present ideas in the form of a reasoned argument. There are also
those that offer different, often conflicting views on a topic and then draw a conclusion.
Most importantly, know what kind of lecture you are listening to, and let this knowledge
help you to shape your notes more effectively.
3. It is important for the student to be certain of the general direction of the lecture or material
before he/she begins to write. In other words, before beginning to write anything at all at a

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 lecture or upon reading a book, listen or read for a few minutes to be sure of what the
general focus is and how the subject of the book or lecture is treated. This is usually made
clear in the lecturer’s or book’s introductory remarks.
4. It is best to try and write down the ideas being expressed (and in your own words to show
your understanding) rather than trying to write the exact words of the lecturer or in the
document. Of course there may be certain terminologies that can be written down only as
they are. You can always determine what the main ideas are by noting those transitional
words and phrases such as ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘next’, ‘in fact’, ‘most importantly’, ‘for
example’, ‘in addition’, etc. There are some other non-conventional phrases that signal or
indicate a new point. These include ‘now I shall talk about…’, ‘let me explain…’, ‘what I
mean by that is…,’ etc.
5. You should train your ears to catch such phrases that indicate that a new or important point
is being made. The lecture or document may also indicate the importance of a particular
point by stating it in a number of ways using such phrases as ‘in other words’, ‘stated in
another way…’ etc. Listen carefully to the conclusion of the lecturer, since the conclusion
will usually summary the main points made in the lecture.

1.3.10.4 Organising your notes

Here are a few suggestions on how you can effectively organise your notes

1. It is more helpful to take your notes on loose sheets, which you can keep in a file. Then, it
is easy for you to insert new sheets on which you have written additional information that
you have got somewhere else and which you need to add to your notes.
2. The notes are yours. Thus, your notes should reflect your understanding of what was said
at the lecture. (Take care, however, that you do not impose your ideas on what the lecturer
had said but only restate what was said)
3. Learn to use abbreviations and symbols as you take notes. Obviously, their use enhances
your speed and accuracy. There are some common abbreviations and symbols, but then,
you are free to invent your own abbreviations to help you save time when you write down
notes.
4. It is important to keep a record of the lecture. Identify with appropriate titles the course
title, the lecturer’s name, the date and time of the lecture.

19
 5. More importantly, the subject or title of the lecture should be written down as soon as it is
known. Most lecturers begin their lectures by writing this on the board, anyway.
6. Do not be stingy with the use of paper. Leave space between items especially after points
that do not make good sense to you initially. Then, when you revise your notes you can
add more information to enhance your understanding. Leave a margin so that you can put
in your further comments and references if you need to.
7. Underline some key words and phrases, such as names, important dates, etc. Put an asterisk
where you think you need further information on or where you may need some clarification
from the lecturer when you have the opportunity.
8. Where possible, put in diagrams, sketches, charts and graphs. Diagrammatic
representations are relatively easier to remember than written words.

1.3.10.5 Making notes from written material

You need to ensure that your note-making format encourages you to read texts in an active way.
When reading, you should be constantly asking yourself: What is the text about? What is the main
argument? What evidence is used to support the argument? Note down what you will need to
remember. It helps if you have a question or set of ideas to direct your reading (such as a seminar
or essay question). You need some idea of what you are looking for in a reading.

The following suggestions may assist:

• Always make a note of the reference details (author, title, date of publication etc.) and page
numbers before you start to read.
• Be discriminating. The content and index pages can help you identify which aspect of the
text is most relevant to your question or subject matter.
• Read critically. Think and note down any objections you have to the arguments presented.
• Personalise your notes with your own words, comments and reactions.
• If you own the book or if you are working from a photocopy, highlight and underline key
ideas as you read. You can write your response to these ideas in the margins of the text.
(Do not do this if you are reading a library book!)
• Focus on the introduction and conclusion to the text. These often place the text in context
and summarise the main arguments.

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1.3.11 Taking notes in lectures and seminars

The following steps are aimed at improving your note-taking strategies in lectures and seminars.

1. Arrive on time! Often it is at the beginning of the lecture that the subject is introduced and
the outline of the lecture is set out. If you miss this, you may spend the rest of the lecture
trying to work out what is going on.
2. Make sure you are an active listener. Active listening is listening consciously and getting
involved by asking questions or for a repetition if you do not catch a word. The more you
think about the ideas you are noting down, the more you will understand and remember
them at a later date.
3. Develop a flexible note-taking strategy, which can be adapted to suit the style of the lecture.
4. Learn your lecturer's style. Each of your lecturers will have a different way of presenting
information. Some will give you a title for the lecture, while others may just start talking
straight away. Most will give you an outline of what the lecture will cover at the beginning
and some lecturers may sum up the most important points at the end of the lecture. It is a
good idea to notice how your lecturer operates. By doing so, you will become more
sensitive to indications from the lecturer about important things to remember (e.g. what
might come up on the exam).
5. Review your notes after the lecture. You should think about how your lecture notes relate
to your notes from the course readings. Look out for the developing themes of the course,
and think about how this lecture relates to the previous lectures in your course.

1.3.11.1 The lecture

Lectures are rather like an extended review article. They attempt to present topics in an accessible
and understandable way. Because of the necessary speed of a lecture, it is important that you listen
and understand before you take notes. Do not try to write everything down or even everything you
could. Follow the argument(s), and selectively note the essential points.

1.3.11.2 The seminar

Seminar classes take a wide variety of forms, which require students to engage differently.
However, generally they are intended to examine issues in greater depth than allowed in lectures.

21
Hence, they demand substantial preparation from students for effective work to be done. As their
purpose is to enable students to explore their ideas, the quality and coherence of the discussion
vary. In all these, the need to take/make notes becomes paramount. Although the tutor's job is to
keep the discussion relevant, what is relevant to you may not be to someone else. Again, do not
write everything down, or just note what the tutor says (s/he may be playing the devil's advocate
to promote a debate). Follow the discussion so you understand its principal themes and then note
them down. You may find it easier to write up your notes after the tutorial. Again, here are some
suggestions:

• Do be punctual. It is at the beginning of lectures and seminars that the subject is introduced,
and the approach to be taken is set out. Miss this and the rest will seem a mystery.
• Do not rush to pack up and go as soon as you hear the tutor/lecturer start to sum up. The
closing remarks often raise important issues that will be discussed in the following
class/lecture.
• Do note down the names of the historians associated with particular arguments or schools
of thought. If in doubt ask the tutor/lecturer to write a name on the blackboard.
• Do not go to sleep when you receive a hand-out. Mark and annotate it, refer to it in your
other notes, so in 6 months’ time you know why you were given it.

OUTLINING
One of the best and easiest methods of note taking or making is to provide an outline of what is
heard or read. An outline is a formal, detailed statement of the content and structure of written
or spoken communication. It is formal because it is constructed according to specific rules. It is
detailed because it contains all the significant ideas of the communication. The purpose of an
outline is to show at a glance both the ideas contained in the communication and the way in which
these ideas are related to one another.

1.3.12 Uses of the outline

An outline is a vital part of the organising and planning process that should precede all writing.

Uses of outlining in university studies

i. planning a composition and examination essays

22
 ii. taking lecture notes
iii. summarising
iv. reading
a. comprehension
b. memorisation

An outline will look like this:

1. Main Idea
a. Supporting idea (1)
i. Illustration (1)
ii. Illustration (2)
b. Supporting idea (2)
i. Illustration (1)
ii. Illustration (2)
c. Supporting idea (3)
i. Illustration (1)
ii. Illustration (2)
2. Main Idea
a. Supporting idea (1)
i. Illustration (1)
ii. Illustration (2)
iii. Illustration (3)
1.3.13 Main characteristics of an outline
Look again at the outline of ‘Uses of outlining in university studies.’ It gives the semblance of the
following points:

• It includes all the main ideas in the same order that they are presented in a lecture or book.
• It does not contain any ideas that are not in the passage
• Each of the points (supporting idea or illustration) is clearly related to the main idea, which
is stated first.
• The points are logically numbered so that at a glance the student sees what his/her notes
are about.

23
 • The essential points are written using the same grammatical form.
• The points will be written in phrases, not in complete sentences, but these are readily
understandable to the student.
• The student is free to use abbreviations and other shorthand (‘univ. stud’, for university
studies respectively) that may help him/her take or make the notes speedily but accurately.
1.3.13.1 A Model Outline

Because you are writing for a catalogue, you need to do more than say what’s in the
photograph. Your introduction should encourage people not only to look carefully at this landscape
but also to appreciate it the way you do. You may wish to save details about the exhibit and the
photograph until later, beginning instead with your emotional reaction or a striking image. Make
your audience feel that they are at the site or viewing the photograph directly.

As you draft the body of your essay, follow the pattern of organisation you chose, but don’t
be afraid to stop and choose another organising principle if the first one doesn’t work. Also, even
though drafting is not the time to belabour each word, do consider the connotations of the words
you choose and how they contribute to your tone and the impression you want to create.

Finally, think about what you want your conclusion to accomplish. You may want to fix
an image in the minds of your audience, evaluate either the scene itself or the photograph of it, or
provide insight into your feelings about the place. You might also close with information about
the exhibit.

Sample Outline of the Passage

Topic: Writing for a catalogue

1. Introduction
a. encourage people to look carefully
b. encourage people to appreciate
i. make people feel
ii. make people see
2. Body
a. choose organising pattern
b. change pattern if necessary

24
 c. watch your words
i. should connote your tone
ii. create the right impression
3. Conclusion
a. create an image
b. evaluate the exhibition
c. indicate atmosphere (feelings about the place)
d. inform about the exhibit

1.3.13.2 Exercise on note taking/making

Read the following passage carefully and identify the thesis, the major supports and the
minor supports and reduce it to an outline:

The Upsurge of Nationalism

Britain conquered and pacified Nigeria, but she never subjugated the country. From
an early date, therefore, the spirit of nationalism expressed itself in various forms and
manners. The earliest expressions were necessarily sporadic and not concerted. They were
directed towards specific acts of the local or national government, or towards specific
grievances. Economic causes operated most frequently; the others—religious, social,
administrative and educational—exerted their own forces.

In 1895, when the Land and House Tax was introduced in Lagos, about five
thousand people demonstrated against it in Tinubu Square. They also paraded the streets
shouting anti-British slogans, rejecting taxation without representation. The Ordinance was
never enforced. Less than a dozen years after that, another Ordinance, the Lagos Island
Land Acquisition, caused intense resentment. The Bill was to enable the Government to
acquire land for official residences. Mass meetings passed resolutions against it; crowds
massed everywhere and sent waves of protest against it; newspapers waged a war against
it. The African Mail of January 31 wrote:

25
…the natives are beginning to see that it is they who are finding money to build all the fine
palaces…..The extravagance of the government is becoming more than the people can
stand. It is particularly visible in the luxuries of official Lagos life.

During the World War I, the Government exerted control in all spheres of economic
activities. Imports, due to shortages in Europe, were limited, and exports were placed in
the hands of the West African Produce Control Board. Movements of internal traffic and
trade were regulated by ordinance. These measures drove home to the people the all-
pervading might of the new government, and awakened them to their economic realities.

A decade after the war, a riot, the most dreadful of its type, was set afoot east of the
Niger. It later assumed the name of “the Aba riots”. In its fierceness it spread over the
whole of the eastern Region, south of Onitsha. The first direct tax had been collected in the
region only in the previous year; only men paid it. The levy had caused much resentment,
especially because, at the time of assessment, officials had encouraged the convenient
rumour that they were only taking a census. Now, in order to assess more realistically,
officers went about taking statistics of properties. Suddenly a new rumour was sparked
off—that women and children were all being enrolled to be taxed. This rumour started in
a small town, Oloko, where about five hundred women immediately gathered at the house
of the local assessor. They demanded his arrest—and got it. Being less than satisfied, they
attacked native courts and destroyed many administrative centres. The rioting spread like
wildfire. Women everywhere behaved in the same way and attacked similar objects. They
shouted, “…we depend on our husbands, we cannot buy food or clothes ourselves, and how
shall we get money to tax?” After many days, when the masses of people had reached
enormous proportions, an administrative officer ordered them to be fired upon. Nearly fifty
were massacred and more than that number injured. An overt act; the commission of
enquiry appointed to investigate the causes of the disturbances was headed by Chief justice
W. E. Hunt. It reported—among other things—that the women had good grounds for
suspicion and that they had really expressed their feelings about the new administration.

(Ademoyege, The Federation of Nigeria)

26
Questions:

1. What will be a suitable title for the passage?

2. Identify the major supports and the minor supports.
3. Give subheadings to these and do your outline.

Sample Outline

Topic: The Upsurge of Nationalism in Nigeria

Economic causes:

1. Before World War I

a. The Land and House Tax of 1895
b. The Lagos Island Land Acquisition Ordinance

2. During World War I

a. Control of economic activities by the West African Produce Control Board
b. Regulation of movements of internal traffic and trade by Ordinance

3. After World War I

a. The first direct tax from men

Other Causes:

1. Administrative lapses

b. Encouragement of rumours
c. Official high handedness in suppressing the women’s demonstrations

1.3.14 Abbreviation during note taking/making

To take lecture note quickly and accurately, you may need to develop some form of ‘shorthand’ to
help you if the lecturer speaks quite fast. Abbreviations are useful. I have provided some
commonly used abbreviated forms of some words. You can ‘invent’ your own personal system of
abbreviations of words you often meet during lectures. You may also use some symbols.

27
Here are some commonly used abbreviations:

e.g. for example, i.e. (id est) that is

ef./cp. Compare/refer q.v. refer to

etc. Seq/ff and others/following int. al. (inter alia) among other things

viz. namely incl. Including/inclusive

vol. Volume N.B. (nota bene). note well

bk. Book chap. /ch. Chapter

p., pp. page, pages l., ll. line, lines

ad., advt. Advertisement asst. assistant

dept. department govt. government

HQ. headquarters IQ. intelligence quotient

lat. Latitude sec. Secretary

soc. Society/socialist l. left

r. right nr. Near

v. /V. Very/versus v.g. very good

long. Longitude N. S. E. W. North, South, East, West

mt. Mount, mountain pt. Part/point/port

bldg. Building ltd. Limited

pd. Paid pop. Population

pol. Political ec., econ. Economic

pvt. Private rd. read

st. Street/straight recd. Received

ry., rly railway w. with

28
gt. Great yr. Your/year

b. born d. died

m. married f. feminine, female

w. wife min. minor, minimum, minute

Max. maximum snr senior

jnr. Junior ms. Manuscript

MEASUREMENT

cm. centimetre mm. Millimetre

m. metre, mile, million km. Kilometre

in. inch/inches ft. feet

mg. Milligram kg. Kilogram

oz. Ounce lb. Pound

wt. Weight deg. Degree

p.c., % per cent sq. square

v. volt

TIME

c., cc. (circa) approximately C19 19th century

cent. Century d. date

p.a. per annum yr. Year

months of the year: first three letters except for ‘Sept.’

29
1.3.14.1 Other suggested abbreviations

• NB important, notice this

• para. paragraph
• Ch. Chapter
• edn edition
• info. information
• & and
• + plus, in addition to
• > greater/better/more than
• < less than/smaller
• = is the same as
• w/ with
• w/o without
• cd could
• wd would
• bc because
• vs against
• \ therefore
• Educ. Education
• impt important
• devt development
• C19 nineteenth century
• c. or ca. circa, about c.1800
• cf. compare this with...
• ct. contrast

30
 EFFECTIVE READING STRATEGIES

Reading is a basic aspect of academic work at a university. It is a form of communication in

which writing is used to send information and knowledge to another person who reads the
written material to get and understand the information and knowledge. Reading may be said
to be the major way to gather information about the subject you are studying. Thus, it is a valuable
skill to develop at the university. Reading develops your ability to think about and describe your
environment. It is the surest path to critical thinking, understanding and action.

One of the main aims of reading for study is to gather ideas and information and to integrate or
assimilate them into your own understanding of the world. You would then be able to express this
view or understanding through the various assessment criteria of your programme. That is how
you demonstrate your understanding of the academic field you have studied and through that gain
the qualification you want. Reading may turn out to be the most demanding aspect of your work
at the university. Thus, it is advisable to devote time and approach your reading very intelligently
and diligently by putting considerable efforts into it.

Think about the following questions:

• Why do you generally, generally and concerning your education?

• How do you read?
o From the beginning?
o Bookmarking: marking portions or pages of books for various reasons in the
course of reading

1.3.15 Ways of reading

There are various ways to effective reading. Reading becomes effective if you are able to read
well, understand and assimilate what you have read. Generally, any good reading may follow the
sequence of background, skimming, scanning and detailed readings.

31
1.3.15.1 Background reading

This involves reading generally around a subject, topic or issues to provide an overview of the
subject or topic area before detailed reading takes place later. For example, if your topic is the
Fetu Festival of the people of Cape Coast, you begin by reading about festivals in general or
about the people of Cape Coast to gain background knowledge, after which you narrow to
detailed reading on the Fetu Festival.

1.3.15.2 Skimming

Skimming is done when you wish to get a general idea of the content. In other words, you skim if
your purpose is to answer the question: What is this text all about? You skim by running your eyes
down the pages and through the document rapidly. You skim by picking spots in the document to
read in order to get a general impression of the book. This technique should be done before one
decides to thoroughly read a book or material because it prevents you from unduly wasting your
time on a book that may not contain what you want.

1.3.15.3 Strategies

When you skim, do the following:

1. Read the title of the text.

2. Read the first two or three paragraphs. (The introductory paragraph should tell you much
about what the text is all about.)
3. Read the first and last sentences of all other paragraphs.
4. Read subheadings, and take special notice of words in boldface or written in italic type.
5. Read the last paragraph. (The final paragraph often summarises the content.)
Read through the following paragraph quickly and answer the following questions:

The sun gives a continuous performance

Sunspots are regions of gases that are cooler than the rest of the sun’s surface, so
they look dark. Vast solar flares shower outer space with intense radiation that can be
dangerous for space travellers. Hundreds of areas of seething gases, up to 800 km in
diameter, make the sun’s surface look like a pot of boiling breakfast cereal. Streamers of
exploded gases rise hundreds of thousands of kilometres above the surface.

32
 The sun has a bright halo, called the corona, always present but only visible during
total eclipses. The solar wind is shot out like spray from a turning garden sprinkler or
sparks from a fireworks pinwheel.

Recently astronomers have discovered that the sun pulses in and out. These
pulsations occur every two hours and forty minutes. Astronomers hope that these impulses
will help them learn more about the inside of the sun.

The sun puts on one dramatic act after another. It is the only star close enough to
Earth to study in detail. No wonder many scientists devote their lives to understanding what
happens on the sun.

Now answer the following questions:

1. What is the passage about?

2. What words in boldface type give you an idea about the content of the passage?
3. What group of words in the final paragraph helps summarise what the passage is about?
1.3.15.4 Scanning

Scanning is done if we wish to find specific information, such as a date, a formula, etc. in the text.
In scanning, you read more closely with more attention than in skimming.

When you scan:

1. Be certain of what you are looking for before you start. Keep in mind key words related to
the information you want.
2. Glance down the pages or columns to find key words. Look carefully at section titles,
subheadings, words in boldface or italic type, first and last sentences of paragraphs, and
illustrations.

Scanning is especially useful when we read for specific information. But scanning is equally useful
when we write our answers to questions in a comprehension test. We skim (read through the
passage quickly to get a general idea of the content), then we read the questions to give us the
focus regarding what specific information to look for, and then, we scan for the information.

33
Skim the following paragraph quickly and answer the question, which follow it.

“We have so far been trying to point out that Africanization has different
connotations to different politicians. It would therefore be incorrect to give one universal
definition to the concept of Africanization in the present context. By making reference to
Nkrumah’s and Busia’s conceptions of Panafricanization in relation to Ghana, there
emerges two definitions of Panafricanization. According to Nkrumah’s conception,
Africanization may be defined as the revival of the total values of the continent of Africa
and the replacement of non-African by Africans in all political, economic and
administrative strategic positions. According to Busia’s conception, Africanization may be
defined as the revival of the cultural values of Ghana and the replacement of non-Ghanaians
by Ghanaians in all political, economic and administrative strategic positions. Thus, instead
of Africanization, we may equally well speak of Ghanaianization in the case of Busia’s
policy of Africanization.”

What are the main ideas of this paragraph?

(a) There is no one definition of Africanisation.

(b) Nkrumah was interested in Africa as a whole.
(c) Busia wished to place Ghanaians in all important positions.

1.3.15.5 Practice passages

1.3.15.5.1 Passage 1

Read through the following short passages quickly:

The whale is one of the mammals that live in the ocean. Ten to fifteen whales come together to
form an average family. A family of whales is called a pod. Each of the whale pods lives together
for many years. A tiny sea plant, as well as a giant squid, serves as food for whales. In northern
oceans thrives the sea life that whales consume. In winter most of the whales migrate to warms
waters, where the baby whales are born. The migration of certain whales cover ten thousand miles
or more on a round trip. Whales of enormous sizes successfully migrate. The blubber of these
whales permits the animals to go long distances without finding food. Some of the whales’ blubber
keep the animals warm in chilly waters. There are many characteristics of whales that are similar

34
to human traits. The pod in a way is a support system in which family members care for one
another. The conversation of whales has been recorded by scientists. Many an article and book
have been written about whales. [“Whales” Writer’s Choice. P579]

Questions:

1. What is the passage about? State this in one word or a phrase.

2. Suggest a title for the passage.

Read the passage again, more carefully, and answer the questions:

3. What kind of animal is the whale?

4. Are whales gregarious? How do we know?
5. What do you think is the whale’s blubber? What suggests this to you?
6. State three ways in which the whale is similar to humans.

1.3.15.5.2 Passage 2

Read through the following short passages quickly:

Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. Several years ago, a United States government
study was released that linked the intake of tar and nicotine, found in cigarettes, with the
development of cancer in laboratory animals. The evidence was so overwhelming that the United
States government required cigarette manufacturers to put a warning on the outside of each
package of cigarettes, which says, “Warning: The Surgeon General has determined that cigarette
smoking is hazardous to your health.” Aside from the most serious and dreaded disease, cancer,
cigarette smoking also can aggravate or promote other health problems. For example, smoking can
increase the discomfort for people with asthma and emphysema. It can give one a “smoker’s
cough” and contribute to bronchitis. Finally, recent studies have shown that cigarette smokers are
more susceptible to common colds and flu. Whether you get an insignificant cold or the major
killer, cancer, smoking cigarettes is hazardous. Is it worth it? [Refining Paragraph Skills. P 23]

Questions:

1. What is the passage about? State this in one word or a phrase.

35
 2. Suggest a title for the passage.

Read the passage again, more carefully, and answer the questions:

3. How did we get to know that cigarette smoking can human beings?
4. What is the greatest danger posed by smoking to human beings?
5. What is the writer’s conclusion on the issue of smoking?
1.3.15.5.3 Passage 3

Read through the following passages quickly:

Many people who like to read also save the books they have read. If you walk into any home, you
are likely to see anywhere from a single bookshelf to a whole library full of all kinds of books. I
know a family whose library has shelves reaching up to their ceiling; they keep a ladder for
climbing up to the high books. Obviously, they have collected books for many years, and though
they rarely actually open the books again, they keep them on the shelves, dusted and lined up
neatly. Why do people save their books? There may be several reasons, but three stand out.

One reason people save their books is to use them as reference materials. People whose job
training included studying a lot of textbook material may save some of those books for future
reference. For instance, a doctor may keep the Gray’s Anatomy and his pharmacology books; an
English teacher will hold on to The Norton Anthology of British Literature and other anthologies
and novels for reference; a lawyer usually keeps her case books. But it isn’t only the professionals
who save their books. People who like to cook keep recipe books. Those interested in electronic
equipment hold on to their books about stereos, computers, videotape machines, and the like. Many
families keep encyclopaedias and almanacs handy for their children to use for school. Having your
own reference book available is so much more convenient than running to the library every time
you want to check a fact.

Another reason some people save books is to make a good impression. Some think that a
library full of literary classics, dictionaries, and books about art, science, and history make them
look well-read and therefore sophisticated. Of course, this impression may be inaccurate. Some
have never bothered to read the majority of those books at all! In fact, a few people even have
libraries with fake books. Also, some people like to reveal to visitors their wide range of tastes and

36
interests. They can subtly reveal their interests in Peruvian art, Indian music, philosophy, or
animals without saying a word.

While some people may keep books for practical reference and for conveying an
impression, I suspect that there is a deeper reason. People who enjoy reading have discovered the
magic of books. Each book, whether it’s The Treasury of Houseplants or Murder on the Orient
Express, has transported the reader to another place. Therefore, each book really represents an
experience from which the reader may have grown or learned something. When I sit in my study,
I am surrounded by my whole adult life. The Standard First Aid and Personal Safety manual, in
addition to providing information, reminds me of the first-aid course I took and how more assured
I felt as a result. Bulfinch’s Mythology brings the oral history of Western civilisation to my
fingertips, reminding me of my link with other times and people. Of course, all of the novels have
become part of the mosaic of my life. In short, saving books makes me feel secure as I hold on to
what they have given me.

In fact, if you think about it, security is at the bottom of all these reasons. It’s a secure
feeling to know you have information at hand when you need it; there is a kind of security, even
though it may be false, in knowing you make a good impression. Finally, books that you’ve read
and kept envelop you with a warm and cosy cloak of your life.

[“Why People Save Books” Refining Paragraph Skills. P138]

Questions:

1. What is the passage about? State this in one word or a phrase.

2. Suggest a title for the passage.

Read the passage again, more carefully, and answer the questions:

3. What information are we given in the first paragraph? Is this piece of information captured
very well in any one of the sentences in the paragraph? Which one?
4. What does the writer discuss in the second paragraph?
5. Why, according to the third paragraph, do people save books?
6. What is the writer’s conclusion on the reasons why people save books?

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1.3.16 Effective reading 2 (SQ3R)
The SQRRR reading method is a way of analysing, organising, and retaining information that you
read. SQRRR stand for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.

Read the following passage carefully:

World War 1
In the early 1900s, Europe was faced with serious problems. Countries were arguing among
themselves. At the same time, they were building up their armies. By 1914 Europe seemed about
to explode.

War in Europe
The war started with a quarrel between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. There was bitterness
between these two countries because some Serbs were ruled by Austria-Hungary. On June 28,
1914, a Serb shot and killed an Austrian archduke. One month later, Austria-Hungary declared
war on Serbia. World War 1 had begun. On one side were the Allied Powers, which included
France, Great Britain, Russia, Belgium, and later Italy. On the other side were the Central Powers
(Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey).

Battles took place involving millions of troops. It soon became clear that neither side would
win a quick victory. Armies dug trenches separated by an area called no man’s land. Anyone
moving in no man’s land was in grave danger.

America Attempts Neutrality

American leaders tried to make sure that the United States stayed neutral. Even so, most
Americans hoped for an Allied victory. The United States had strong cultural ties with Great
Britain. Also, Americans were reminded of the help from France during this country’s fight for
independence.

The following steps will be taken in reading using the SQRRR method:

Survey

The first step is to survey the text. To survey means to read all section titles, subheadings, and
terms in boldface or italic type. Then, examine all illustrations. Finally read any summary
paragraphs or lists in the selection. A survey of the passage is as follows:

38
 • The topic is World War 1 (title)
• The war was fought in Europe. (subheading)
• The was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers (boldface terms)
• The fighting involved a no man’s land. (boldface term)
• America was neutral when the war began. (subheading)
Question

The next step is to ask yourself questions that will be answered by reading the selection. The
questions are based on the materials that you find in your survey. You could ask yourself the
following questions after a survey of the text.

• When did World War 1 begin?

• Why did the war begin?
• What nations were the Allied Powers?
• What nations were the Central Powers?
• What was no man’s land?
• Was America completely neutral?
Read

Read the text for information that will answer your questions. Write down the question and take
notes if that will help you to remember. Be alert for information that is not covered by your
questions.

Recite

When you have finished reading, ask yourself each question and then answer it. You can do this
silently, aloud, or in writing. If there is information in the text that you did not anticipate, think of
additional questions for that information. Then answer those questions.

Review

Review by asking and answering your questions again. Ideally, you should do this within twenty-
four hours. Do not look at your notes or the reading material. When you have finished, check your
answers against your notes or selection. Continue reviewing until you can answer each question
correctly.

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1.3.17 Effective reading 3 (PQRRRR or PQ4R)
The PQ4R is an improvement upon the SQ3R reading strategy. There are six steps involved in the
process:

Previewing (same as survey in SQ3R)

Questioning (same as Questioning in SQ3R)

• Reading
• Reflecting
• Reciting
• Reviewing

Preview

During previewing, you scan the title, section headings and visual aids. Read the first and last
paragraphs to get a general idea of the purpose of the text, and the major concepts covered. This
information is used for the next step.

Question

During questioning, you predict questions that may be answered in the text. You may convert
headings into questions, or draw upon your own past experience of questioning to form these
questions. Look for answers while reading in the next step.

Read

Unlike with SQ3R, the text is read in its entirety. Carefully read the complete text, record notes
in the margin, or underline major important information that answer the predicted questions.

Reflect

Information from the entire chapter is linked together in the reflection phase. The reader should
attempt to develop an insight into the topic and make associations among the important materials
noted while reading.

Recite

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The reciting phase involves summarising main points and supporting details of the complete text.
Say the summary aloud, or write it down in an outline form.

Preview

Highlight key points of the text. Make sure the predicted questions have been answered and that
the author’s purpose is fully understood.

INTEGRATING INFORMATION INTO ESSAYS

This Section of the booklet throws light on how to integrate information from external sources into
an essay to invigorate it and make it academically worthwhile. When writing an essay on a given
or chosen subject or topic, it is expected that you do some reading on the issue to see what others
have said about it.

You can then incorporate the relevant information you discover through your readings into your
writing to strengthen your work. The techniques used to achieve this are quoting, paraphrasing,
and summarising. Whenever you use outside sources, you are to avoid plagiarism by crediting
your sources through documentation.

When you use quotations, paraphrases, and / or summaries in a piece of writing, you should take
care to integrate them smoothly into your sentences. If care is not taken, you will end up with
choppy, disjointed and incoherent sentences in which quoted, paraphrased or summarised ideas do
not mesh with the grammar, style or trend of your writing.

1.3.18 Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarising

The differences among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarising:

These three ways of incorporating other writers' works into your own writing differ according to
the closeness of your writing to the source writing. Here is first a summary of these three
techniques and the differences among them.

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1.3.18.1 Quoting

This is reproducing the exact words of the source marked by quotation marks. The quoted
material must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must
match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.

1.3.18.2 Paraphrasing

Paraphrases involve a detailed restatement of someone’s statement expressed in your own words
and in your own sentence structure. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source.
Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader
segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

1.3.18.3 Summarising

This involves putting the main idea(s) of someone’s passage into your own words, including
only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarised ideas to the original
source. Summaries are condensed or significantly shorter than the original and take a broad
overview of the source material.

1.3.19 Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?

Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to . . .

• Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing

• Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
• Give examples of several points of view on a subject
• Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with
• Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original
• Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are
not your own
• Expand the breadth or depth of your writing

Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. As part of a summary of an

article, a chapter, or a book, a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended with
quotations of striking or suggestive phrases as in the following example:

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In his famous and influential work On the Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues that
dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page #), expressing in coded imagery the dreamer's
unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the "dream work" (page #). According to Freud,
actual but unacceptable desires are censored internally and subjected to coding through layers of
condensation and displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself (p.
#s).

1.3.20 How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries

Practise summarising the following essay, using paraphrases and quotations as you go. It might be
helpful to follow these steps:

• Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas.
• Summarise in your own words what the single main idea of the essay is.
• Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the essay.
• Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you believe should be quoted directly.

There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation works well
when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting should
be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation when you
decide to do so.

1.3.21 Sample essay for summarising, paraphrasing, and quoting

The following is a sample essay that you can use to practise quoting, paraphrasing, and
summarising. Examples of each task are provided at the end of the essay for further reference.

So That Nobody Has To Go To School If They Don't Want To

By Roger Sipher

A decline in standardised test scores is but the most recent indicator that American education is in
trouble. One reason for the crisis is that present mandatory-attendance laws force many to attend
school who have no wish to be there. Such children have little desire to learn and are so
antagonistic to school that neither they nor more highly motivated students receive the quality
education that is the birth right of every American.

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The solution to this problem is simple: Abolish compulsory-attendance laws and allow only those
who are committed to getting an education to attend. This will not end public education. Contrary
to conventional belief, legislators enacted compulsory-attendance laws to legalise what already
existed. William Landes and Lewis Solomon, economists, found little evidence that mandatory-
attendance laws increased the number of children in school. They found, too, that school systems
have never effectively enforced such laws, usually because of the expense involved.

There is no contradiction between the assertion that compulsory attendance has had little effect on
the number of children attending school and the argument that repeal would be a positive step
toward improving education. Most parents want a high school education for their children.
Unfortunately, compulsory attendance hampers the ability of public school officials to enforce
legitimate educational and disciplinary policies and thereby make the education a good one.

Private schools have no such problem. They can fail or dismiss students, knowing such students
can attend public school. Without compulsory attendance, public schools would be freer to oust
students whose academic or personal behaviour undermines the educational mission of the
institution.

Has not the noble experiment of a formal education for everyone failed? While we pay homage to
the homily, "You can lead a horse to water but you can't make him drink," we have pretended it is
not true in education. Ask high school teachers if recalcitrant students learn anything of value. Ask
teachers if these students do any homework. Quite the contrary, these students know they will be
passed from grade to grade until they are old enough to quit or until, as is more likely, they receive
a high school diploma. At the point when students could legally quit, most choose to remain since
they know they are likely to be allowed to graduate whether they do acceptable work or not.

Abolition of archaic attendance laws would produce enormous dividends. First, it would alert
everyone that school is a serious place where one goes to learn. Schools are neither day-care
centres nor indoor street corners. Young people who resist learning should stay away; indeed, an
end to compulsory schooling would require them to stay away. Second, students opposed to
learning would not be able to pollute the educational atmosphere for those who want to learn.
Teachers could stop policing recalcitrant students and start educating. Third, grades would show

44
what they are supposed to: how well a student is learning. Parents could again read report cards
and know if their children were making progress. Fourth, public esteem for schools would increase.
People would stop regarding them as way stations for adolescents and start thinking of them as
institutions for educating America's youth. Fifth, elementary schools would change because
students would find out early they had better learn something or risk flunking out later. Elementary
teachers would no longer have to pass their failures on to junior high and high school. Sixth, the
cost of enforcing compulsory education would be eliminated. Despite enforcement efforts, nearly
15 percent of the school-age children in our largest cities are almost permanently absent from
school.

Communities could use these savings to support institutions to deal with young people not in
school. If, in the long run, these institutions prove more costly, at least we would not confuse their
mission with that of schools. Schools should be for education. At present, they are only tangentially
so. They have attempted to serve an all-encompassing social function, trying to be all things to all
people. In the process they have failed miserably at what they were originally formed to
accomplish.

1.3.22 Example summary, paraphrase, and quotation from the essay:

1.3.22.1 Sample Summary:

Roger Sipher makes his case for getting rid of compulsory-attendance laws in primary and
secondary schools with six arguments. These fall into three groups—first that education is for
those who want to learn and by including those that don't want to learn, everyone suffers. Second,
that grades would be reflective of effort and elementary school teachers wouldn't feel compelled
to pass failing students. Third, that schools would both save money and save face with the
elimination of compulsory-attendance laws.

1.3.22.2 Sample paraphrase:

Roger Sipher concludes his essay by insisting that schools have failed in their primary duty of
education because they try to fill multiple social functions.

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1.3.22.3 Sample quotation:

According to Roger Sipher, a solution to the perceived crisis of American education is to "Abolish
compulsory-attendance laws and allow only those who are committed to getting an education to
attend" (P. #).

These three techniques will now be examined a bit in details:

1.3.23 Using quotations
Often in research or academic writing, we use the ideas of other scholars and integrate them in our
work after which we are obliged to acknowledge the source of our information. Sometimes,
however, we find that an author expresses an idea in such an effective word, phrase or sentence
that we wish to use the author’s very expression. In this case we quote.

1.3.23.1 Guidelines for using quotations

• Use quotations from authorities in the area of your research or write up to support
your ideas.
• Select quotations that fit your message
• Choose a quotation only if
i. Its language is particularly appropriate or distinctive.
ii. Its idea is particularly hard to paraphrase accurately.
iii. The authority of the source is especially important to support your material.
iv. The source’s words are open to more than one interpretation, so that the
reader needs to see the original.
• Use quotation marks to set off your quotes to avoid plagiarism.
• In the area of communication, you quote to enhance the following in your work:
o Authority
o Credibility
o Proof, support, or evidence
o Etc.

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1.3.23.2 Other things to note about quotations

1.3.23.2.1 Quoting quotes

When in the course of quoting, how do we quote phrases or sentences that already contain
quotation marks?

If we have been using the double quotation marks [“… ”] in our work, then we will use the single
quotation marks to set out the word(s) that the writer we are quoting puts in quotation marks. If
we have been using the single quotation marks [‘…’] then the word the author puts in quotation
will be put in double quotation marks. Here is an example.

• Fletcher stresses that, for children, a family is an “‘educative’ group of the most
fundamental kind.”
• Fletcher stresses that, for children, a family is an ‘“educative” group of the most
fundamental kind.’
1.3.23.2.2 Where do we start or stop a quotation?

You can start and stop a quote whenever you like in order to suit the purpose of your own writing.
Although you must show any punctuation that appears within the quote, you may terminate your
quote before a punctuation mark if it makes sense to do that. For example:

• Fletcher shows how children absorb ‘qualities’ that ‘are actually embodied in people and
their behaviour’ through daily contact with members of the family.
Note that the writer ignores the full stop after ‘behaviour’.

1.3.23.2.3 Indenting

If you have to quote more than just a few words, indent the quotation. When you do this, you do
not have to put the quote in quotation marks. Note that the short quotes above have no quotation
marks.

1.3.23.2.4 How not to quote

When you quote make sure that what you put in quotes are in its entirety the exact words of the
author you are quoting from. Otherwise put everything in your own words. Do not mix the authors
words up with your own words. Look at this example:
47
 ‘Fletcher says the child perceives qualities and appraises them in the family and is educated in
this way.’

This quotation includes words such as ‘qualities’ and ‘appraises’ which are actually words used
by the original writer and which the student incorporates in the work wrongly. The use of the
quotation mark at the beginning and the end of the sentence presupposes that Fletcher said
everything in the sentence. But this is not the case.

Quotation marks must be used for the exact words as written in the text you are using. They are
never used for approximations or for your own explanation. Give the name of the writer, and
explain what he or she wrote, using quotation marks solely for the exact word that you lift from
the text. The above sentence should correctly read:

Fletcher states that a ‘child perceives … and appraises’ the behaviour in his or her family. The
family is consequently ‘an “educative” group of the most fundamental kind’.

The simple and convenient way to quote is to precede your quote with a colon (:) and then give
the quote without any alterations.

1.3.24 Using paraphrases

Paraphrasing has to do with precisely restating, in your own words, a passage or idea, written (or
spoken) by another person. Paraphrase, from its Greek origin, implies a parallel text, one that runs
alongside the original writing or utterance. When you paraphrase, you give an account of what
various authorities have to say, not in their own words, but in yours. Incorporating paraphrased
information in your writing help you to untangle simplify difficult passages and ideas to the
understanding of your reader(s).

1.3.24.1 Tips for effective paraphrasing

• Present or say what the source says, but no more.

• Use your own words and sentence structure to restate the message. If some words
are unique or awkward, quote them — but quote sparingly.
• Be sure not to distort the original text.
• Your material is expected to be about as long as or even longer than the original.
• Avoid plagiarism

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 Example:

Unfortunately, different countries have different ideas about exactly how close is
close. It is easy enough to test your own “space reaction”: when you are talking to someone
in the street or in any open space, reach out with your arm and see where the nearest point
of his body comes. If you hail from Western Europe, you will find that he is at roughly
fingertip distance from you. In other words, as you reach out, your fingertips will just about
make contact with his shoulders. If you come from Eastern Europe, you will find you are
standing at wrist “distance.” If you come from the Mediterranean region, you will find that
you are much closer to your companion, a little more than “elbow distance.”

(Original source: Morris, Desmond, (1997), Manwatching. NY: Abrams. (P. 131)

Culled from Lynn Quitman Troyka’s Handbook for Writers, Simon & Schuster, Singapore,
1993, pgs. 565- 566

1.3.24.2 Unacceptable Paraphrase

Regrettably, different nations think differently about exactly how close is

close. Test yourself: when you are talking to someone in the street or in any open
space, stretch your arm out to measure how close that person is to you. If you are
from Western Europe, you will find that your fingertips will just about make contact
with the person’s shoulder. If you are from Eastern Europe, your wrist will reach
the person’s shoulder. If you are from the Mediterranean region, you will find that
you are much closer to your companion, when tour elbow will reach that person’s
shoulder.

1.3.24.3 Acceptable paraphrase

People from different nations think that “close” means different things. You
can easily see what your reaction is to how close to you people stand by reaching
out the length of your arm to measure how close someone is as the two of you
interact. When people from Western Europe stand in the street and talk together,
the space between them is the distance it would take one person’s fingertips to reach

49
 to the other person’s shoulder. People from Eastern Europe converse at a wrist-to-
shoulder distance. And people from the Mediterranean, however, prefer an elbow-
to-shoulder distance.

1.3.25 Using summaries

A summary is a restatement of another writer’s main idea(s) such that the original writer’s idea(s)
are captured in the original writer’s intended sense, and this is conveyed in the summary writer’s
words to anyone who has no access to the original text.

1.3.25.1 The purpose of a summary

They are lessons to:

• Give practice in close, attentive reading, and training to do justice to what is read, “rather
than reading into a work only what is familiar to you”.

• Strengthen the students’ sense of structure in writing; that is, “how a writer organises
material, develops his or her points, and moves from one point to another”.

• Help the students develop the “sense of what is important in a written work, enabling you
to distinguish between key points, the material backing them up, specific examples and
illustrations, and mere asides.
1.3.25.2 Sentence-level summary

It is possible to summarise a sentence. In a complex sentence, for example, there are two or more
clauses; a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Summarising in this case will involve
identifying the main clause and restating the idea expressed in the main clause in your own words.

In summarising a sentence, read the sentence closely. Focus on the gist, or the main idea, but do
not forget the question you are answering as we have illustrated above.

Here are a few examples:

1. The first people to invent “printing” were the Chinese, several hundred years earlier than
in Europe. [The Chinese were the first to print books]

2. It is with the greatest possible regret that I write to let you know that I am unfortunately
unable to accept your very kind invitation. [This very long and winding sentence simply

50
 expresses the writer’s regret, and states the writer’s inability to honour an invitation. In a
summary: [I am sorry that I cannot come. Or, I am sorry I cannot honour your
invitation.]

1.3.25.2.1 Exercises for practice:

1. Maid servants gazed out of upper windows, shopkeepers’ wives stood on doorsteps;
housewives ran out with babies in their arms; and little children, too young to know how
to behave respectfully at the sight of a presidential motorcade, cheered merrily as it drove
along.

2. No weapon ever invented is more deadly than hunger; it can spike guns, destroy courage,
and break the will of the most resolute peoples; the finest armies in the world, courageous
enough in the face of bombs or bullets, can be reduced by it to hopelessness and surrender.

3. Shakespeare ensures that nothing can be taken at face value in the play Hamlet by showing
us many different sides to the characters, one side often contradicting another.

1.3.25.3 Summarising a paragraph

Summarising focuses on the main idea. Thus, in summarising a paragraph, your focus is
identifying the main idea. However, it is sometimes relevant to include some amount of detailing
in order to make the idea of the main idea in the paragraph clear especially at a later date.

For example:

Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different functions
to users. The programmes most often used are word processors. These programmes can
produce letters, reports, articles, announcements, books, poems, school papers, and class
assignments as well as other documents. Another kind of computer program is the
database, which allows the user to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. You
might put on a database a library catalogue, all the business products in inventory, or all
the names and addresses of students attending a school. Another kind of programme is the
communications programme, which allows the user to connect to the Internet and to send

51
 electronic mail to others. If you can access the Internet, you can search thousands of
databases, files, and Web sites for information. You can access university libraries,
company Web sites, government information agencies. The computer offers many kinds
of programmes for users, each with a distinct function or benefit to users.

The summary

[Three kinds of computer software programs are those that help users to prepare
documents, those that allow the users to classify information, and those that provide
information on various topics.]

What kinds of information did we use in summarising our paragraph? Note that we stuck to the
main idea, and the major supports. We did not include the examples. It may be necessary to include
an illustration, but this is only if that is the only thing that will make the idea in the summary clear.
For example, in a paragraph which has a topic sentence and only a number of illustrations, you
will need to summarise the illustrations as we have done with the sentences we practised on earlier.

1.3.25.4 Summarising multiple paragraphs

After reading a book or a lengthy document, you may need to make a list of the main points of the
material on a piece of paper. You thereafter use these points to summarise the document.
Additionally, you may be asked to produce a summary of something much shorter than a book –
an article, a passage, or just a couple of pages from a textbook. The trick is to sift to get to the main
points and differentiate these from explanations, examples and blatant diversions.

In line with the above, the ABC of Summary Writing are

• A—accuracy
• B—brevity
• C—clarity
Steps:

1. A first quick read. This should make you aware of the focus of the text.

2. Note-making. Your summary will be based on these notes. You will need the technical
terms but translate the original material into your own words. A summary requires that you

52
 show your understanding and it is only restating what the original author says in your own
words that will show that you do understand what is in the text. Make sure you do not
impose your own ideas; stick to the author’s ideas.

3. Writing a first draft. Your first draft will be written from your notes. Do not look back at
the original work while you go through this phase.

4. Checking your word-count and editing. If you are given a number of words, you will
need to spend some time cutting out some words and phrases, or substituting a word for a
longer phrase. Make sure you cut out only words, or phrases that are absolutely
unnecessary. Edit your work for grammar and other errors. If your summary is much
shorter than the word limit, you may need to go to the original text again. You probably
have omitted an important point.

5. Writing your final draft.

When summarising a text comprising a number of paragraphs do the following:

i. Skim the text to get the general focus of the text, e.g., the concept discussed in the text
ii. Scan the text to get the ideas used in support of, or explaining the concept.
iii. Put these down in outline form, as much as possible in your own words. Be sure you
do not distort the original author’s ideas, or impose your own ideas as you do this.
iv. Read the text again to ensure that you did not leave out any relevant support. If you
did, include it in your outline.
v. Write out your outline putting on flesh in the form of intra-paragraph link devices as
first, next, in addition, finally, etc.
vi. Edit your final write out paying special attention to coherence and grammatical errors.

Here is an example. Note carefully the notes the summary writer makes out of the passage. How
does he select his points? The passage is about 600 words long and this has been reduced to not
more than 100 words.

“Sustainable Rural Development”

53
 What is urgently needed now are new policies that not only conserve nature but
also integrate care of the Earth with care for human beings. There should be incentives to
reverse the flow of people from the land to towns and cities. These people should be
encouraged to do something not only worthwhile for themselves but even more worthwhile
for their environments. They should be encouraged to establish communities, and build
efficient and environmentally friendly homes. They should be given land to grow organic
vegetables on, and they would be able to generate their own power so as to reduce their
dependence on fossil fuels. These small hamlet dwellers would be able to take advantage
of community farming and biomass projects. If they are well located then they have little
or no dependence on nationally operated utility systems. Even human waste could either
be composted or put though a water reed bed purification system. Thus we would alleviate
the need to be connected to the present archaic disposal system in place today.

All that would be required to implement these ideas is a new category of land use
– perhaps called Self-Sufficiency Land (SS Land). There would have to be some form of
contractual agreement between the owner and the local and national authorities, which
would contain basic statements such as, “I will buy and live on this piece of land and will
not let it out or speculate. I will conserve nature, plant over twenty trees per acre and be a
co-steward in maintaining common lands. I will co-operate with my neighbours over
transport, infrastructure, power generation, waste disposal, and use of available water
supplies. In return for this opportunity to experience a meaningful life I will have the
freedom to build my own house to a design suited to its surroundings and will also
incorporate the highest energy efficient standards possible….”

The consequences of implementing even small changes to current planning law to

create areas of self-sufficient land would be enormous. Farmers would be able to apply for
SS Land designation and if they succeeded then their land would sell for £10,000 per acre
(price-capping would be necessary) instead of £1,000 per acre. Communities would then
be able to set up all over the country, precipitating a marked expansion in small allied
industries. Another huge benefit to the new landowners would be to receive EC grants for
re-creating the woodlands, and hedgerows, which are at present disappearing at an
alarming rate. At the same time a subsidiary income would be incurred. Apart from the

54
 cash received for planting in the first place, appropriate harvesting from the renewable
resource they have planted would be materially and economically beneficial.

The boom in alternative technologies related to energy-efficient architecture and

renewable energy supplies would hopefully see the beginning of the end of the Industrial
Revolution and its descendants in the form of over-engineering: the kinds of engineering
and technology which produce things that nobody really needs and uses up vast amounts
of valuable natural resources in a very unsustainable way. Even alternative technology, as
a term, is starting to have an antiquated ring about it. Perhaps a real shift in people’s
consciousness and sense of responsibility would be prompted by a new brand of innovators
of the future: the engineers of Environmental Revolution.

Here are the student’s notes:

1. need policies on conservation and human

2. incentives needed for rural living – new communities
3. community farming/use of natural energy/environmentally-friendly sewage disposal
4. new type of land use with specific agreements between owners/local authorities/govt –
Self-Sufficiency
5. agreement: no speculative enterprises/tree planting & conservation/co-operation with
neighbours on mains services. Owner able to design & build own dwellings suited to local
environment
6. Results:
a. Farmers who applied to have their land SS designated would find it rose 10-fold in
value
b. Explosion of new communities = expansion of small industries
c. Landowners would get EC grants for re-creating woods & hedgerows & get profit
from managing woods and selling

7. energy-efficient building & renewable energy supplies – end of wasteful engineering &
technology. All these changes could bring a change from industrial to environmental Rev.

55
Here is the draft:

Policies are needed to protect both our land and people. Incentives are needed to establish
community faring and use of natural energy. There should be a newly-designated land use – Self-
Sufficiency based or agreements between owners and local authorities, and government would
ban land-speculation and encourage conservation and co-operation. The individual could design
and build appropriate to his/her surroundings. Farmers who apply for SS designation would find
their land values rose considerably in value. There would be an explosion of small industries. EC
grants for creating woodlands and profit from sustainable harvesting would also benefit
landowners. Wasteful engineering would end. The Industrial Revolution would give way to an
Environmental Revolution.

That adds up to 112 words. The writer needs to lose 12 words.

Here is the final draft:

Policies are essential to protect land and people. Incentives are needed to establish community
farming and use natural energy. A newly-designated land use – Self-Sufficiency, based on
agreements between owners, local authorities and government – would ban land-speculation and
promote conservation and co-operation. People could design and build appropriate to their
surroundings. Farmers applying for SS designation would find land values rose. There would be
an explosion of small industries. EC grants for creating woodlands and profit from sustainable
harvesting would benefit landowners. Wasteful engineering would end. The Industrial Revolution
would give way to an ‘Environmental Revolution’.

Reporting verbs and critical voice

The following are useful verbs you can employ to integrate outside sources (through quoting,
paraphrasing and summarising) into your work. These verbs help you to provide your personal
analysis of the outside source you are using, thereby giving your work a critical voice.

analyse complain explain note

argue concede find observe

assert conclude illustrate opine

claim consider insist offer

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 comment describe maintain point out

report reveal say see

show speculate suggest think

suppose write ask

Documentation
Documentation implies that you acknowledge your sources by providing full and accurate
information about the author, title, date of publication, and related facts. Doing this means you
attribute the external information to the original source.
Documentation can occur in two ways:
• Within the body of your writing of text. This is in-text documentation.

• At the end of the paper in a list. This is references or bibliography.

Whenever you use external sources in your writing through quoting, paraphrasing, and
summarising, you must document your sources according to correct documentation style.
There are different documentation styles in academia depending on institutions and disciplines.
For example, the Humanities use the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, while the Social
Sciences use the American Psychological Association (APA) style. There are other styles such as
the Council of Biology Editors (CBE), the Harvard Style, etc. You ought to be acquainted with
these styles.
The Ghana Institute of Journalism (GIJ) has, at various times, used the APA and Harvard
referencing styles of documentation for its publications: journals, project works, dissertations, etc.
As a students, you should endeavour to find out which style the Institute has designated for use in
project works/dissertations during your time. But be aware that the format for each style is updated
from time to time, so the prudent thing to do is to check periodically for current formats.
1.3.26 Avoiding plagiarism
Plagiarising means presenting another person’s words or ideas as if they were your own. Simply
put, plagiarising is stealing and so it is criminal. That is why you could be severely punished for
this offence, whether intentionally committed or not.

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In academic circles, one’s research achievement can be cancelled or withdrawn if it is found out
that there are sources that have not been cited or documented (both in-text and in the reference list
(bibliography)).

To prevent plagiarism in your writing, take notes as you research. Note down publication
information of any work you read in the course of your research (author, date, publisher and
publishing house, pages, etc.). If you do not do this you may not get these details to cite much later
since you may not find the document again.

Exceptions:

But note that it is not all outside sources you have to document as in the following instances:

• Common knowledge: Common knowledge is information that most (educated) people

know. For example, many an educated person knows that Ghana gained independence in
1957. This fact is common knowledge so does not have to be documented.
• Your own thinking: As you go about your research, learn a lot which you integrate into
your personal knowledge reservoir. You can then come out with you own mind on the
topic you are dealing with. Obviously, in a researched work, the following will constitute
the writer’s own thinking and will not be documented:
i. the thesis statement
ii. most organising sentences, e.g. opening sentences of paragraphs
iii. the writer’s comments on external sources
iv. transitional sentences
v. the conclusion

1.3.27 Referencing
Students should check with the Institute’s Research Unit or library staff for the current referencing
style and its format.

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 PARAGRAPH DEVELPMENT
1.3.28 The single paragraph structure
A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea. This main idea is expressed in the
topic sentence, usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a summary
sentence, informing the reader of a paragraph’s topic or main idea. In other words, the topic
sentence tells the reader what the particular paragraph is about. All other sentences in the
paragraph must help show, prove, or explain that topic sentence. If a sentence involves an idea
that does not relate to the topic sentence, then the paragraph contains irrelevant information. The
particular sentence must be deleted or moved to a paragraph where it belongs.

In academic writing, the visual signal to the reader that a new paragraph begins is the margin
indentation. The first line of the paragraph is indented, i.e., starts one-half inch from the left
margin. If you are using a typewriter or a computer, all you need to do is to strike the tab key
(the key just before the ‘Q’ with two arrows pointing to opposite directions) once. It is usually
set for one-half inch.

The Tab Key

A paragraph is a short piece of writing with which you can practice many important skills of
communicating ideas and create good writing without becoming overwhelmed by sheer mass of
content needed to write an essay.

Graphically, the paragraph looks like this:

TOPIC SENTENCE
(i) [general but focussed]
(Controlling idea of paragraph)

1st Support

2nd Support [Specific illus./e.g.]

(ii)

3rd Support
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 CONCLUDING STATEMENT
(iii) [Sum of ideas discussed]

1.3.28.1 The single paragraph

A paragraph in isolation will do one of the following:

• Open an essay
• Introduce a thesis {i.e., the main idea of a paper}
• Develop on of the points supporting the thesis
• Conclude a discussion
• Supply a transition between parts of a fairly long paper
• Close an essay
Note: It is possible to have a single-sentence paragraph.

1.3.28.1.1 The topic sentence

A paragraph develops one point. In doing this, the writer often uses a topic sentence. The topic
sentence is the sentence that carries this one point, or main idea, which the whole paragraph
develops. All the other sentences will explain, illustrate or otherwise support this sentence. Thus,
for a paragraph to be seen as a unified and coherent block, every sentence must contribute to the
central idea and every detail support the topic sentence to produce a single unfolding idea.

Thus, a topic sentence, usually the first sentence of a paragraph, summarises the content of the
paragraph, telling the reader what to expect. For example, a reader would know exactly what the
paragraph is about if the topic sentence was: Another common household pet is the dog, which
freely gives love and companionship to its owner. The topic sentence states the topic of the
paragraph (dogs) and states that main idea about that topic (dogs give love and companionship).

1.3.28.1.2 Characteristics of a good topic sentence

A successful topic sentence must have several traits. The topic sentence must:

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 • Be a summary of the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence must include both
the topic, or subject, and your main idea (opinion or approach) about the topic.
• Cover only one main idea.
• Be a general statement that is provable with explanations and examples.
• Be a statement about your own ideas, written in your own words, not a quotation or a
paraphrase of someone else’s ideas. (You can use someone else’s ideas as support or
illustration or an example for your topic sentence)

A topic sentence reveals the main idea of a paragraph. Other sentences in the paragraph serve to
clarify, develop, and illustrate that idea. Usually, the topic sentence is most effective when
presented as the first sentence, but it may have any position in the paragraph.

Here is an example:

The fearsomeness mistakenly attributed to me in public places often has a perilous

flavour. The most frightening of these confusions occurred in the late 1970s and early
1980s when I worked as a journalist in Chicago. One day, rushing into the office of a
magazine I was writing for with a deadline story in hand, I was mistaken for a burglar.
The office manager called security and, with an ad hoc posse, pursued me through the
labyrinthine halls, nearly to my editor’s door. I had no way of proving who I was. I could
only move briskly toward the company of someone who knew me.

Another time I was on assignment for a local paper and killing time before an
interview. I entered a jewellery store on the city’s affluent Near North Side. The
proprietor excused herself and returned with an enormous red Doberman pinscher
straining at the end of a leash. She stood; the dog extended toward me, silent to my
questions, her eyes bulging nearly out of her head. I took a cursory look around, nodded,
and bade her good night. Relatively speaking, however, I never fared as badly as another
black male journalist. He went to nearby Waukegan, Illinois, a couple of summers ago to
work on a story about a murdered who was born there. Mistaking the reporter for the
killer, police hauled him from his car at gunpoint and but for his press credentials would

61
 probably have tried to book him. Such episodes are not uncommon. Black men trade tales
like this all the time.

(Brent Staples, “Just Walk On By: A Black Man Ponders His Power to Alter Public
Space”)

The topic sentence may be placed near the middle of a paragraph, as in this example:

The British, in their splendid isolation, used to regard foreigners as either a comic turn or
a sexual menace. To learn a European language—apart from the dead ones from which
English had kindly borrowed—was, at best, to seek to acquire a sort of girl’s-finishing-
school ornament, at worst, to capitulate feebly to the enemy. Things are slightly different
now: an uneasy awareness is dawning that linguistic isolation is no longer possible, that
the languages of these damned Europeans may have to be taken seriously if they persist
in pretending not to understand English. Unfortunately, many educated Europeans do
understand English, sometimes better than the British, and are very ready to speak it to
British tourists and write it to British business firms, thus soothing that uneasy awareness
back into insular complacency. But, in their soberest moments, most Anglophones will
admit that the attitude of “Let them learn our language, blast them” will not really do.
(Anthony Burgess, ‘A Mouthful of Air’)

1.3.28.1.3 Model 1: Narrative

1. I remember the first time I heard the word nigger.2. In my third-grade class, our math test
were being passed down the rows, and as I handed the papers to a little boy in back of me, I
remarked that once again he had received a much lower mark than I did. 3. He snatched his test
from me and spit out that word. 4. Had he called me a nymphomaniac or a necrophiliac, I
couldn’t have been more puzzled. 5. I didn’t know what a nigger was, but I knew that whatever it
meant, it was something he shouldn’t have called me. 6.This was verified when I raised my hand,
and in a loud voice repeated what he had said and watched the teacher scold him for using a
“bad” word. 7. I was later to go home and ask the inevitable question that every black parent
must face—“Mommy, what does nigger mean?” [Simplified Paragraph Skills, p263]

Discussion:

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 i. Identify the topic sentence. (S1) (States what the whole paragraph is about)
ii. Generalisation (S2) (This statement doesn’t talk specifically about ‘nigger’ but helps
in the narration.) Which other sentence is a generalisation?
iii. Details: (S3) gives details (explains) something about the word, nigger. Which other
sentence gives details in the paragraph?
iv. Concluding Statement: (S7) gives a conclusion or reflection about the events narrated.

1.3.28.1.4 Model 2: Description

1. My first car was a junker; my friends and I called it the Purple Bomb. 2. I saved $250 to buy
the mid-sized, four-door 1965 Oldsmobile when I was 16 years old. 3. From the outside, the car
looked like it had recently been pulled from a river. 4. The maroon paint had faded from many
years in the weather, and it was dotted with primer spots. 5. The hood was bent up in one corner,
and rust had eaten holes through the fenders. 6. The rubber in the tires had petrified, and the
hubcaps were rusted. 7. The inside looked like that of a car waiting in a wrecking yard to be
demolished. 8. The maroon vinyl door panels were dirty and faded, and the handles had cracks
that were sharp to the touch. 9. The overhead light didn’t have a cover. 10. The maroon seats
were held together with about two rolls of silver duct tape, and when you sat down, you could
feel the springs pressing against your butt and the duct tape sticking to your back. 11. The
dashboard had a spider webbing of cracks all over the front, and although the AM-FM radio
worked, the sound was as tinny as a dime store radio. 12. Year round, a Christmas tree air
freshener hung on the radio knob to conceal a smell that made you wrinkle your nose and roll
down the windows. 13. When I turned the key in the ignition, the engine would cough and
sputter into a loud roar that some people might mistake for a train coming toward them, and the
ride was so rough that it felt like you were two inches from the road. 14. The car I drive today is
the complete opposite to that Olds, but I still think of it with fond memories. 15. Even though the
Olds was a wreck, it was my first car, and I treasured it.

1. Identify the topic sentence

2. Determine what each sentence in the group does: explain or illustrate
3. Identify the concluding statement, in any is present

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1.3.28.1.5 Model 3: Exposition

1. Although the United States has become an advanced technological country, many old-
fashioned superstitions still remain. 2. For example, when walking down a street in New York
City past ingeniously built skyscrapers, you might see a sophisticated New Yorker walk around
instead of under a ladder. 3. Of course, he or she knows that walking under a ladder brings bad
luck. 4. Or, should a black cat wander from a back alley to that same bustling street, some people
would undoubtedly cross to the other side of the street to avoid letting a black cat cross their
path. 5. Also, it is true that most buildings in the United States do not have a thirteenth floor and
many theatres do not have a thirteenth row. 6. Again, we all know that thirteen is an unlucky
number. 7. Finally, if you take a drive through Pennsylvania Dutch country, you will see large
colourful symbols called hex signs attached to houses and barns. 8. Of course, the people who
live there say they are just for decoration, but sometimes I wonder.

(Refined Paragraph Skills)

1. Identify the topic sentence

2. Determine what each sentence in the group does: explain or illustrate
3. Identify the concluding statement, in any is present

1.3.28.1.6 Model 4: Exposition

1. Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different functions to
users. 2. The programmes most often used are word processors. 3. These programmes can
produce letters, reports, articles, announcements, books, poems, school papers, and class
assignments as well as other documents. 4. Another kind of computer program is the database,
which allows the user to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. 5. You might put on a
database a library catalogue, all the business products in inventory, or all the names and
addresses of students attending a school. 6. Another kind of programme is the communications
programme, which allows the user to connect to the Internet and to send electronic mail to
others. 7. If you can access the Internet, you can search thousands of databases, files, and Web
sites for information. 8. You can access university libraries, company Web sites, government

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information agencies. 9. The computer offers many kinds of programmes for users, each with a
distinct function or benefit to users.

(Simplified Paragraph Skills, p287)

1. Identify the topic sentence

2. Determine what each sentence in the group does: explain or illustrate
3. Identify the concluding statement, in any is present

1.3.28.2 Writing your own topic sentence

We have seen a number of examples of topic sentences. It is important for us to learn to write a
topic sentence for our paragraph to give it focus. Getting your topic sentence starts from your
planning. Let us assume that you have to write about ‘conflicts.’ In your plan you will put down
some points that you wish to develop. Here is an example of a student’s ‘listing’ of points on the
topic:
Conflicts:
1. Animal and animal conflict
a. because of food
b. to claim territory
c. to claim a female

The student has a number of points that will go into an introductory paragraph. The student
writer needs a topic sentence—a sentence that will tell any reader what the paragraph is about.
With the points in place, the student writer only needs to make a good but simple sentence using
the idea in the points. This idea should tell any reader that that is what the paragraph is all about.
For example:
One common kind of conflict the world over is the conflict between and among animals.
The struggle to claim and possess between and among animals is an interesting one to
observe. [Definition]
When we moved into a new neighbourhood and my puppy strayed onto this large ‘no
man’s land’ behind our bungalow, sniffing and pissing around I knew it was inviting a
fight even though I saw no other dog around. [Anecdote]
65
All three openings tell the reader what the paragraph which each may begin what the paragraph
is going to be about.
1.3.28.2.1 Practice:

Put down a few points on any of the following ideas. Then, write a topic sentence that will sum
up what your paragraph will be about:
• Domestic accidents
• School examinations
• A bad friend
1.3.28.3 Paragraph length

The length of a paragraph is important because the rule about length varies with each type of
writing. For academic writing in English classes, most paragraphs are between one hundred and
three hundred words long, or between seven and fifteen sentences, depending on the length of
the sentence. The paragraph length will depend on the complexity of your main idea. Simpler
main ideas usually require shorter paragraphs.

THE WRITING PROCESS

Writing is a process, not a single activity. It is a process because it starts from the moment the
writer starts thinking about a subject or topic and ends when the final draft of the writing is
completed. The following constitute an overview of the writing process, which will be examined
in details later.

a) planning – gathering ideas and thinking about a focus

b) shaping -- considering way to organise material for the writing

c) drafting -- writing ideas in sentences and paragraphs

d) revising -- evaluating the draft and, based on the writer’s decisions,

re-writing it by adding, cutting, replacing, moving, and sometimes,

recasting the whole draft.

e) editing -- checking the technical correctness of grammar, spelling, punctuation,

and the general mechanics of the writing

66
 f) proofreading -- reading the final copy for typing errors and

handwriting legibility

These stages in the writing process are discussed below, starting with the planning stage.

1.3.29 The rhetorical situation

Every act of writing is done in a particular context, called the rhetorical or writing situation. The
rhetorical situation responds to the questions: when, for whom, what, and why do we write? These
can be stated as the elements of the rhetorical situation.

1.3.29.1 Elements of the rhetorical situation

Different kinds of writing may emphasise different elements of the rhetorical situation. Five
important elements of the rhetorical situation are: the writer, occasion, audience, topic, and
purpose.

1.3.29.1.1 Writer: who is initiating the communication

This refers to one writing. The writer needs to know himself or herself very well—strengths and
weaknesses, interests, academic and knowledge orientations, among others. Knowing oneself well
makes it possible to choose a topic one can write on well for the audience.

1.3.29.1.2 Occasion: When do you write?

Occasion is the occurrence that prompts you to write. You may need to answer a letter from a
friend; as a lecturer, leave instructions for your class concerning what they should be doing while
you are away; or as a student, write an assignment given by your lecturer. Obviously, these three
occasions would lead to quite different decisions about a number of matters—for instance, the
length and the formality of the tone.

1.3.29.1.3 Audience: For whom are you writing what you are writing?

We speak in different ways to different people—friends and strangers, adults and children, family
members and colleagues at school or work. Your audience, or the targeted recipient of whatever
you are writing, also influences how and what you write.

1.3.29.1.3.1 Characteristics of the audience:

• Gender – male, female

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 • Education – basic education graduate, senior secondary school graduate, undergraduate
students, etc.
• Age – preteen, teenager, middle age, etc.
• Personal interest – sports and games, horticulture, business, travel, etc.
• Socio-economic Group – low income, middle class, upper class, etc.

1.3.29.1.4 Topic: What are you writing about?

In school, the instructor often gives a topic to write on. The student may also be asked to choose a
topic of his/her own to write on, as usually is the case when students in tertiary institutions write
their long essays. If the topic is assigned, unless it is one that already interests you the challenge
is to discover some aspect of it, some way of focusing, or narrowing, it, that does interest you.
Even when you have the luxury of picking a topic, you may still have the problem of focusing it
so that you can do it justice in a paper of the expected length. In other words, what you already
know about the topic, how much interest you have in the particular topic, and what facilities are
available to you to get more information on the topic will influence how well you are able to handle
the topic. Thus, in addition to considering your audience and purpose, you need to take into
account your knowledge of the subject.

1.3.29.1.5 Purpose: Why are you writing?

There are many purposes for writing, such as:

• To inform
• To persuade
• To amuse or entertain
• To narrate
• To describe
• To expose
• To argue
Depending on your purpose—why you are writing—you will emphasise some elements of the
rhetorical situation more than others. Some writing—usually called expressive—emphasises the
writer almost to the exclusion of other elements. Examples of expressive writing include personal

68
response journals, in which the writer can express feelings and explore ideas, and narrative essays
that recount and reflect on personal experiences.

Other writing—certainly most writing done for college courses—emphasises the topic. What you
know about a topic is far more important in such expository writing than what you feel. Still other
writing, such as newspaper editorials, aims to be persuasive, to move the audience to some belief
or course of action. (Argument and logic are examples of persuasive writing.) In analytical writing,
you are also being persuasive, trying to convince the audience that your thesis or opinion is valid
by using examples. When writing a literary analysis, for example, you might try to persuade the
reader that the characterisation is unrealistic or that the setting helps to establish the mood. Finally,
some writing is done for its own sake, as art. The writing itself, rather than the writer, topic, or
audience, is foremost in the writer’s mind. Most poems, stories, and plays, as well as essays, fall
into this category of creative writing.

WRITING AN ESSAY OR A RESEARCH PAPER

An essay or a research paper is a piece of writing on a topic and is organised in paragraphs. In

doing these types of writing, you must devote time to the task and plan it well. Having drawn up
a detailed plan, you will find writing much easier. Essays and research papers should begin with a
draft or a number of drafts before the final version. There are good reasons for writing a first draft,
reading it through carefully, and then writing an improved final draft. This allows you to improve
the structure and style, to check whether the assignment is too long or too short, and to correct any
mistakes. Also remember to take into account the rhetorical situation (writer, audience, occasion,
topic, and context) as well as the various stages of the composing process (brainstorming,
clustering, etc.)

1.3.30 The first draft

Work closely from your assignment plan. Your first draft will test whether your plan works in
practice. Don't rush the first draft or allow it to become a mess. This simply makes more work for
yourself later. Make sure the reader knows why you are including pieces of information. Be
explicit. Try to use the model of 'Statement, followed by reasons and evidence'. Don't be afraid to

69
leave something out if it doesn't fit. Make sure everything you write is relevant to the question,
accurate and clear.

1.3.31 The review

Read through your first draft carefully and ask yourself the following questions:

• Have you answered the question?

• Have you done what the Introduction said you were going to do?
• Is the logical progression of the argument clear for the reader?
• Is there a good balance between discussion and factual detail?
• Are your general arguments supported by evidence?
• Are there any errors of grammar and spelling?
• Could the writing style be improved?
• Has anything important been left out?
• Does the Conclusion show how you have answered the question?

1.3.32 The final draft

After satisfying yourself about your review, editing, proofreading, etc. you then prepare the final
draft. Make sure you also satisfy any departmental or academic requirement in terms of format
and presentation.

1.3.33 Structuring essays

In its simplest form, you are aiming to produce an essay structure that lays out the main points in
your argument. Your intention is to answer the essay question. You set out this intention in your
introduction review what you have done in the Conclusion. The intervening paragraphs make up
the body of the essay.

1.3.33.1 The introduction

The Introduction should be concise and direct. It should contain a general idea of your
understanding of the question. It should outline the argument you intend to adopt in the body of

70
the essay, and how this relates to the existing historiography. It should also briefly state how you
intend to develop this argument; for instance, the case study, period, event, country, region, and
social group you will refer to. Don't go into detail about what is to come, or deluge the reader with
lots of factual information.

To repeat: The Introduction introduces the argument of the essay. You only need to use the
appropriate technique to introduce your essay so that it becomes interesting so as to arrest the
attention of your reader.

1.3.33.2 The body of the essay

This should contain a number of logically connected paragraphs and arguments - perhaps six to
eight in a standard course essay. Do not just summarise your notes. You must select those ideas,
points, and facts that are relevant to the question. And you must put them together to form a logical
argument. You need to give this a good deal of thought. Consider alternative ways of ordering
your points. Are there any weaknesses in the structure you have provisionally settled on?

1.3.33.3 The conclusion

The Conclusion should refer back to the question, and it should restate your main argument. Ideally
it should also add some concluding thoughts. If you have spent some of the essay attacking a
particular view or historian, you could state whether there is anything you still valuable in that
view. Or, having discussed a subject in some depth, you could suggest the sort of research that
would allow a fuller answer to the essay question.

1.3.34 Writing the introduction

There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or assignment. Most academic writers,
however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:

• establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic

• indicate a problem, controversy or a gap in the field of study
• define the topic or key terms
• state of the purpose of the essay/writing
• provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing

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Consider this illustration involving a five-paragraph essay:

1.4 i. Introduction:

1.4.1 Introductory paragraph

1.5 ii. Body:

1.5.1 Body — First paragraph:

The first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument, most significant
example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point. The last sentence in this
paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the second paragraph of the body.

1.5.2 Body — Second paragraph:

The second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest argument, second
most significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first
paragraph in the body. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence,
i.e. the topic sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory
paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into
the third paragraph of the body.

1.5.3 Body — Third paragraph:

The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument, weakest example,
weakest illustration, or an obvious follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The first
sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties in with the
transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should
be in the first or second (topic) sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in
the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional
concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the final major point being made in this
paper. This hook also leads into the last, or concluding, paragraph.

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1.6 iii. Conclusion:

1.6.1 Concluding paragraph:

This paragraph should include the following:

1. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,

2. a restatement of the thesis statement, using some of the original language or language
that "echoes" the original language. (The restatement, however, must not be a
duplicate thesis statement.)
3. a summary of the three main points from the body of the paper.
4. a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end.
(This final statement may be a "call to action" in a persuasive paper.)

1.7 OTHER PASSAGES FOR PRACTICE

1.7.1 Passage I
In four sentences state the weaknesses in the standard idea of democracy when applied in West
Africa and in one more sentence state the ‘major concern’ of the author in this essay.

The weakness of democracy in West Africa does not lie in the nature of the society; on the
contrary, only democracy can solve its problems, since that is the only framework which makes it
possible for men of different tribes, languages, and religions to live at peace with each other. Its
weakness lies partly in the uncertainties generated by rapid change, and the emotional temperature
of independence, which gave unscrupulous men a chance to seize power. The political institutions
and philosophies inherited from Britain and France were only a source of weakness. On the one
hand they were too democratic in that they did not distinguish between democracy and licence.
On the other hand these institutions were not democratic enough, in that they failed to give proper
representation to minorities and opposition groups. Weaknesses of the democratic framework
caused confusion, and have made it easy to accept the notion, widely circulated, that democracy
itself is unsuitable for the area at this time.

The main weakness of democracy, however, is that not enough of West Africa’s newly
educated believe it to be feasible. The system still has powerful adherents in the area, who have
looked to their fellow democrats outside at least for spiritual comfort. They have looked in vain.

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Western democrats have abandoned the African; even long-standing friends of Africa hesitate to
speak out for fear of offending those now in power. As for our (Western) political scientists, they
fall over themselves to demonstrate that democracy is suitable only for Europeans and North
Americans, and in the sacred names of “charisma,’ ‘modernisation’ and ‘national unity,’ call upon
us to admire any demagogue who, aided by a loud voice and a bunch of hooligans, captures the
state suppresses his rivals.

Reason cannot by itself create democracy, but since democracy is made by democrats,
reason and faith are necessary prerequisites. The first condition for democracy in West Africa is
that the young people now pouring out of schools should understand the real nature of their
problems, and not be taken in by bogus explanations. To foster this cause has been my major
concern in this essay.

1.7.2 Passage 2: Read the passage carefully and summarise it in about one hundred words.
In the area of oral traditions, vast amounts of text compilations sometimes with well written
introductions and annotations, exist in African languages, having been written by well-known local
scholars, or teachers, catechists, and governments officials, who are justifiably more proficient in
the indigenous languages, or who wrote the texts mainly for local use. The irony here is that besides
making a conscious attempt to trivialise local sources of knowledge, the African scholar may not
be literate in his own local language, and may need as much help in indigenous literacy as the
western Africanist.

Other times, the issue is not necessarily a conscious attempt to marginalise local sources,
but rather the accessibility of local sources. Where research work has been done locally, how
conveniently has it been packaged for external consumption?

One very important but often ignored source of local knowledge are master’s theses and
doctoral dissertations in African universities, which end up sitting on the bookshelves of heads of
department, sometimes put under lock and key. Thus, even where we have produced knowledge,
its dissemination and consumption cannot be assured. Indeed, Africa to date has no systematic way
by which young budding scholars on the threshold of academic professionalism may have their
intellectual property properly copyrighted, disseminated and consumed on the local and world
market. When such works are used by scholars, there is little or no obligation to acknowledge the

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source, since it does not exist in the Western sense. The likelihood of such works being plagiarised,
appropriated or simply stolen by other scholars is anybody’s guess.

Elsewhere in Europe or America, all theses and dissertations are officially copyrighted by
a central pool, and are considered as publications. Even more importantly, their repackaging as
mimeographs makes their dissemination or sale easier throughout the world. Indeed, as soon as
any thesis is written, it enters the world market of intellectual property, and can be accessed from
any part of the world, at least by interlibrary loan. When they are eventually published, both
mimeograph and book versions are simultaneously available.

African universities should indeed be challenged to facilitate the accessing of local

knowledge; this would eliminate the possibility of apparently pioneering works, which, upon a
second look, are sheer plagiarisms of graduate dissertations.

Remarkably, though, there are a few ongoing initiatives to facilitate the accessing of local
knowledge. The Association of African Universities has started a DATAD (Database of African
Theses and Dissertations) project intended to address this challenge. Initiated by the Project for
Information Access and Connectivity in Kenya, 1998, the project has the aim of contributing to
the creation of capacity in African universities for the collection, management, and dissemination
of theses and dissertations electronically. It will also seek to facilitate the development of relevant
copyright procedures and regulations which will promote the protection of intellectual property
rights of African university researchers. The pilot phase of this project involves eleven African
Universities (AAU Homepage – DATAD).

(Professor Kwesi Yankah, Globalisation and the African Scholar)

1.7.3 Passage 3: Exercise on summary writing

Advertisements are part of our everyday lives. We meet them in newspapers, on the radio
and the television, in the street, and even in buses and trains. As a matter of fact, they spread their
tentacles far and wide into all walks of life. We are so accustomed to them that it would be very
strange to wake up one morning and find that they had all disappeared.

Yet advertising by manufacturers only occurs on a large scale in democratic countries,

where free enterprise leads to competition and competition to advertisement. In certain totalitarian
countries where the State controls production, there is no cut-throat competition but equally there

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are few brand names and only a meagre choice of articles. In these circumstances, most of the
brand names are naturally well known. If there is, for example, only one brand of toothpaste, it is
pointless to advertise it.

On the other hand, people often express the view that competing manufacturers spend so
much money on advertising their various brands that they have to increase the price of their articles
considerably in order to cover the advertising costs. This view is virtually inconceivable for,
although a lot of money is spent on advertising, it only raises the selling price of each mass-
produced article by an insignificant amount. And from the manufacturer’s point of view such a
small price reduction would be a poor selling device. It might attract a few purchasers who would
not otherwise buy the article, but their number would be nothing in comparison with those who
are attracted by advertisements.

Even though advertisements are a result of competition, they do have a useful function:
that of providing information or general facts. Of course, people often complain that – with all
their exaggerations, half-truths and distorted facts – advertisements misinform rather than inform.
But do any of us actually believe all we are told in an advertisement? Are we really persuaded that
a particular soap powder washes whitest of all or that one kind of margarine is better for us than
any other? On the other hand, we often do derive invaluable or priceless information from such
advertisements. All of us have probably at some time been helped to find a commodity we were
looking for through seeing it advertised. And when we read a whole range of advertisements for
similar products, we are at least informed that we have a choice.

It is also sometimes argued that, by their advertisements, manufacturers make people –

irrespective of their academic or social status – buy what they do not really want. But how can
they force or push us into doing this? We are invariably at liberty to refuse to buy a particular
product, no matter how essential it might be to life. In cases where advertisements have induced
people to buy ‘unwanted’ goods, the desire for such advantages as greater comfort, prestige and
popularity conferred by these goods must have already existed.

a. In one sentence, summarise the writer’s reason for saying advertisements are part of our
daily lives.

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 b. In two sentences, summarise the two conditions that would render advertisements
unnecessary.
c. In two sentences, summarise two basic misgivings the public has about adverts.
d. In two sentences, summarise two of the writer’s basic reasons for debunking the views held
by people about adverts.

1.7.4 Passage 4: Summary writing

Kenyatta drew his pre-eminent authority from two sources. His popularity with the people
was unrivalled. They regarded him with such admiration and affection that he was the only national
hero in Kenya. Also, he now showed that within himself he possessed a self-confidence, strength
of will and mellow wisdom which made him dominate his capable team of ministers.

Why had his superb qualities of leadership not appeared earlier, during his membership of
the Coalition Government? Perhaps there was a mixture of reasons. For instance, he had been
released only recently from nine years of banishment in remote parts of the country, and during
that long exile was unable to keep in close contact with political developments in Nairobi and other
populated regions of Kenya. Changing events had altered many features of the political scene since
he had been familiar with it, and he found himself out of touch, not only with the realities of the
contemporary situation, but even with the evolution of opinion in the Nationalist movement of
which he was the father. As a result, he felt for a while confused and uncertain, and took time to
adjust his thinking to the new circumstances. Only gradually did he form his own fresh judgement,
which enabled him to assert opinions decisively.

Again, in the Coalition Government neither he nor his party commanded a majority. They
were mere partners with their KADU rivals. He personally had to share authority with the KADU
leader, Ngala. Moreover, three of my British civil servants also held important posts in the
ministerial team. Nor did ministers wield true executive power, for technically they were simply
advisors to myself as the Colonial Governor who presided over their Council meetings.
Constitutionally, I was free either to accept or reject their advice. This was not a situation in which
Kenyatta felt wholly at ease nor in which he was at liberty to assert himself as leader. He accepted
it in a friendly and cooperative spirit as a temporary expedient and bided his time.

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 Then, when the electors gave his party a parliamentary majority empowering him to form
the Cabinet that would rule self-governing Kenya, almost all those limitations on his freedom
disappeared, and he was able to give uninhibited expression to his nature, his gifts and, indeed, his
genius.

(Adapted from Titans and Others by Malcolm MacDonald)

Questions

1. State the two reasons that are put forward to explain Kenyatta’s stature as a national leader.
2. In three brief sentences, state the three reasons why Kenyatta’s authority as a leader was
not asserted before he became Prime Minister.

OTHER PASSAGES FOR PRACTICE

THE PNDC LAW 111
1. The passage of PNDC Law 111, the Intestate Law, initiated a significant change in the
traditional marriage and family system – specifically the inheritance system. The law
gives preference to the nuclear family at the expense of the extended family, and in the
words of Nukunya (1992) constitutes ‘a complete departure from the traditional system’.
It meant ‘the removal of the legal rights of the sister’s child and the siblings and giving
them to the children and the wife’. Although this law did not change the traditional
functions of the family, it was recognised as a breakthrough in the fight against the
traditional inheritance system, which virtually excluded children and their mother. In the
words from Nukunya, this development shows ‘serious alterations have been taking in the
traditional kinship patterns. These changes have not only weakened traditional kinship ties
but have also given them different directions and emphasis’ (1992:158). (From lecture
notes for SOC. 204: Social Structure of Modern Ghana by Chris Abotchie, pg. 11).

2. The weakness of democracy in West Africa does not lie in the nature of the society; on the
contrary, only democracy can solve its problems, since that is the only framework which
makes it possible for men of different tribes, languages, and religions to live at peace with
each other. Its weakness lies partly in the uncertainties generated by rapid change, and the

78
 emotional temperature of independence, which gave unscrupulous men a chance to seize
power. The political institutions and philosophies inherited from Britain and France were
only a source of weakness. On the one hand they were too democratic in that they did not
distinguish between democracy and licence. On the other hand these institutions were not
democratic enough, in that they failed to give proper representation to minorities and
opposition groups. Weaknesses of the democratic framework caused confusion, and have
made it easy to accept the notion, widely circulated, that democracy itself is unsuitable for
the area at this time.

The main weakness of democracy, however, is that not enough of West Africa’s newly
educated believe it to be feasible. The system still has powerful adherents in the area, who
have looked to their fellow democrats outside at least for spiritual comfort. They have
looked in vain. Western democrats have abandoned the African; even long-standing
friends of Africa hesitate to speak out for fear of offending those now in power. As for our
(Western) political scientists, they fall over themselves to demonstrate that democracy is
suitable only for Europeans and North Americans, and in the sacred names of “charisma,’
‘modernisation’ and ‘national unity,’ call upon us to admire any demagogue who, aided by
a loud voice and a bunch of hooligans, captures the state suppresses his rivals.

Reason cannot by itself create democracy, but since democracy is made by democrats,
reason and faith are necessary prerequisites. The first condition for democracy in West
Africa is that the young people now pouring out of schools should understand the real
nature of their problems, and not be taken in by bogus explanations. To foster this cause
has been my major concern in this essay.

3. In this passage the author presents three arguments in favour of freedom of the press.
State these arguments briefly and concisely.

What all these safeguards amount to in the end is the right of minority opinions to be heard.
Why should they be heard? Isn’t the opinion of the majority the only one that matters?
The answer is not given by journalists or by governments. It is given by history. History
records that all progress comes from the opinion of the solitary dissentient, the man who

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 thinks differently from his fellows. It is the dissentient, the heretic, who asserts that the
world is round, not flat; that the earth moves round the sun, not the sun round the earth;
that all men are created equal, not nobles and rulers of different stuff from common men;
that women have as much right to a vote as men have; that girls ought to be educated as
well as boys.

History records something else; that justice cannot flourish except where there is
freedom of expression. To look no further afield than our own continent, the limited but
most valuable degree of justice still existing in South Africa depends directly on the
freedom of newspapers, in South Africa and overseas, to report what goes on in the law-
courts. If that freedom to report were taken away – as it has already been taken away in
the case of prisons, about which in South Africa it is illegal to report anything at all or to
publish any photographs – then it would not be long before the law-courts were themselves
mere government convicting-machines for silencing its opponents.

Lastly, it is obvious that there can be no peaceful change in the political or social
order unless such changes can be proposed and publicly discussed. And any proposal
changes cannot even be talked over, then change can only come through revolution.

REFERENCES
Adika, G.S.K. 2003. Deviant usage and confusing words. Accra: Centre for Language
Development.

Caplen, F. 1979. Paragraph writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Capital Community College Foundation, Hartford CT. Available from: www.ccc.edu

Charlotte, S. and S. Buscemi. 2001. 75 readings, an Anthology. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Ebest, B.S., A. J. Gerald, B.T. Brusaw, and O. E. Walter. 2003. Writing from A to Z.
Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Payne, E. and L. Whittaker. 2000. Developing essential study skills. Essex: Pearson Education
Limited.

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Troyka L. Q. 1993. Handbook for writers. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Smalley, R. L, and M. K. Ruetten. 1995. Refining composition skills. Albany: Heinle and Heinle
Publishers.

Strong, W. and M. Lester. 1997. Writer’s Choice: Grammar and composition. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Windschuttle, K. and E. Elliott. 1999. Writing, researching, communicating: communication skills

for the information age. Australia: McGraw-Hill.

https://www.educationcorner.com/study-skills.html

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