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CAMBRIDGE MATHEMATICAL SERIES

CONIC SECTIONS

GEORGE BELL & SONS

LONDON: YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN AND NEW YORK, 66, FIFTH AVENUE CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL & CO.

CONIC SECTIONS
TREATED GEOMETRICALLY

BY

W. H. BESANT Sc.D. F.R.S.

FELLOW OF ST JOHNS COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE

NINTH EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED

LONDON GEORGE BELL AND SONS 1895

Cambridge:
PRINTED BY J. & C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

In the present Treatise the Conic Sections are dened with reference to a focus and directrix, and I have endeavoured to place before the student the most important properties of those curves, deduced, as closely as possible, from the denition. The construction which is given in the rst Chapter for the determination of points in a conic section possesses several advantages; in particular, it leads at once to the constancy of the ratio of the square on the ordinate to the rectangle under its distances from the vertices; and, again, in the case of the hyperbola, the directions of the asymptotes follow immediately from the construction. In several cases the methods employed are the same as those of Wallace, in the Treatise on Conic Sections, published in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. The deduction of the properties of these curves from their denition as the sections of a cone, seems ` priori to be the natural method of dealing a with the subject, but experience appears to have shewn that the discussion of conics as dened by their plane properties is the most suitable method of commencing an elementary treatise, and accordingly I follow the fashion of the time in taking that order for the treatment of the subject. In Hamiltons book on Conic Sections, published in the middle of the last century, the properties of the cone are rst considered, and the advantage of this method of commencing the subject, if the use of solid gures be not objected to, is especially shewn in the very general theorem of Art. (156). I have made much use of this treatise, and, in fact, it contains most of the theorems and problems which are now regarded as classical propositions in the theory of Conic Sections. I have considered rst, in Chapter I., a few simple properties of conics, and have then proceeded to the particular properties of each curve, commencing with the parabola as, in some respects, the simplest form of a conic section. It is then shewn, in Chapter VI., that the sections of a cone by a plane produce the several curves in question, and lead at once to their denition as loci, and to several of their most important properties. A chapter is devoted to the method of orthogonal projection, and another to the harmonic properties of curves, and to the relations of poles and polars,

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

vi

including the theory of reciprocal polars for the particular case in which the circle is employed as the auxiliary curve. For the more general methods of projections, of reciprocation, and of anharmonic properties, the student will consult the treatises of Chasles, Poncelet, Salmon, Townsend, Ferrers, Whitworth, and others, who have recently developed, with so much fulness, the methods of modern Geometry. I have to express my thanks to Mr R. B. Worthington, of St Johns College, and of the Indian Civil Service, for valuable assistance in the constructions of Chapter XI., and also to Mr E. Hill, Fellow of St Johns College, for his kindness in looking over the latter half of the proof-sheets. I venture to hope that the methods adopted in this treatise will give a clear view of the properties of Conic Sections, and that the numerous Examples appended to the various Chapters will be useful as an exercise to the student for the further extension of his conceptions of these curves. W. H. BESANT.
Cambridge, March, 1869.

PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.

In the preparation of this edition I have made many alterations and many additions. In particular, I have placed the articles on Reciprocal Polars in a separate chapter, with considerable expansions. I have also inserted a new chapter, on Conical Projections, dealing however only with real projections. The rst nine chapters, with the rst set of miscellaneous problems, now constitute the elementary portions of the subject. The subsequent chapters may be regarded as belonging to higher regions of thought. I venture to hope that this re-arrangement will make it easier for the beginner to master the elements of the subject, and to obtain clear views of the methods of geometry as applied to the conic sections. A new edition, the fourth, of the book of solutions of the examples and problems has been prepared, and is being issued with this new edition of the treatise, with which it is in exact accordance. W. H. BESANT.

December 14, 1894.

CONTENTS.

page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. The Construction of a Conic Section, and General Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER II. The Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER III. The Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER IV. The Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER V. The Rectangular Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER VI. The Cylinder and the Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 125 88 51 20 1

CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. The Similarity of Conics, the Areas of Conics, and the Curvatures of Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER VIII. Orthogonal Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER IX. Of Conics in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER X. Ellipses as Roulettes and Glissettes . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous Problems. I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

152

165

174

181 189

CHAPTER XI. Harmonic Properties, Poles and Polars . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER XII. Reciprocal Polars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER XIII. The Construction of a Conic from Given Conditions . CHAPTER XIV. The Oblique Cylinder, the Oblique Cone, and the Conoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER XV. Conical Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous Problems. II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 269 231 217 199

245

CONIC SECTIONS.

Introduction.
DEFINITION. If a straight line and a point be given in position in a plane, and if a point move in a plane in such a manner that its distance from the given point always bears the same ratio to its distance from the given line, the curve traced out by the moving point is called a Conic Section. The xed point is called the Focus, and the xed line the Directrix of the conic section. When the ratio is one of equality, the curve is called a Parabola. When the ratio is one of less inequality, the curve is called an Ellipse. When the ratio is one of greater inequality, the curve is called an Hyperbola. These curves are called Conic Sections, because they can all be obtained from the intersections of a Cone by planes in dierent directions, a fact which will be proved hereafter. It may be mentioned that a circle is a particular case of an ellipse, that two straight lines constitute a particular case of an hyperbola, and that a parabola may be looked upon as the limiting form of an ellipse or an hyperbola, under certain conditions of variation in the lines and magnitudes upon which those curves depend for their form. The object of the following pages is to discuss the general forms and characters of these curves, and to determine their most important properties

INTRODUCTION.

by help of the methods and relations developed in the rst six books, and in the eleventh book of Euclid, and it will be found that, for this purpose, a knowledge of Euclids Geometry is all that is necessary. The series of demonstrations will shew the characters and properties which the curves possess in common, and also the special characteristics wherein they dier from each other; and the continuity with which the curves pass into each other will appear from the denition of a conic section as a Locus, or curve traced out by a moving point, as well as from the fact that they are deducible from the intersections of a cone by a succession of planes.

CHAPTER I.
PROPOSITION I.
The Construction of a Conic Section. 1. Take S as the focus, and from S draw SX at right angles to the directrix, and intersecting it in the point X. Definition. This line SX, produced both ways, is called the Axis of the Conic Section. In SX take a point A such that the ratio of SA to AX is equal to the given ratio; then A is a point in the curve.

CONIC SECTIONS.

Def. The point A is called the Vertex of the curve. In the directrix EX take any point E, join EA, and ES, produce these lines, and through S draw the straight line SQ making with ES produced the same angle which ES produced makes with the axis SN . Let P be the point of intersection of SQ and EA produced, and through P draw LP K parallel to N X, and intersecting ES produced in L, and the directrix in K.

Then the angle P LS is equal to the angle LSN and therefore to P SL; Hence SP = P L. Also P L : AS :: EP : EA :: P K : AX ; P L : P K :: AS : AX ; and SP : P K :: AS : AX. The point P is therefore a point in the curve required, and by taking for E successive positions along the directrix we shall, by this construction, obtain a succession of points in the curve. If E be taken on the upper side of the axis at the same distance from X, it is easy to see that a point P will be obtained below the axis, which will be similarly situated with regard to the focus and directrix. Hence it follows that the axis divides the curve into two similar and equal portions.

CONIC SECTIONS. Another point of the curve, lying in the straight line KP , can be found in the following manner. Through S draw the straight line F S making the angle F SK equal to KSP , and let F S produced meet KP produced in P . Then, since KS bisects the angle P SF , SP : SP :: P K : P K; SP : P K :: SP : P K, and P is a point in the curve.

2. Def. The Eccentricity. The constant ratio of the distance from the focus of any point in a conic section to its distance from the directrix is called the eccentricity of the conic section. The Latus Rectum. If E be so taken that EX is equal to SX, the angle P SN , which is double the angle LSN , and therefore double the angle ESX, is a right angle. For, since EX = SX, the angle ESX = SEX, and, the angle SXE being a right angle, the sum of the two angles SEX, ESX, which is equal to twice ESX, is also equal to a right angle. Calling R the position of P in this case, produce RS to R , so that R S = RS; then R is also a point in the curve. Def. The straight line RSR drawn through the focus at right angles to the axis, and intersecting the curve in R, and R , is called the Latus Rectum. It is hence evident that the form of a conic section is determined by its eccentricity, and that its magnitude is determined by the magnitude of the latus rectum, which is given by the relation SR : SX :: SA : AX.

CONICS.

3. Def. The straight line P N (Fig. Art. 1), drawn from any point P of the curve at right angles to the axis, and intersecting the axis in N , is called the Ordinate of the point P . If the line P N be produced to P so that N P = N P , the line P N P is a double ordinate of the curve. The latus rectum is therefore the double ordinate passing through the focus. Def. The distance AN of the foot of the ordinate from the vertex is called the Abscissa of the point P . Def. The distance SP is called the focal distance of the point P . It is also described as the radius vector drawn from the focus. 4. We have now given a general method of constructing a conic section, and we have explained the nomenclature which is usually employed. We proceed to demonstrate a few of the properties which are common to all the conic sections. For the future the word conic will be employed as an abbreviation for conic section. Prop. II. If the straight line joining two points P , P of a conic meet the directrix in F , the straight line F S will bisect the angle between P S and P S produced.

Draw the perpendiculars P K, P K on the directrix. Then SP : SP :: P K : P K :: P F : P F.

CONICS.

Therefore F S bisects the outer angle, at S, of the triangle P SP . (Euclid vi., A.) Cor. If SQ bisect the angle P SP , it follows that F SQ is a right angle. 5. Prop. III. No straight line can meet a conic in more than two points. Employing the gure of Art. 4, let P be a point of the curve, and draw any straight line F P . Join SF , draw SQ at right angles to SF , and SP making the angle QSP equal to QSP ; then P is a point of the curve. For, since SF bisects the outer angle at S, SP : SP :: P F : P F, :: P K : P K SP : P K :: SP : P K,

or

and therefore, P is a point of the curve, also, there is no other point of the curve in the straight line F P P . For suppose if possible P to be another point; then, as in Article (4), SQ bisects the angle P SP ; but SQ bisects the angle P SP ; therefore P and P are coincident.

6. Prop. IV. If QSQ be a focal chord of a conic, and P any point of the conic, and if QP , Q P meet the directrix in E and F , the angle ESF is a right angle. For, by Prop. II., SE bisects the angle P SQ , and SF bisects the angle P SQ; hence it follows that ESF is a right angle. This theorem will be subsequently utilised in the case in which the focal chord Q SQ is coincident with the axis of the conic.

FOCAL CHORDS. 7. Prop. V. The straight lines joining the extremities of two focal chords intersect in the directrix. If P Sp, P Sp be the two chords, the point in which P P meets the directrix is obtained by bisecting the angle P SP and drawing SF at right angles to the bisecting line SQ. But this line also bisects the angle pSp ; therefore pp also passes through F . The line SF bisects the angle P Sp , and similarly, if QS produced, bisecting the angle pSp , meet the directrix in F , the two lines P p , P p will meet in F . It is obvious that the angle F SF is a right angle.

8. Prop. VI. The semilatus rectum is the harmonic mean between the two segments of any focal chord of a conic. Let P SP be a focal chord, and draw the ordinates P N , P N . Then, the triangles SP N , SP N being similar, SP : SP :: SN : SN :: N X SX : SX N X :: SP SR : SR SP , since SP , SR, SP are proportional to N X, SX, and N X. Cor. Since SP : SP SR :: SP . SP : SP . SP SR . SP , and SP : SR SP :: SP . SP : SR . SP SP . SP , it follows that SP . SP SR . SP = SR . SP SP . SP ; SR . P P = 2SP . SP .

TANGENTS. Hence, if P SP , QSQ are two focal chords, P P : QQ :: SP . SP : SQ . SQ .

9. Prop. VII. A focal chord is divided harmonically at the focus and the point where it meets the directrix. Let P SP produced meet the directrix in F , and draw P K, P K perpendicular to the directrix, g. Art. 8. Then P F : P F :: P K : P K :: SP : SP :: P F SF : SF P F ; that is, P F , SF , and P F are in harmonic progression, and the line P P is divided harmonically at S and F . 10. Denition of the Tangent to a curve. If a straight line, drawn through a point P of a curve, meet the curve again in P , and if the straight line be turned round the point P until the point P approaches indenitely near to P , the ultimate position of the straight line is the tangent to the curve at P .

Thus, if the straight line AP P turn round P until the points P and P coincide, the line in its ultimate position P T is the tangent at P . Def. The normal at any point of a curve is the straight line drawn through the point at right angles to the tangent at that point. Thus, in the gure, P G is the normal at P .

TANGENTS.

10

Prop. VIII. The straight line, drawn from the focus to the point in which the tangent meets the directrix, is at right angles to the straight line drawn from the focus to the point of contact.

It is proved in Art. (4) that, if F P P is a chord, and if SQ bisects the angle P SP , F SQ is a right angle. Let the point P move along the curve towards P ; then, as P approaches to coincidence with P , the straight line F P P approximates to, and ultimately becomes, the tangent T P at P . But when P coincides with P , the line SQ coincides with SP , and the angle F SP , which is ultimately T SP , becomes a right angle. Or, in other words, the portion of the tangent, intercepted between the point of contact and the directrix, subtends a right angle at the focus. 11. Prop. IX. The tangent at the vertex is perpendicular to the axis. If a chord EAP be drawn through the vertex, and the point P be near the vertex, the angle P SA is small, and LSN , which is half the angle P SN , is nearly a right angle. Hence it follows that when P approaches to coincidence with A, the point E moves o to an innite distance and the line EAP , which

TANGENTS.

11

is ultimately the tangent at A, becomes parallel to LSE, and is therefore perpendicular to AX. 12. Prop. X. The tangents at the ends of a focal chord intersect on the directrix. For the line SF , perpendicular to SP , meets the directrix in the same point as the tangent at P ; and, since SF is also at right angles to SP , the tangent at P meets the directrix in the same point F .

Conversely, if from any point F in the directrix tangents be drawn, the chord of contact, that is, the straight line joining the points of contact, will pass through the focus and will be at right angles to SF . Cor. Hence it follows that the tangents at the ends of the latus rectum pass through the foot of the directrix. 13. Prop. XI. If a chord P P meet the directrix in F , and if the line bisecting the P SP meet the curve in q and q , F q and F q will be the tangents at q and q . Taking the gure of Art. 7, the line SQ meets the curve in q and q , and, since SF is at right angles to SQ, it follows, from Art. 12, that F q and F q are tangents. Hence if from a point F in the directrix tangents be drawn, and also any straight line F P P cutting the curve in P and P , the chord of contact will bisect the angle P SP . 14. Prop. XII. If the tangent at any point P of a conic intersect the directrix in F , and the latus rectum produced in D, SD : SF :: SA : AX.

TANGENTS.

12

Join SK; then, observing that F SP and F KP are right angles, a circle can be described about F SP K, and therefore the angles SF D, SKP are equal. Also the angle F SD = complement of DSP = SP K; the triangles F SD, SP K are similar, and SD : SF :: SP : P K :: SA : AX. Cor. (1). If the tangent at the other end P of the focal chord meet the directrix in D , SD : SF :: SA : AX; SD = SD . Cor. (2). If DE be the perpendicular from D upon SP , the triangles SDE, SF X are similar, and SE : SX :: SD : SF :: SA : AX :: SB : SX ; SE is equal to SR, the semi-latus rectum. 15. Prop. XIII. The tangents drawn from any point to a conic subtend equal angles at the focus. Let the tangents F T P , F T P at P and P meet the directrix in F and F and the latus rectum in D and D . Join ST and produce it to meet the directrix in K; then KF : SD :: KT : ST :: KF : SD . Hence KF : KF :: SD : SD :: SF : SF by Prop. XII. the angles T SF , T SF are equal. But the angles F SP , F SP are equal, for each is the complement of F SF ; the angles T SP, T SP are equal.

TANGENTS.

13

Cor. Hence it follows that if perpendiculars T M , T M be let fall upon SP and SP , they are equal in length. For the two triangles T SM , T SM have the angles T M S, T SM respectively equal to the angles T M S, T SM , and the side T S common; and therefore the other sides are equal, and TM = TM . 16. Prop. XIV. If from any point T in the tangent at a point P of a conic, T M be drawn, perpendicular to the focal distance SP , and T N perpendicular to the directrix, SM : T N :: SA : AX. For, if P K be perpendicular to the directrix and SF be joined, SM : SP :: T F : F P :: T N : P K; SM : T N :: SP : P K :: SA : AX. This theorem, which is due to Professor Adams, may be employed to prove Prop. XIII. For if, in the gure of Art. (15), T M , T M be the perpendiculars from T on SP and SP , and if T N be the perpendicular on the directrix, SM and SM have each the same ratio to T N , and are therefore equal to one another.

NORMALS.

14

Hence the triangles T SM , T SM are equal in all respects, and the angle P SP is bisected by ST . 17. Prop. XV. To draw tangents from any point to a conic. Let T be the point, and let a circle be described about S as centre, the radius of which bears to T N the ratio of SA : AX; then, if tangents T M , T M be drawn to the circle, the straight lines SM , SM , produced if necessary, will intersect the conic in the points of contact of the tangents from T . 18. in G, Prop. XVI. If P G, the normal at P , meet the axis of the conic SG : SP :: SA : AX.

Let the tangent at P meet the directrix in F , and the latus rectum produced in D. Then the angle SP G = the complement of SP F = P F S, and P SG = the complement of F SX = F SD; the triangles SF D, SP G are similar, and SG : SP :: SD : SF :: SA : AX, by Prop. XII. 19. Prop. XVII. If from G, the point in which the normal at P meets the axis, GL be drawn perpendicular to SP , the length P L is equal to the semi-latus rectum. Let the tangent at P meet the directrix in F , and join SF . Then P LG, P SF are similar triangles; P L : LG :: SF : SP. Also SLG and SF X are similar triangles; LG : SX :: SG : SF.

TANGENTS. Hence but P L : SX :: SG : SP :: SA : AX, Art. (18), SR : SX :: SA : AX, Art. (2); P L = SR.

15

20. Prop. XVIII. If from any point F in the directrix tangents be drawn, and also any straight line F P P cutting the curve in P and P , the chord P P is divided harmonically at F and its point of intersection with the chord of contact.

For, if QSQ be the chord of contact, it bisects the angle P SP , (Prop. XI.), and , if V be the point of intersection of SQ and P P , F P : F P :: SP : SP :: P V : P V :: F P F V : F V F P. Hence F V is the harmonic mean between F P and F P . The theorems of this article and of Art. 9 are particular cases of more general theorems, which will appear hereafter. 21. Prop. XIX. If a tangent be drawn parallel to a chord of a conic, the portion of this tangent which is intercepted by the tangents at the ends of the chord is bisected at the point of contact. Let P P be the chord, T P , T P the tangents, and EQE the tangent parallel to P P .

TANGENTS.

16

From the focus S draw SP , SP and SQ, and draw T M , T M perpendicular respectively to SP , SP . Also draw from E perpendiculars EN , EL, upon SP , SQ, and from E perpendiculars E N , E L upon SP and SQ.

Then, since EE is parallel to P P T P : EP :: T P : E P , but T P : EP :: T M : EN, and T P : E P :: T M : E N ; T M : EN :: T M : E N ; but T M = T M , Cor. Prop. xiii.; EN = E N . Again, by the same corollary, EN = EL and E N = E L ; EL = E L , and, the triangles ELQ, E L Q being similar, EQ = E Q.

EXAMPLES. Cor. If T Q be produced to meet P P in V , P V : EQ :: T V : T Q, and P V : E Q :: T V : T Q; P V = P V, that is, P P is bisected in V .

17

Hence, if tangents be drawn at the ends of any chord of a conic, the point of intersection of these tangents, the middle point of the chord, and the point of contact of the tangent parallel to the chord, all lie in one straight line.

EXAMPLES.
1. Describe the relative positions of the focus and directrix, rst, when the conic is a circle, and secondly, when it consists of two straight lines. 2. Having given two points of a conic, the directrix, and the eccentricity, determine the conic. 3. Having given a focus, the corresponding directrix, and a tangent, construct the conic. 4. If a circle passes through a xed point and cuts a given straight line at a constant angle the locus of its centre is a conic. 5. If P G, pg, the normals at the ends of a focal chord, intersect in O, the straight line through O parallel to P p bisects Gg. 6. Find the locus of the foci of all the conics of given eccentricity which pass through a xed point P , and have the normal P G given in magnitude and position. 7. Having given a point P of a conic, the tangent at P , and the directrix, nd the locus of the focus. 8. If P SQ be a focal chord, and X the foot of the directrix, XP and XQ are equally inclined to the axis. 9. If P K be the perpendicular from a point P of a conic on the directrix, and SK meet the tangent at the vertex in E, the angles SP E, KP E are equal. 10. If the tangent at P meet the directrix in F and the axis in T , the angles KSF , F T S are equal.

EXAMPLES.

18

11. P SP is a focal chord, P N , P N are the ordinates, and P K, P K perpendiculars on the directrix; if KN , K N meet in L, the triangle LN N is isosceles. 12. The focal distance of a point on a conic is equal to the length of the ordinate produced to meet the tangent at the end of the latus rectum. 13. The normal at any point bears to the semi-latus rectum the ratio of the focal distance of the point to the distance of the focus from the tangent. 14. The chord of a conic is given in length; prove that, if this length exceed the latus rectum, the distance from the directrix of the middle point of the chord is least when the chord passes through the focus. 15. The portion of any tangent to a conic, intercepted between two xed tangents, subtends a constant angle at the focus. 16. Given two points of a conic, and the directrix, nd the locus of the focus. 17. From any xed point in the axis a line is drawn perpendicular to the tangent at P and meeting SP in R; the locus of R is a circle. 18. If the tangent at the end of the latus rectum meet the tangent at the vertex in T , AT = AS. 19. T P , T Q are the tangents at the points P , Q of a conic, and P Q meets the directrix in R; prove that RST is a right angle. 20. SR being the semi-latus rectum, if RA meet the directrix in E, and SE meet the tangent at the vertex in T , AT = AS. 21. If from any point T , in the tangent at P , T M be drawn perpendicular to SP , and T N perpendicular to the transverse axis, meeting the curve in R, SM = SR. 22. If the chords P Q, P Q meet the directrix in F and F , the angle F SF is half P SP . 23. If P N be the ordinate, P G the normal, and GL the perpendicular from G upon SP , GL : P N :: SA : AX. 24. If normals be drawn at the ends of a focal chord, a line through their intersection parallel to the axis will bisect the chord.

EXAMPLES.

19

25. If a conic of given eccentricity is drawn touching the straight line F D joining two xed points F and D, and if the directrix always passes through F , and the corresponding latus rectum always passes through D, nd the locus of the focus. 26. If ST , making a constant angle with SP meet in T the tangent at P , prove that the locus of T is a conic having the same focus and directrix. 27. If E be the foot of the perpendicular let fall upon P SP from the point of intersection of the normals at P and P , P E = SP and P E = SP. 28. If a circle be described on the latus rectum as diameter, and if the common tangent to the conic and circle touch the conic in P and the circle in Q, the angle P SQ is bisected by the latus rectum. (Refer to Cor. 2. Art. 14.) 29. Given two points, the focus, and the eccentricity, determine the position of the axis. 30. If a chord P Q subtend a constant angle at the focus, the locus of the intersection of the tangents at P and Q is a conic with the same focus and directrix. 31. The tangent at a point P of a conic intersects the tangent at the xed point P in Q, and from S a straight line is drawn perpendicular to SQ and meeting in R the tangent at P ; prove that the locus of R is a straight line. 32. The circle is drawn with its centre at S, and touching the conic at the vertex A; if radii Sp, Sp of the circle meet the conic in P , P , prove that P P , pp intersect on the tangent at A. 33. P p is any chord of a conic, P G, pg the normals, G, g being on the axis; GK, gk are perpendiculars on P p; prove that P K = pk.

CHAPTER II.
The Parabola.
Def. A parabola is the curve traced out by a point which moves in such a manner that its distance from a given point is always equal to its distance from a given straight line.

Tracing the Curve.

22. Let S be the focus, EX the directrix, and SX the perpendicular on EX. Then, bisecting SX in A, the point A is the vertex; and if, from any

THE PARABOLA.

21

point E in the directrix, EAP , ESL be drawn, and from S the straight line SP meeting EA produced in P , and making the angle P SL equal to LSN , we obtain, as in Art. (1), a point P in the curve. For and But P L : P K :: SA : AX, P L = P K. SP = P L, and SP = P K.

Again, drawing EP parallel to the axis and meeting in P the line P S produced, we obtain the other extremity of the focal chord P SP . For the angle and ESP = P SL = P LS = SEP , SP = P E,

and P is a point in the parabola.

The curve lies wholly on the same side of the directrix; for, if P be a point on the other side, and SN be perpendicular to P K, SP is greater than P N , and therefore is greater than P K. Again, a straight line parallel to the axis meets the curve in one point only. For, if possible, let P be another point of the curve in KP produced. Then or which is impossible. 23. Prop. I. The distance from the focus of a point inside a parabola is less, and of a point outside is greater than its distance from the directrix. If Q be the point inside, let fall the perpendicular QP K on the directrix, meeting the curve in P . SP = P K and SP = P K P P = SP SP, P P + SP = SP ,

THE PARABOLA.

22

Then SP + P Q > SQ, but SP + P Q = P K + P Q = QK, SQ < QK. If Q be outside, and between P and K, SQ + P Q > SP, SQ > Q K. If Q lie in P K produced, SQ + SP > P Q , and SQ > KQ . 24. Prop. II. The latus rectum = 4 . AS. For if, Fig. Art. 23, LSL be the latus rectum, drawing LK at right angles to the directrix, we have LS = LK = SX = 2AS, LSL = 4 . AS. 25. Mechanical construction of the Parabola. Take a rigid bar EKL, of which the portions EK, KL are at right angles to each other, and fasten a string to the end L, the length of which is LK. Then if the other end of the string be fastened to S, and the bar be made to slide along a xed straight edge, EKX, a pencil at P , keeping the string stretched against

THE PARABOLA.

23

the bar, will trace out a portion of a parabola, of which S is the focus, and EX the directrix. 26. Prop. III. If P K is the perpendicular upon the directrix from a point P of a parabola, and if P A meet the directrix in E, the angle KSE is a right angle. Join ES, and let KP and ES produced meet at L. Since SA = AX, it follows that P L = P K = SP ; P is the centre of the circle through K, S, and L, and the angle KSL is a right angle. Therefore KSE is a right angle. 27. Prop. IV. If P N is the ordinate of a point P of a parabola, P N 2 = 4AS . AN. Taking the gure above, P N : EX :: AN : AX P N 2 : EX . KX :: 4AS . AN : 4AS 2 . But, since KSE is a right angle, EX . KX = SX 2 = 4AS 2 , P N 2 = 4AS . AN. Cor. If AN increases, and becomes innitely large, P N increases and becomes innitely large, and therefore the two portions of the curve, above and below the axis, proceed to innity. 28. Prop. V. If from the ends of a focal chord perpendiculars be let fall upon the directrix, the intercepted portion of the directrix subtends a right angle at the focus. For, if P A meet the directrix in E, and if the straight line through E perpendicular to the directrix meet P S in P , it is shewn, in Art. 22, that P is the other extremity of the focal chord P S; and, as in Art. 26, KSE is a right angle.

THE PARABOLA.

24

29. Prop. VI. The tangent at any point P bisects the angle between the focal distance SP and the perpendicular P K on the directrix. Let F be the point in which the tangent meets the directrix, and join SF . We have shewn, (Art. 10) that F SP is a right angle, and, since SP = P K, and P F is common to the right-angled triangles SP F , KP F , it follows that these triangles are equal in all respects, and therefore the angle SP F = F P K. In other words, the tangent at any point is equally inclined to the focal distance and the axis. Cor. It has been shewn, in Art. (12), that
the tangents at the ends of a focal chord intersect in the directrix, and therefore, if P S produced meet the curve in P , F P is the tangent at P , and bisects the angle between SP and the perpendicular from P on the directrix.

30. Prop. VII. The tangents at the ends of a focal chord intersect at right angles in the directrix. Let P SP be the chord, and P F , P F the tangents meeting the directrix in F . Let fall the perpendiculars P K, P K , and join SK, SK . 1 The angle P SK = 2 P SX 1 = 2 SP K = SP F , SK is parallel to P F , and, similarly, SK is parallel to P F . But (Art. 28) KSK is a right angle; P F P is a right angle. 31. Prop. VIII. If the tangent at any point P of a parabola meet the axis in T , and P N be the ordinate of P , then AT = AN.

THE PARABOLA. Draw P K perpendicular to the directrix. The angle SP T = T P K = P T S, ST = SP = PK = N X. But and ST = SA + AT, N X = AN + AX; since SA = AX, AT = AN.

25

Def. The line N T is called the sub-tangent. The sub-tangent is therefore twice the abscissa of the point of contact. 32. Prop. IX. The foot of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent at any point P of a parabola lies on the tangent at the vertex, and the perpendicular is a mean proportional between SP and SA. Taking the gure of the previous article, join SK meeting P T in Y . Then SP = P K, and P Y is common to the two triangles SP Y , KP Y ; also the angle SP Y = Y P K; the angle SY P = P Y K, and SY is perpendicular to P T . Also SY = KY , and SA = AX, AY is parallel to KX. Hence, AY is at right angles to AS, and is therefore the tangent at the vertex. Again, the angle SP Y = ST Y = SY A, and the triangles SP Y , SY A are therefore similar; SP : SY :: SY : SA, or SY 2 = SP . SA. 33. Prop. X. In the parabola the subnormal is constant and equal to the semi-latus rectum. Def. The distance between the foot of the ordinate of P and the point in which the normal at P meets the axis is called the subnormal.

THE PARABOLA.

26

In the gure P G is the normal and P T the tangent. It has been shewn that the angle SP K is bisected by P T , and hence it follows that SP L is bisected by P G, and that the angle SP G = GP L = P GS; hence SG = SP = ST = SA + AT = SA + AN = 2AS + SN ; the subnormal N G = 2AS.
If Gl be drawn perpendicular to SP , the angle GP l = the complement of SP T , = the complement of ST P , = P GN , and the two right-angled triangles GP N , GP l have their angles equal and the side GP common; hence the triangles are equal, and

34. Cor.

P l = N G = 2AS = the semi-latus rectum. It has been already shewn, (Art. 19), that this property is a general property of all conics.

35. Prop. XI. To draw tangents to a parabola from an external point. For this purpose we may employ the general construction given in Art. (17), or, for the special case of the parabola, the following construction. Let Q be the external point, join SQ, and upon SQ as diameter describe a circle intersecting the tangent at the vertex in Y and Y . Join Y Q, Y Q; these are tangents to the parabola. Draw SP , so as to make the angle Y SP equal to Y SA, and to meet Y Q in P , and let fall the perpendicular P N upon the axis.

THE PARABOLA.

27

Then, SY Q is a right angle, since it is the angle in a semicircle, and, T being the point in which QY produced meets the axis, the two triangles SY P , SY T are equal in all respects; SP = ST, and Y T = Y P. But AY is parallel to P N ; AT = AN. Hence SP = ST = SA + AT = AX + AN = N X,

and P is a point in the parabola. Moreover, if P K be perpendicular to the directrix, the angle SP Y = ST P = Y P K, and P Y is the tangent at P . (Art. 29.) Similarly, by making the angle Y SP equal to ASY we obtain the point of contact of the other tangent QY . 36. Prop. XII. If from a point Q tangents QP , QP be drawn to a parabola, the two triangles SP Q, SQP , are similar, and SQ is a mean proportional between SP and SP . Produce P Q to meet the axis in T , and draw SY , SY perpendicularly on the tangents. Then Y and Y are points in the tangent at A. The angle SP Q = ST Y = SY A = SQP ,

since S, Y , Y , Q are points on a circle, and SY A, SQP are in the same segment.

THE PARABOLA.

28

Also, by the theorem of Art. (15), the angle P SQ = QSP ; therefore the triangles P SQ, QSP are similar, and SP : SQ :: SQ : SP . 37. From the preceding theorem the following, which is often useful, immediately follows. If from any points in a given tangent of a parabola, tangents be drawn to the curve, the angles which these tangents make with the focal distances of the points from which they are drawn are all equal. For each of them by the theorem, is equal to the angle between the given tangent and the focal distance of the point of contact. Hence it follows that the locus of the intersection of a tangent to a parabola with a straight line drawn through the focus meeting it at a constant angle is a straight line. For if QP be the moveable tangent, the angle SQP = SP Q, and therefore, if SQP is constant, SP Q is a given angle. The point P is therefore xed, and the locus of Q is the tangent P Q. 38. Since the two triangles P SQ, QSP are similar, we have
P Q : P Q :: SP : SQ and P Q : P Q :: SQ : SP , P Q2 : P Q2 :: SP : SP ; that is, the squares of the tangents from any point are proportional to the focal distances of the points of contact. This will be found to be a particular case of a subsequent Theorem, given in Art. 51.

THE PARABOLA.

29

39. Prop. XIII. The external angle between two tangents is half the angle subtended at the focus by the chord of contact. Let the tangents at P and P intersect each other in Q and the axis ASN in T and T . Join SP , SP ; then the angles SP T , ST P are equal, and ST P is half the angle P SN ; similarly ST P is half P SN .

But T QT is equal to the dierence between ST P and ST P , and is therefore equal to half the dierence between P SN and P SN , that is to half the angle P SP . Hence, joining SQ, T QT is equal to each of the angles P SQ, P SQ. 40. Prop. XIV. The tangents drawn to a parabola from any point make the same angles, respectively, with the axis and the focal distance of the point.

THE PARABOLA.

30

Let QP , QP be the tangents; join SP , and draw QE parallel to the axis, and meeting SP in E. Then, if P Q meet the axis in T , the angle EQP = ST P = SP Q = SQP . (Art. 37.) i.e. QP and QP respectively make the same angles with the axis and with QS. 41. Conceive a parabola to be drawn passing through Q, having S for its focus, SN for its axis, and its vertex on the same side of S as the vertex A of the given parabola. Then the normal at Q to this new parabola bisects the angle SQE; therefore the angles which QP and QP make with the normal at Q are equal. Hence the theorem, If from any point in a parabola, tangents be drawn to a confocal and co-axial parabola, the normal at the point will bisect the angle between the tangents. If we produce SP to any point p, and take St equal to Sp, pt will be the tangent at p to the confocal and co-axial parabola passing through p. Hence the theorem, If parallel tangents be drawn to a series of confocal and co-axial parabolas, the points of contact will lie in a straight line passing through the focus. In these enunciations the words co-axial and confocal are intended to imply, not merely the coincidence of the axes, but also that the vertices of the two parabolas are on the same side of their common focus. The reason for this will appear when we shall have discussed the analogous property of the ellipse. 42. If two confocal parabolas have their axes in the same straight line, and
their vertices on opposite sides of the focus, they intersect at right angles. For the angle and
1 T P S = 2 P ST ,

T P S = 1 P ST, 2 T P T = 1 (P ST + P ST ) = a right angle. 2

It will be noticed that, in this case, the common chord P Q is equidistant from the directrices. For the distance of P from each directrix is equal to SP .

THE PARABOLA.

31

43. Prop. XV. The circle passing through the points of intersection of three tangents passes also through the focus. Let Q, P , Q be the three points of contact, and F , T , F the intersections of the tangents. In Art. (36) it has been shewn that, if F P , F Q be tangents, the angle SQF = SF P.

THE PARABOLA. Similarly T Q, T Q being tangents, the angle SQT = ST Q , hence the angle SF F or SF P = SQT, = ST F , and a circle can be drawn through S, F , T , and F .

32

44. Def. A straight line drawn parallel to the axis through any point of a parabola is called a diameter. Prop. XVI. If from any point T tangents T Q, T Q be drawn to a parabola, the point T is equidistant from the diameters passing through Q and Q , and the diameter drawn through the point T bisects the chord of contact. Join SQ, SQ , and draw T M , T M perpendicular respectively to SQ and SQ . Also draw N T N perpendicular to the diameters through Q and Q , and meeting those diameters in N and N . Then, since T S bisects the angle QSQ , TM = TM ; and, since T Q bisects the angle SQN , T N = T M. Similarly TN = TM , TN = TN . Again, join QQ , and draw the diameter T V meeting QQ in V ; also let QT produced meet Q N in R; then QV : V Q :: QT : T R :: T N : T N , since the triangles QT N , RT N are similar; QV = V Q . Hence the diameter through the middle point of a chord passes, when produced, through the point of intersection of the tangents at the ends of the chord.

THE PARABOLA.

33

It should be noticed that any straight line drawn through T and terminated by QN and Q N is bisected at T . 45. Prop. XVII. Any diameter bisects all chords parallel to the tangent at its extremity, and passes through the point of intersection of the tangents at the ends of any of these chords.

Let QQ be a chord parallel to the tangent at P , and through the point of intersection T of the tangents at Q and Q draw F T F parallel to QQ and terminated at F and F by the diameters through Q and Q . Let the tangent at P meet T Q, T Q in E and E , and QF , Q F in G and G . Then EG : T F :: EQ : T Q :: E Q : T Q :: E G : T F . But T F = T F , since (Art. 44) T is equidistant from QG and Q G , EG = E G . Also, EP = EG, since E is equidistant from QG and P V , the diameter at P. EP = E P and GP = P G , and QV = V Q . Again, since T , P , V are each equidistant from the parallel straight lines QF , Q F , it follows that T P V is a straight line, or that the diameter V P passes through T .

THE PARABOLA.

34

We have shewn that GE, EP , P E , E G are all equal, and we hence infer that EE = 1 GG = 1 QQ , 2 2 1 and consequently that T P = 2 T V , or that T P = P V . Hence it appears, that the diameter through the point of intersection of a pair of tangents passes through the point of contact of the tangent parallel to the chord of contact, and also through the middle point of the chord of contact; and that the portion of the diameter between the point of intersection of the tangents and the middle point of the chord of contact is bisected at the point of contact of the parallel tangent. We may observe that in proving that EE is bisected at P , we have demonstrated a theorem already shewn (Art. 21) to be true for all conics. 46. When the point T is on the directrix, QT Q is a right angle. If then Qq is the chord which is normal at Q, it is parallel to the tangent T Q , and is therefore bisected by the diameter Q U through Q .

Since QU is bisected by T V , it follows that Qq = 4T Q , i.e. the length of a normal chord is four times the portion of the parallel tangent between the directrix and the point of contact.

THE PARABOLA.

35

47. Def. The line QV , parallel to the tangent at P , and terminated by the diameter P V , is called an ordinate of that diameter, and QQ is the double ordinate. The point P , the end of the diameter, is called the vertex of the diameter, and the distance P V is called the abscissa of the point Q. We have seen that tangents at the ends of any chord intersect in the diameter which bisects the chord, and that the distance of this point from the vertex is equal to the distance of the vertex from the middle point of the chord. Def. The chord through the focus parallel to the tangent at any point is called the parameter of the diameter passing through the point. Prop. XVIII. The parameter of any diameter is four times the focal distance of the vertex of that diameter. Let P be the vertex, and QSQ the parameter, T the point of intersection of the tangents at Q and Q , and F P F the tangent at P .

Then, since F S and F S bisect respectively the angles P SQ, P SQ , F SF is a right angle, and, P being the middle point of F F , SP = P F = P F . Hence QQ , which is double F F , is four times SP . 48. Prop. XIX. If QV Q be a double ordinate of a diameter P V , QV is a mean proportional between P V and the parameter of P . Let F P F be the tangent at P , and draw the parameter through S meeting P V in U . The angle SU T = F P U = SP F (Art. 29), and, since the angles SF Q, SP F are equal (Art. 36), it follows that the angles SF T , SP F are equal; SU T = SF T , and U is a point in the circle passing through SF T F .

THE PARABOLA.

36

Hence, QV being twice P F , but for the angle and QV 2 = 4P F 2 PU SU P = F P U PT QV 2 = 4P U . P T ; = SP, = SP F = P SU ; = P V, = 4SP . P V.

49. This relation may be presented in a dierent form, which is sometimes useful. If from any point U in the tangent at P , U Q is drawn parallel to the axis, U P and U Q are respectively equal to the ordinate and abscissa of the point Q with regard to the diameter through P , and therefore
P U 2 = 4SP . U Q. Therefore, if V R is drawn parallel to the axis from another point V of the tangent, P U 2 : P V 2 :: U Q : V R.

THE PARABOLA.
Hence, since
2

37

U E : V R :: P U : P V, U E : V R2 :: U Q : V R :: U Q . V R : V R2 , U E 2 = U Q . V R. U E : U Q :: V R : U E :: P R : P E; U Q : QE :: P E : ER.

and Hence

In a similar manner it can be shewn that V F 2 = U Q . V R, and it follows that V F = U E, and therefore that EF is parallel to the tangent at P .

50. Prop. XX. If QV Q be a double ordinate of a diameter P V , and QD the perpendicular from Q upon P V , QD is a mean proportional between P V and the latus rectum.

Let the tangent at P meet the tangent at the vertex in Y , and join SY . The angle QV D = SP Y = SY A, and therefore the triangles QV D, SAY are similar; and QD2 : QV 2 :: AS 2 : SY 2 :: AS 2 : AS . SP. :: AS : SP :: 4AS . P V : 4SP . P V, but QV 2 = 4SP . P V ; QD2 = 4AS . P V.

51. Prop. XXI. If from any point, within or without a parabola, two straight lines be drawn in given directions and intersecting the curve, the ratio of the rectangles of the segments is independent of the position of the point. From any point O draw a straight line intersecting the parabola in Q and Q , and draw the diameter OE, meeting the curve in E.

THE PARABOLA.

38

If P V be the diameter bisecting QQ , and EU the ordinate, OQ . OQ = OV 2 QV 2 = EU 2 QV 2 = 4SP . P U 4SP . P V = 4SP . OE. Similarly, if ORR be any other intersecting line and P the vertex of the diameter bisecting RR , OR . OR = 4SP . OE. OQ . OQ : OR . OR :: SP : SP , that is, the ratio of the rectangles depends only on the positions of P and P , and, if the lines OQQ , ORR are drawn parallel to given straight lines, these points P , P are xed. It will be easily seen that the proof is the same if the point O be within the parabola. If the lines OQQ , ORR be moved parallel to themselves until they become the tangents at P and P , we shall then obtain, if these tangents intersect in T , T P 2 : T P 2 :: SP : SP ; a result previously obtained (Art. 38). Again if QSQ , RSR be the focal chords parallel to T P and T P , it follows that T P 2 : T P 2 :: QS . SQ : RS . SR , (cor. Art. 8) T P 2 : T P 2 :: QQ : RR .

THE PARABOLA.

39

52. Prop. XXII. If from a point O, outside a parabola, a tangent OM , and a chord OAB be drawn, and if the diameter M E meet the chord in E, OE 2 = OA . OB.

Let P be the point of contact of the tangent parallel to OAB, and let OM , M E meet this tangent in T and F . Draw T V parallel to the axis and meeting P M in V ; then OA . OB : OM 2 :: T P 2 : T M 2 (Art. 51), :: T F 2 : T M 2 , T F : T M :: OE : OM ; OE 2 = OA . OB.

since P M is bisected in V ; also

Cor. 1. If AL, BN be the ordinates, parallel to OM , of A and B, M L, M E, and M N are proportional to OA, OE and OB, and therefore M E 2 = M L . M N. This theorem may be also stated in the following form: If a chord AB of a parabola intersect a diameter in the point E, the distance of the point E from the tangent at the end of the diameter is a mean proportional between the distances of the points A and B from the same tangent.

THE PARABOLA. Cor. 2. Let KE be the ordinate through E parallel to OM . Then, since M L : M E :: M E : M N, AL2 : KE 2 :: KE 2 : BN 2 AL : KE :: KE : BN,

40

so that KE is a mean proportional between AL and BN , the ordinates of A and B. 53. Prop. XXIII. If a circle intersect a parabola in four points, the two straight lines constituting any one of the three pairs of the chords of intersection are equally inclined to the axis. Let Q, Q , R, R be the four points of intersection; then OQ . OQ = OR . OR , and therefore SP , SP are equal, (Art. 51).

But, if SP , SP be equal, the points P , P are on opposite sides of, and are equidistant from the axis, and the tangents at P and P are therefore equally inclined to the axis. Hence the chords QQ , RR , which are parallel to these tangents, are equally inclined to the axis. In the same manner it may be shewn that QR, Q R are equally inclined to the axis, as also QR , Q R.

EXAMPLES.

41

54. Conversely, if two chords QQ , RR , which are not parallel, make equal angles with the axis, a circle can be drawn through Q, Q , R , R. For, if the chords intersect in O, and OE be drawn parallel to the axis and meeting the curve in E, it may be shewn as above that
OQ . OQ = 4SP . OE, and OR . OR = 4SP . OE, P and P being the vertices of the diameters bisecting the chords. But the tangents at P and P , which are parallel to the chords, are equally inclined to the axis, and therefore SP is equal to SP . Hence OQ . OQ = OR . OR ,

and therefore a circle can be drawn through the points Q, Q , R, R . If the two chords are both perpendicular to the axis, it is obvious that a circle can be drawn through their extremities, and this is the only case in which a circle can be drawn through the extremities of parallel chords.

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the locus of the centre of a circle which passes through a given point and touches a given straight line. 2. Draw a tangent to a parabola, making a given angle with the axis. 3. If the tangent at P meet the tangent at the vertex in Y , AY 2 = AS . AN. 4. If the normal at P meet the axis in G, the focus is equidistant from the tangent at P and the straight line through G parallel to the tangent. 5. Given the focus, the position of the axis, and a tangent, construct the parabola. 6. Find the locus of the centre of a circle which touches a given straight line and a given circle. 7. Construct a parabola which has a given focus, and two given tangents. 8. The distance of any point on a parabola from the focus is equal to the length of the ordinate at that point produced to meet the tangent at the end of the latus rectum.

EXAMPLES.

42

9. P T being the tangent at P , meeting the axis in T , and P N the ordinate, prove that T Y . T P = T S . T N . 10. If SE be the perpendicular from the focus on the normal at P , shew that SE 2 = AN . SP. 11. The locus of the vertices of all parabolas, which have a common focus and a common tangent, is a circle. 12. Having given the focus, the length of the latus rectum, and a tangent, construct the parabola. 13. If P SP be a focal chord, and P N , P N the ordinates, shew that AN . AN = AS 2 . Shew also that the latus rectum is a mean proportional between the double ordinates. 14. The locus of the middle points of the focal chords of a parabola is another parabola. 15. Shew that in general two parabolas can be drawn having a given straight line for directrix, and passing through two given points on the same side of the line. 16. P p is a chord perpendicular to the axis, and the perpendicular from p on the tangent at P meets the diameter through P in R; prove that RP is equal to the latus rectum, and nd the locus of R. 17. Having given the focus, describe a parabola passing through two given points. 18. The circle on any focal distance as diameter touches the tangent at the vertex. 19. The circle on any focal chord as diameter touches the directrix. 20. A point moves so that its shortest distance from a given circle is equal to its distance from a given diameter of the circle; prove that the locus is a parabola, the focus of which coincides with the centre of the circle. 21. Find the locus of a point which moves so that its shortest distance from a given circle is equal to its distance from a given straight line.

EXAMPLES.

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22. The vertex of an isosceles triangle is xed. The extremities of its base lie on two xed parallel straight lines. Prove that the base is a tangent to a parabola. 23. Shew that the normal at any point of a parabola is equal to the ordinate through the middle point of the subnormal. 24. If perpendiculars are drawn to the tangents to a parabola where they meet the axis they will be normals to two equal parabolas. 25. P SP is a focal chord of a parabola. The diameters through P , P meet the normals at P , P in V , V respectively. Prove that P V V P is a parallelogram. 26. If AP C be a sector of a circle, of which the radius CA is xed, and a circle be described, touching the radii CA, CP , and the arc AP , the locus of the centre of this circle is a parabola. 27. If from the focus S of a parabola, SY , SZ be perpendiculars drawn to the tangent and normal at any point, Y Z is parallel to the diameter. 28. Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the focus on the normal is a parabola. 29. If P G be the normal, and GL the perpendicular from G upon SP , prove that GL is equal to the ordinate P N . 30. Given the focus, a point P on the curve, and the length of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent at P , nd the vertex. 31. A circle is described on the latus rectum as diameter, and a common tangent QP is drawn to it and the parabola: shew that SP , SQ make equal angles with the latus rectum. 32. G is the foot of the normal at a point P of the parabola, Q is the middle point of SG, and X is the foot of the directrix: prove that QX 2 QP 2 = 4AS 2 . 33. If P G the normal at P meet the axis in G, and if P F , P H, lines equally inclined to P G, meet the axis in F and H, the length SG is a mean proportional between SF and SH. 34. A triangle ABC circumscribes a parabola whose focus is S, and through A, B, C, lines are drawn respectively perpendicular to SA, SB, SC; shew that these pass through one point.

EXAMPLES.

44

35. If P Q be the normal at P meeting the curve in Q, and if the chord P R be drawn so that P R, P Q are equally inclined to the axis, P RQ is a right angle. 36. P N is a semi-ordinate of a parabola, and AM is taken on the other side of the vertex along the axis equal to AN ; from any point Q in P N , QR is drawn parallel to the axis meeting the curve in R; prove that the lines M R, AQ will intersect in the parabola. 37. Having given two points of a parabola, the direction of the axis, and the tangent at one of the points, construct the parabola. 38. Having given the vertex of a diameter, and a corresponding double ordinate, construct the parabola. 39. P M is an ordinate of a point P ; a straight line parallel to the axis bisects P M , and meets the curve in Q; M Q meets the tangent at the vertex in T ; prove that 3AT = 2P M . 40. AB, CD are two parallel straight lines given in position, and AC is perpendicular to both, A and C being given points; in CD any point Q is taken, and in AQ, produced if necessary, a point P is taken, such that the distance of P from AB is equal to CQ; prove that the locus of P is a parabola. 41. If the tangent and normal at a point P of a parabola meet the tangent at the vertex in K and L respectively, prove that KL2 : SP 2 :: SP AS : AS. 42. Having given the length of a focal chord, nd its position. 43. If the ordinate of a point P bisects the subnormal of a point P , prove that the ordinate of P is equal to the normal of P . 44. A parabola being traced on a plane, nd its axis and vertex. 45. If P V , P V be two diameters, and P V , P V ordinates to these diameters, PV = P V . 46. If one side of a triangle be parallel to the axis of a parabola, the other sides will be in the ratio of the tangents parallel to them. 47. QV Q is an ordinate of a diameter P V , and any chord P R meets QQ in N , and the diameter through Q in L; prove that P L2 = P N . P R.

EXAMPLES.

45

48. Describe a parabola passing through three given points, and having its axis parallel to a given line. 49. If AP , AQ be two chords drawn from the vertex at right angles to each other, and P N , QM be ordinates, the latus rectum is a mean proportional between AN and AM . 50. P Sp is a focal chord of a parabola; prove that AP , Ap meet the latus rectum in two points whose distances from the focus are equal to the ordinates of p and P respectively. 51. If the straight line AP and the diameter through P meet the double ordinate QM Q in R and R , prove that RM . R M = QM 2 . 52. A and P are two xed points. Parabolas are drawn all having their vertices at A, and all passing through P . Prove that the points of intersection of the tangents at P with the tangent and normal at A lie on two xed circles, one of which is double the size of the other. 53. A variable tangent to a parabola intersects two xed tangents in the points T and T : shew that the ratio ST : ST is constant. 54. Through a xed point on the axis of a parabola a chord P Q is drawn, and a circle of given radius is described through the feet of the ordinates of P and Q. Shew that the locus of its centre is a circle. 55. If SY be the perpendicular on the tangent at P , and if Y S be produced to R so that SR = SY , shew that P AR is a right angle. 56. If two circles be drawn touching a parabola at the ends of a focal chord, and passing through the focus, shew that they intersect each other orthogonally. 57. P SQ is a focal chord of a parabola, whose vertex is A and focus S, V being the middle point of the chord, shew that P V 2 = AV 2 + 3AS 2 . 58. QQ is a focal chord of a parabola. Describe a circle which shall pass through Q, Q and touch the parabola. If P be the point of contact and the angle QP Q a right angle, nd the inclination of QP to the axis.

EXAMPLES.

46

59. Through two xed points E, F , on the axis of a parabola are drawn two chords P Q, P R meeting the curve in P , Q, R. If QR meet the axis in T , shew that the ratio T R : T Q is constant. 60. A chord P Q is normal to the parabola at P , and the angle P SQ is a right angle. Prove that SQ = 2SP , and that the ordinate of P is equal to the latus rectum. Also, if T is the point of intersection of the tangents at P and Q, and if R is the middle point of T Q, prove that the angle T SR is a right angle, and that ST = 2SR. 61. A straight line intersects a circle; prove that all the chords of the circle which are bisected by the straight line are tangents to a parabola. 62. If two tangents T P , T Q be drawn to a parabola, the perpendicular SE from the focus on their chord of contact passes through the middle point of their intercept on the tangent at the vertex. 63. From the vertex of a parabola a perpendicular is drawn on the tangent at any point; prove that the locus of its intersection with the diameter through the point is a straight line. 64. If two tangents to a parabola be drawn from any point in its axis, and if any other tangent intersect these two in P and Q, prove that SP = SQ. 65. T is a point on the tangent at P , such that the perpendicular from T on SP is of constant length; prove that the locus of T is a parabola. If the constant length be 2AS, prove that the vertex of the locus is on the directrix. 66. Given a chord of a parabola in magnitude and position, and the point in which the axis cuts the chord, the locus of the vertex is a circle. 67. If the normal at a point P of a parabola meet the curve in Q, and the tangents at P and Q intersect in T , prove that T and P are equidistant from the directrix. 68. If T P , T Q be tangents to a parabola, such that the chord P Q is normal at P , P Q : P T :: P N : AN, P N and AN being the ordinate and abscissa. 69. If two equal tangents to a parabola be cut by a third tangent, the alternate segments of the two tangents will be equal.

EXAMPLES.

47

70. If AP be a chord through the vertex, and if P L, perpendicular to AP , and P G, the normal at P , meet the axis in L, G respectively, GL = half the latus rectum. 71. If P SQ be a focal chord, A the vertex, and P A, QA be produced to meet the directrix in P , Q respectively, then P SQ will be a right angle. 72. The tangents at P and Q intersect in T , and the tangent at R intersects T P and T Q in C and D; prove that P C : CT :: CR : RD :: T D : DQ. 73. From any point D in the latus rectum of a parabola, a straight line DP is drawn, parallel to the axis, to meet the curve in P ; if X be the foot of the directrix, and A the vertex, prove that AD, XP intersect in the parabola. 74. P Sp is a focal chord, and upon P S and pS as diameters circles are described; prove that the length of either of their common tangents is a mean proportional between AS and P p. 75. If AQ be a chord of a parabola through the vertex A, and QR be drawn perpendicular to AQ to meet the axis in R; prove that AR will be equal to the chord through the focus parallel to AQ. 76. If from any point P of a circle, P C be drawn to the centre C, and a chord P Q be drawn parallel to the diameter AB, and bisected in R; shew that the locus of the intersection of CP and AR is a parabola. 77. A circle, the diameter of which is three-fourths of the latus rectum, is described about the vertex A of a parabola as centre; prove that the common chord bisects AS. 78. Shew that straight lines drawn perpendicular to the tangents of a parabola through the points where they meet a given xed line perpendicular to the axis are in general tangents to a confocal parabola. 79. If QR be a double ordinate, and P D a straight line drawn parallel to the axis from any point P of the curve, and meeting QR in D, prove, from Art. 27, that QD . RD = 4AS . P D. 80. Prove, by help of the preceding theorem, that, if QQ be a chord parallel to the tangent at P , QQ is bisected by P D, and hence determine the locus of the middle point of a series of parallel chords.

EXAMPLES.

48

81. If a parabola touch the sides of an equilateral triangle, the focal distance of any vertex of the triangle passes through the point of contact of the opposite side. 82. Find the locus of the foci of the parabolas which have a common vertex and a common tangent. 83. From the points where the normals to a parabola meet the axis, lines are drawn perpendicular to the normals: shew that these lines will be tangents to an equal parabola. 84. Inscribe in a given parabola a triangle having its sides parallel to three given straight lines. 85. P N P is a double ordinate, and through a point of the parabola RQL is drawn perpendicular to P P and meeting P A, or P A produced in R; prove that P N : N L :: LR : RQ. 86. P N P is a double ordinate, and through R, a point in the tangent at P , RQM is drawn perpendicular to P P and meeting the curve in Q; prove that QM : QR :: P M : P M. 87. If from the point of contact of a tangent to a parabola, a chord be drawn, and a line parallel to the axis meeting the chord, the tangent, and the curve, shew that this line will be divided by them in the same ratio as it divides the chord. 88. P Sp is a focal chord of a parabola, RD is the directrix meeting the axis in D, Q is any point in the curve; prove that if QP , Qp produced meet the directrix in R, r, half the latus rectum will be a mean proportional between DR and Dr. 89. A chord of a parabola is drawn parallel to a given straight line, and on this chord as diameter a circle is described; prove that the distance between the middle points of this chord, and of the chord joining the other two points of intersection of the circle and parabola, will be of constant length. 90. If a circle and a parabola have a common tangent at P , and intersect in Q and R; and if QV , U R be drawn parallel to the axis of the parabola meeting the circle in V and U respectively, then will V U be parallel to the tangent at P . 91. If P V be the diameter through any point P , QV a semi-ordinate, Q another point in the curve, and Q P cut QV in R, and Q R , the diameter through Q , meet QV in R , then V R . V R = QV 2 .

EXAMPLES.

49

92. P Q, P R are any two chords; P Q meets the diameter through R in the point F , and P R meets the diameter through Q in E; prove that EF is parallel to the tangent at P . 93. If parallel chords be intersected by a diameter, the distances of the points of intersection from the vertex of the diameter are in the ratio of the rectangles contained by the segments of the chords. 94. If tangents be drawn to a parabola from any point P in the latus rectum, and if Q, Q be the points of contact, the semi-latus rectum is a geometric mean between the ordinates of Q and Q , and the distance of P from the axis is an arithmetic mean between the same ordinates. 95. If A , B , C be the middle points of the sides of a triangle ABC, and a parabola drawn through A , B , C meet the sides again in A , B , C , then will the lines AA , BB , CC be parallel to each other. 96. A circle passing through the focus cuts the parabola in two points. Prove that the angle between the tangents to the circle at those points is four times the angle between the tangents to the parabola at the same points. 97. The locus of the points of intersection of normals at the extremities of focal chords of a parabola is another parabola. 98. Having given the vertex, a tangent, and its point of contact, construct the parabola. 99. P Sp is a focal chord of a parabola; shew that the distance of the point of intersection of the normals at P and p from the directrix varies as the rectangle contained by P S, pS. 100. T P , T Q are tangents to a parabola at P and Q, and O is the centre of the circle circumscribing P T Q; prove that T SO is a right angle. 101. P is any point of a parabola whose vertex is A, and through the focus S the chord QSQ is drawn parallel to AP ; P N , QM , Q M , being perpendicular to the axis, shew that SM is a mean proportional between AM , AN , and that M M = AP. 102. If a circle cut a parabola in four points, two on one side of the axis, and two on the other, the sum of the ordinates of the rst two is equal to the sum of the ordinates of the other two points. Extend this theorem to the case in which three of the points are on one side of the axis and one on the other.

EXAMPLES.

50

103. The tangents at P and Q meet in T , and T L is the perpendicular from T on the axis; prove that if P N , QM be the ordinates of P and Q, P N . QM = 4AS . AL. 104. The tangents at P and Q meet in T , and the lines T A, P A, QA, meet the directrix in t, p, and q: prove that tp = tq. 105. From a point T tangents T P , T Q are drawn to a parabola, and through T straight lines are drawn parallel to the normals at P and Q; prove that one diagonal of the parallelogram so formed passes through the focus. 106. Through a given point within a parabola draw a chord which shall be divided in a given ratio at that point. 107. ABC is a portion of a parabola bounded by the axis AB and the semiordinate BC; nd the point P in the semi-ordinate such that if P Q be drawn parallel to the axis to meet the parabola in Q, the sum of BP and P Q shall be the greatest possible. 108. The diameter through a point P of a parabola meets the tangent at the vertex in Z; the normal at P and the focal distance of Z will intersect in a point at the same distance from the tangent at the vertex as P . 109. Given a tangent to a parabola and a point on the curve, shew that the foot of the ordinate of the point of contact of the tangent drawn to the diameter through the given point lies on a xed straight line. 110. Find a point such that the tangents from it to a parabola and the lines from the focus to the points of contact may form a parallelogram. 111. Two equal parabolas have a common focus; and, from any point in the common tangent, another tangent is drawn to each; prove that these tangents are equidistant from the common focus. 112. Two parabolas have a common axis and vertex, and their concavities turned in opposite directions; the latus rectum of one is eight times that of the other; prove that the portion of a tangent to the former, intercepted between the common tangent and axis, is bisected by the latter.

CHAPTER III.
The Ellipse.
Def. An ellipse is the curve traced out by a point which moves in such a manner that its distance from a given point is in a constant ratio of less inequality to its distance from a given straight line.

Tracing the Curve. 55. Let S be the focus, EX the directrix, and SX the perpendicular on EX from S.

Divide SX at the point A in the given ratio; the point A is the vertex. From any point E in EX, draw EAP , ESL, and through S draw SP making the angle P SL equal to LSN , and meeting EAP in P .

THE ELLIPSE.

52

Through P draw LP K perpendicular to the directrix and meeting ESL in L. Then the angle P SL = LSN = SLP. SP = P L. Also P L : P K :: SA : AX. Hence SP : P K :: SA : AX, and P is therefore a point in the curve. Again, in the axis XAN nd a point A such that SA : A X :: SA : AX; this point is evidently on the same side of the directrix as the point A, and is another vertex of the curve.

Join EA meeting P S produced in P , and draw P L K perpendicular to the directrix and meeting ES in L . Then P L : P K :: SA : A X :: SA : AX, and the angle SL P = L SA = L SP ; P L =SP . Hence P is also a point in the curve, and P SP is a focal chord. By giving E a series of positions on the directrix we shall obtain a series of focal chords, and we can also, as in Art. (1), nd other points of the curve lying in the lines KP , K P , or in these lines produced. We can thus nd any number of points in the curve.

THE ELLIPSE.

53

56. Def. The distance AA is the major axis. The middle point C of AA is called the centre of the ellipse. If through C the double ordinate BCB be drawn, BB is called the minor axis. Any straight line drawn through the centre, and terminated by the curve, is called a diameter. The lines ACA , BCB are called the principal diameters, or, briey, the axes of the curve. The line ACA is also sometimes called the transverse axis, and BCB the conjugate axis. 57. Prop. I. If P be any point of an ellipse, and AA the axis major, and if P A, A P , when produced, meet the directrix in E and F , the distance EF subtends a right angle at the focus.

By the theorem of Art. 4, ES bisects the angle ASP , and F S bisects the angle ASP ; ESF is a right angle. It will be seen that, since ASA is a focal chord, this is a particular case of the theorem of Art. 6. 58. Prop. II. If P N be the ordinate of any point P of an ellipse, ACA the axis major, and BCB the axis minor, P N 2 : AN . N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 .

THE ELLIPSE.

54

Join P A, A P , and let these lines produced meet the directrix in E and F . Then P N : AN :: EX : AX, and P N : A N :: F X : A X; 2 P N : AN . N A :: EX . F X : AX . A X :: SX 2 : AX . A X, since ESF is a right angle (Prop. 1.); that is, P N 2 is to AN . N A in a constant ratio. Hence, taking P N coincident with BC, in which case AN = N A = AC, 2 BC : AC 2 :: SX 2 : AX . A X, and P N 2 : AN . N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 . This may be also written P N 2 : AC 2 CN 2 :: BC 2 : AC 2 . Cor. If P M be the perpendicular from P on the axis minor, CM = P N, P M = CN, 2 and CM : AC 2 P M 2 :: BC 2 : AC 2 . Hence AC 2 : AC 2 P M 2 :: BC 2 : CM 2 , and AC 2 : P M 2 :: BC 2 : BC 2 CM 2 , or P M 2 : BM . M B :: AC 2 : BC 2 . 59. If a point N be taken on the axis major, between C and A , such that CN = CN , the corresponding ordinate P N = P N , and therefore it follows that the curve is symmetrical with regard to BCB , and that there is another focus, and another directrix, corresponding to the vertex A .

THE ELLIPSE.

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60. By help of the theorem of Art. 57, we can give an independent proof of the existence of the other focus and directrix, corresponding to the vertex A . In AA produced take a point X such that A X = AX, and in AA take a point S such that A S = AS. Through X draw a straight line eX f perpendicular to the axis, and let EP , F P produced meet this line in e and f . Join eS , and f S .

Then

eX : EX :: AX : AX :: A X : A X :: F X : f X ; eX . f X = EX . F X = SX 2 = S X 2 .

Hence eS f is a right angle.

THE ELLIPSE.

56

Through P draw KP k parallel to the axis, meeting eS and f S produced in L and l. Then P L : P k :: S A : AX :: SA : A X, and P l : P k :: S A : A X :: SA : AX, P L = P l. Moreover, LS l being a right angle, S P = P l, S P : P k :: S A : A X , and the curve can be described by means of the focus S and the directrix eX .
If SA be equal to AX, the point A , and therefore the points S and X , will be at an innite distance from S and A. Hence a parabola is the limiting form of an ellipse, the axis major of which is indenitely increased in magnitude, while the distance SA remains nite.

61. Prop. III. If ACA be the axis major, C the centre, S one of the foci, and X the foot of the directrix, CS : CA :: CA : CX :: SA : AX, and CS : CX :: CS 2 : CA2 .

For

or Again, or or Also

S A : SA :: AX : AX :: A X : AX; SS : SA :: AA : AX, CS : CA :: SA : AX. SA : SA :: AX : AX; AA : SA :: XX : AX, CA : CX :: SA : AX; CS : CA :: CA : CX, CS . CX = CA2 . CS : CX :: CS 2 : CS . CX :: CS 2 : CA2 .

THE ELLIPSE.

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62. Prop. IV. If S be a focus, and B an extremity of the axis minor, SB = AC and BC 2 = AS . SA . For, joining SB in the gure of Art. 58, SB : CX :: SA : AX :: CA : CX, by the previous Article, SB = CA. Also BC 2 = SB 2 SC 2 = AC 2 SC 2 = AS . SA .

63. Prop. V. The semi-latus rectum SR is a third proportional to AC and BC. For, Prop. II., SR2 : AS SA SR2 : BC 2 SR : BC SR : SX :: BC 2 : AC 2 ; :: BC 2 : AC 2 , :: BC : AC. :: SA : AX :: SC : AC,

or Cor. Since

it follows that SX . SC = SR . AC = BC 2 ; and hence also, since SC . CX = AC 2 , that SX : CX :: BC 2 : AC 2 . 64. Prop. VI. The sum of the focal distances of any point is equal to the axis major. Let P N be the ordinate of a point P (Fig. Art. 60), then S P : SP :: N X : N X; S P + SP : SP :: XX : N X, S P + SP : XX :: SP : N X :: SA : AX :: AA : XX ; S P + SP = AA

or

THE ELLIPSE. Cor. Since SP : N X :: SA : AX :: AC : CX; AC : SP :: CX : N X, AC SP : SP :: CN : N X, AC SP : CN :: SA : AX. AC SP = S P AC; S P AC : CN :: SA : AX. S P SP : 2CN :: SA : AX.

58

and Also, Hence,

Mechanical Construction of the Ellipse. 65. Fasten the ends of a piece of thread to two pins xed on a board, and trace a curve on the board with a pencil pressed against the thread so as to keep it stretched; the curve traced out will be an ellipse, having its foci at the points where the pins are xed, and having its major axis equal to the length of the thread. 66. Prop. VII. The sum of the distances of a point from the foci of an ellipse is greater or less than the major axis according as the point is outside or inside the ellipse. If the point be without the ellipse, join SQ, S Q, and take a point P on the intercepted arc of the curve. Then P is within the triangle SQS and therefore, joining SP , S P , SQ + S Q > SP + S P, Euclid i. 21, i.e. SQ + S Q > AA . If Q be within the ellipse, let SQ , S Q produced meet the curve and take a point P on the intercepted arc. Then Q is within the triangle SP S , and SP + S P > SQ + S Q , i.e. SQ + S Q < AA . 67. Def. The circle described on the axis major as diameter is called the auxiliary circle.

THE ELLIPSE.

59

Prop. VIII. If the ordinate N P of an ellipse be produced to meet the auxiliary circle in Q, P N : QN :: BC : AC.

For (Art. 58) P N 2 : AN . N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 , and, by a property of the circle, QN 2 = AN . N A ; P N : QN :: BC : AC. Cor. Similarly, if P M , the perpendicular on BB , meet in Q the circle described on BB as diameter, P M : Q M :: AC : BC. For and P M 2 : BM . M B :: AC 2 : BC 2 , BM . M B = Q M 2 .

Properties of the Tangent and Normal. 68. Prop. IX. The normal at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of that point, and the tangent is equally inclined to the focal distances. Let the normal at P meet the axis in G; then (Art. 18) SG : SP :: SA : AX, and S G : S P :: SA : AX.

THE ELLIPSE.

60

Hence

SG : S G :: SP : S P,

and therefore the angle SP S is bisected by P G. Also F P F being the tangent, and GP F , GP F being right angles, it follows that the angles SP F , S P F are equal, or that the tangent is equally inclined to the focal distances. Hence if S P be produced to L, the tangent bisects the angle SP L. Cor. If a circle be described about the triangle SP S , its centre will lie in BCB , which bisects SS at right angles; and since the angles SP G, S P G are equal, and equal angles stand upon equal arcs, the point g, in which P G produced meets the minor axis, is a point in the circle. Also, if the tangent meet the minor axis in t, the point t is on the same circle, since gP t is a right angle. Hence, Any point P of an ellipse, the two foci, and the points of intersection of the tangent and normal at P with the minor axis are concyclic. 69. Prop. X. Every diameter is bisected at the centre, and the tangents at the ends of a diameter are parallel. Let P Cp be a diameter, P N , pn the ordinates of P and p. Then CN 2 : Cn2 :: P N 2 : pn2 :: AC 2 CN 2 : AC 2 Cn2 (Art. 58); CN 2 : AC 2 :: Cn2 : AC 2 . CN = Cn and CP = Cp.

Hence

THE ELLIPSE.

61

Draw the focal distances; then, since P p and SS bisect each other in C, the gure SP S p is a parallelogram, and the angle SP S = SpS .

But the tangents P T , pt are equally inclined to the focal distances; the angle SP T = S pt, and, adding the equal angles CP S, CpS , CP T = Cpt; P T and pt are parallel. Cor. Since Sp and S p are equally inclined to the tangent at p, it follows that SP and Sp make equal angles with the tangents at P and p. 70. Prop. XI. The perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent meet the tangent on the auxiliary circle, and the semi-minor axis is a mean proportional between their lengths. Let SY , S Y be the perpendiculars; join S P , and let SY , S P produced meet in L. The angles SP Y , Y P L being equal, and P Y being common, the triangles SP Y , Y P L are equal in all respects; and P L = SP , SY = Y L, S L = S P + P L = S P + SP = AA .

Join CY , then C being the middle point of SS , and Y of SL, CY is parallel to S L, and S L = 2CY. Hence CY = AC, and Y is a point on the auxiliary circle.

THE ELLIPSE.

62

Similarly by producing SP , S Y it may be shewn that Y is also on the auxiliary circle. Let Y S produced meet the circle in Z, and join Y Z; then Y Y Z being a right angle, Y Z is a diameter and passes through C. Hence the triangles SCZ, S CY are equal, and SY . S Y = SY . SZ = AS . SA = BC 2 . Cor. (1). If P be the other extremity of the diameter through P , the tangent at P is parallel to P Y , and therefore Z is the foot of the perpendicular from S on the tangent at P . Cor. (2). If the diameter DCD , drawn parallel to the tangent at P , meet SP , S P in E and E , P ECY is a parallelogram, for CY is parallel to SP , and CE to P Y ; P E = CY = AC; and similarly P E = CY = AC. Cor. (3). Any diameter parallel to the focal distance of a point meets the tangent at the point on the auxiliary circle. 71. Prop. XII. To draw tangents from a given point to an ellipse. For this purpose we may employ the general construction of Art. (17), or the following. Let Q be the given point; upon SQ as diameter describe a circle cutting the auxiliary circle in Y and Y ; Y Q and Y Q will be the required tangents. Producing SY to L so that Y L = SY , join S L cutting the line Y Q in P .

THE ELLIPSE.

63

The triangles SP Y , LP Y are equal in all respects, since SY = Y L and P Y is common and perpendicular to SL; SP = P L, and S L = S P + P L = S P + SP ; but, joining CY , S L = 2CY = 2AC; SP + S P = 2AC, and P is therefore a point on the ellipse.

Also the angle SP Y = Y P L, and QP is the tangent at P . A similar construction will give the point of contact of the other tangent QP .
Referring to Art. 35 it will be seen that the construction is the same as that given for the parabola, the ultimate form of the circle being, for the parabola, the tangent at the vertex.

72. Prop. XIII. If two tangents be drawn to an ellipse from an external point, they are equally inclined to the focal distances of that point. Let QP , QP be the tangents, SY , S Y , SZ, S Z the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangents; join Y Z, Y Z . Then (Art. 70) SY . S Y = SZ . S Z ; SY : SZ :: S Z : S Y .

THE ELLIPSE. The points S, Y , Q, Z being concyclic, the angles Y SZ, Y QZ are supplementary; and similarly, Z S Y , Z QY are supplementary. Therefore the angle Y SZ = Z S Y and the triangles Y SZ, Z S Y are similar. Therefore the angle SQP = SZY = S Y Z = S QP . 73. Def. Ellipses which have the same foci are called confocal ellipses.

64

If Q be a point in a confocal ellipse the normal at Q bisects the angle SQS and therefore bisects the angle P QP . Hence, If from any point of an ellipse tangents are drawn to a confocal ellipse, these tangents are equally inclined to the normal at the point.

By reference to the remark of Art. 41, it will be seen that this theorem includes that of Art. 41 as a particular case. 74. Prop. XIV. If P T the tangent at P meet the axis major in T , and P N be the ordinate, CN . CT = AC 2 .

Draw the focal distances SP , S P , and the perpendicular SY on the tangent, and join N Y , CY . Then, as in Art. 70, CY is parallel to S P ; therefore the angle CY P = S P t = SP Y = SN Y, since S, Y , P , N are concyclic. Hence CY T = CN Y, and the triangles CY T , CN Y are equiangular.

THE ELLIPSE.

65

Therefore or

CN : CY :: CY : CT CN . CT = CY 2 = AC 2 .

Cor. (1). CN . N T = CN . CT CN 2 = AC 2 CN 2 = AN . N A . Cor. (2). Hence it follows that tangents at the extremities of a common ordinate of an ellipse and its auxiliary circle meet the axis in the same point. For, if N P produced meet the auxiliary circle in Q, and the tangent at Q meet the axis in T , CN . N T = CQ2 = AC 2 , therefore T coincides with T . And more generally it is evident that, If any number of ellipses be described having the same major axis, and an ordinate be drawn cutting the ellipses, the tangents at the points of section will all meet the common axis in the same point. 75. Prop. XV. If the tangent at P meet the axis minor in t, and P N be the ordinate, Ct . P N = BC 2 . For, Ct : P N :: CT : N T (Fig. Art. 74), Ct . P N : P N 2 :: CT . CN : CN . N T :: AC 2 : AN . N A (Cor. 1, Art. 74), :: BC 2 : P N 2 . Ct . P N = BC 2 .

76. Prop. XVI. If the tangent and normal at P meet the axis major in T and G, CG . CT = SC 2 . The triangles CGg, CT t, in the gure of the next article, being similar, CG : Cg :: Ct : CT, CG . CT = Cg . Ct. But, since t, S, g, S are concyclic (Cor. Art. 68), Cg . Ct = SC . CS = SC 2 ; CG . CT = SC 2 .

THE ELLIPSE. Cor. Since CN . CT = AC 2 , and P N . Ct = BC 2 , and We hence see that N G : CN :: BC 2 : AC 2 . CG : CN :: SC 2 : AC 2 Cg : P N :: SC 2 : BC 2 .

66

77. Prop. XVII. If the normal at P meet the axes in G and g, and the diameter parallel to the tangent at P in F , P F . P G = BC 2 , and P F . P g = AC 2 . Let P N , P M , perpendiculars on the axes, meet the diameter in K and L, and let the tangent at P meet the axes in T and t.

Then, since G, F , K, N are concyclic, P F . P G = P N . P K = P N . Ct = BC 2 . Similarly, since L, M , F , g are concyclic, P F . P g = P M . P L = CN . CT = AC 2 . Cor. If SP , S P meet the diameter DCD parallel to the tangent at P in E and E , P E = AC (Cor. 2, Art. 70); P F . P g = P E 2 = P E 2, and hence it follows that the angles P Eg, P E g are right angles.

THE ELLIPSE.

67

78. Prop. XVIII. If P Cp be a diameter, QV Q a chord parallel to the tangent at P and meeting P p in V , and if the tangent at Q meet pP produced in T , CV . CT = CP 2 .

Let T Q meet the tangents at P and p in R and r, and S being a focus, join SP , SQ, Sp. Let fall perpendiculars RN , RM , rn, rm upon these focal distances; then, since the angle SP R = Spr (Cor. Art. 69), RP : rp :: RN : rn :: RM : rm (Cor. Art. 15), :: RQ : rQ; :: P V : V p. Hence or or T P : T p :: P V : V p, CT CP : CT + CP :: CP CV : CP + CV ; CT : CP :: CP : CV, CT . CV = CP 2 .

Cor. 1. Hence, since CV and CP are the same for the point Q , the tangent at Q passes through T . Cor. 2. Since T p : T P :: pV : V P , it follows that T P V p is harmonically divided. It will be seen in a subsequent chapter that this is a particular case of a general theorem.

THE ELLIPSE.

68

Properties of Conjugate Diameters. 79. Prop. XIX. A diameter bisects all chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities. We have shewn in Art. 21, that, if QQ be a chord of a conic, T Q, T Q the tangents at Q, Q , and EP E a tangent parallel to QQ , the length EE is bisected at P . Draw the diameter P Cp; the tangent epe at p is parallel to EP E (Art. 69), and is therefore parallel to QQ .

Hence ep = pe , and P , p being the middle points of the parallels ee , EE the line P p passes through T , and moreover bisects QQ . Similarly, if any other chord qq be drawn parallel to QQ the tangents at q and q will meet in pP produced, and qq will be bisected by pP . Cor. Hence, if QQ , qq be two chords parallel to the tangent at P , the chords Qq, Q q will meet in CP or CP produced. 80. Def. The diameter DCd, drawn parallel to the tangent at P , is said to be conjugate to P Cp. A diameter therefore bisects all chords parallel to its conjugate. Prop. XX. If the diameter DCd be conjugate to P Cp, then will P Cp be conjugate to DCd. Let the chord QV q be parallel to DCd, and therefore bisected by P C, and draw the diameter qCR.

THE ELLIPSE. Join QR meeting CD in U ; then RC = Cq, and QV = V q; QR is parallel to CP . Also QU : U R :: qC : CR, and therefore QU = U R. That is, CD bisects the chords parallel to P Cp; therefore P Cp is conjugate to DCd.

69

Def. Chords drawn from the extremities of a diameter to any point of the ellipse are called supplemental chords. Thus qQ, RQ are supplemental chords, and hence it appears that supplemental chords are parallel to conjugate diameters. Def. A line QV drawn from a point Q of an ellipse, parallel to the tangent at P and terminated by the diameter P Cp, is called an ordinate of that diameter, and QV q is the double ordinate if QV produced meet the curve in q. 81. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter.

From Art. 70, it appears that if CQT parallel to SP meet in T the tangent at P , CT = AC. Draw P V parallel to the tangent at Q; then CQ2 = CV . CT = CV . AC;

THE ELLIPSE.

70

but the diameter through C parallel to the tangent at Q bisects P p (Art. 80), so that P p = 2CV ; Qq 2 = P p . AA . 82. Prop. XXI. If P Cp, DCd be conjugate diameters, and QV an ordinate of P p, QV 2 : P V . V p :: CD2 : CP 2 . Let the tangent at Q (Fig. Art. 80) meet CP , CD produced in T and t, and draw QU parallel to CP and meeting CD in U . Then and CP 2 = CV . CT, CD2 = CU . Ct = QV . Ct; CD2 : CP 2 :: QV . Ct : CV . CT :: QV 2 : CV . V T, CV . V T = CV . CT CV 2 = CP 2 CV 2 = P V . V p, 2 CD : CP 2 :: QV 2 : P V . V p.

and

83. Prop. XXII. If ACA , BCB be a pair of conjugate diameters, P CP , DCD another pair, and if P N , DM be ordinates of ACA , CN 2 = AM . M A , CM 2 = AN . N A , CM : P N :: AC : BC, DM : CN :: BC : AC.

and

Let the tangents at P and D meet ACA in T and t.

THE ELLIPSE.

71

Then hence

CN . CT = AC 2 = CM . Ct; CM : CN :: CT : Ct :: P T : CD :: P N : DM :: CN : M t,

CN 2 = CM . M t = AC 2 CM 2 = AM . M A , and similarly, CM 2 = AN . N A . Also and similarly DM 2 : AM . M A :: BC 2 : AC 2 , DM : CN :: BC : AC, CM : P N :: AC : BC.

Cor. We have shewn in the course of the proof that CN 2 + CM 2 = AC 2 . By similar reasoning it appears that if P n, Dm, be ordinates of BCB , Cn2 + Cm2 = BC 2 ; P N 2 + DM 2 = BC 2 . It should be noticed that these relations are shewn to be true when ACA , BCB are any conjugate diameters, including of course the principal axes. 84. Prop. XXIII. If CP , CD be conjugate semi-diameters, and AC, BC the principal semi-diameters, CP 2 + CD2 = AC 2 + BC 2 . From the preceding article, CN 2 + CM 2 = AC 2 , and P N 2 + DM 2 = BC 2 ; also ACB being in this case a right angle, and P N 2 + CN 2 = CP 2 , DM 2 + CM 2 = CD2 , CP 2 + CD2 = AC 2 + BC 2 .

85. Def. If the ordinate N P of a point, when produced, meets the auxiliary circle in Q, the angle ACQ is called the eccentric angle of the point P .

THE ELLIPSE.

72

Prop. XXIV. If CP , CD be conjugate semi-diameters, the dierence between the eccentric angles of P and D is a right angle.

From Art. 67, and, from Art. 83,

RM : DM :: AC : BC CN : DM :: AC : BC

RM = CN, and similarly, QN = CM. The triangles QCN , CRM are equal, and the angles QCN , RCM are complementary. QCR is a right angle. 86. Prop. XXV. If the normal at P meet the principal axes in G and g, P G : CD :: BC : AC, and P g : CD :: AC : BC. For, the triangles DCM , P GN being similar, P G : CD :: P N : CM :: BC : AC. So also P gn and DCM are similar, and P g : CD :: P n : DM :: AC : BC.

THE ELLIPSE.

73

Hence it follows that P G . P g = CD2 . 87. Prop. XXVI. The parallelogram formed by the tangents at the ends of conjugate diameters is equal to the rectangle contained by the principal axes. For, taking the preceding gure, P G : BC :: CD : AC; but P G : BC :: BC : P F (Art. 77), CD : AC :: BC : P F, and CD . P F = AC . BC, whence the theorem stated. 88. Prop. XXVII. If SP , S P be the focal distances of P , and CD be conjugate to CP , SP . S P = CD2 , and SY : SP :: BC : CD. Let CD meet SP , S P in E and E , and the normal at P in F ; then SP Y , P EF , and S P Y are similar triangles; SP : SY :: P E : P F, and S P : S Y :: P E : P F ;

THE ELLIPSE. SP . S P : SY . S Y :: P E 2 : P F 2 :: AC 2 : P F 2 :: CD2 : BC 2 (Art. 87); SP . S P = CD2 . Also SY : SP :: P F : P E :: P F : AC, SY : SP :: BC : CD.

74

89. Prop. XXVIII. If the tangent at P meet a pair of conjugate diameters in T and T , and CD be conjugate to CP , P T . P T = CD2 .

From the gure P T : P N :: CD : DM ; and, if T P produced meet CB in T , P T : CN :: CD : CM ; P T . P T : P N . CN :: CD2 : DM . CM. But P N . CN = DM . CM (Art. 83), P T . P T = CD2 .

Cor. Let T QU be the tangent at the other end of the chord P N Q, meeting
CB produced in U ; and let CE be the semi-diameter parallel to T Q.

Then

T P : T Q :: P T : QU, T P 2 : T Q2 :: P T . P T : QT . QU :: CD2 : CE 2 ,

that is, the two tangents drawn from any point are in the ratio of the parallel diameters.

THE ELLIPSE.

75

In a similar manner it can be shewn that, if the tangent at P meet the tangents at the ends of a diameter ACA in T and T , P T . P T = CD2 , CD being conjugate to CP , and AT . A T = CB 2 , CB being conjugate to ACA .

90. Equi-conjugate diameters. Prop. XXIX. The diagonals of the rectangle formed by the principal axes are equal and conjugate diameters. For, joining AB, A B, these lines are parallel to the diagonals CF , CE; and, AB, A B being supplemental chords, it follows that CD, CP are conjugate to each other. Moreover, they are equally inclined to the axes, and are therefore of equal length. Cor. 1. If QV , QU be drawn parallel to the equi-conjugate diameters, meeting them in V and U , QV 2 : CP 2 CV 2 :: CD2 : CP 2 ; QV 2 = CP 2 CV 2 = P V . V P , if P be the other end of the diameter P CP . Hence QV 2 + QU 2 = CP 2 . Cor. 2. CP 2 + CD2 = AC 2 + BC 2 (Art. 84); 2CP 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 .

91. Prop. XXX. Pairs of tangents at right angles to each other intersect on a xed circle. The two tangents being T P , T P , let S P produced meet SY the perpendicular on T P in K. Then the angle P T K = ST P = S T P ; S T K is a right angle. Hence 4AC 2 = S K 2 = S T 2 + T K 2 = S T 2 + ST 2 = 2CT 2 + 2CS 2 (Euclid, ii. 12 and 13); CT 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 ,

THE ELLIPSE. and T lies on a xed circle, of which C is the centre.

76

This circle is called the Director Circle of the Ellipse, and it will be seen that when the ellipse, by the elongation of SC from S is transformed into a parabola, the director circle merges into the directrix of the parabola. Cor. If XQ is the tangent to the director circle from the foot of the directrix, XQ2 = CX 2 CQ2 = CX 2 CA2 CB 2 = CX 2 SC . CX SC . SX (Arts. 61 and 63), = CX . SX SC . SX = SX 2 . XQ = SX, and hence it follows that the directrix is the radical axis of the director circle and of a point circle at the focus. 92. Prop. XXXI. The rectangles contained by the segments of any two chords which intersect each other are in the ratio of the squares of the parallel diameters. Through any point O in a chord OQQ draw the diameter ORR , and let CD be parallel to QQ , and CP conjugate to CD, bisecting QQ in V . Draw RU parallel to CD. Then But CD2 RU 2 : CU 2 :: CD2 : CP 2 (Art. 82), :: CD2 QV 2 : CV 2 . RU 2 : CU 2 :: OV 2 : CV 2 ; CD2 : CU 2 :: CD2 + OV 2 QV 2 : CV 2

THE ELLIPSE.

77

or

or

CD2 : CD2 + OV 2 QV 2 :: CU 2 :: CR2 CD2 : OV 2 QV 2 :: CR2 CD2 : OQ . OQ :: CR2

: CV 2 : CO2 ; : CO2 CR2 , : OR . OR .

Similarly, if Oqq be any other chord through O, and Cd the parallel semi-diameter, Cd2 : Oq . Oq :: CR2 : OR . OR ; OQ . OQ : Oq . Oq :: CD2 : Cd2 . This may otherwise be expressed thus, The ratio of the rectangles of the segments depends only on the directions in which they are drawn. The proof is the same if the point O be within the ellipse. 93. Prop. XXXII. If a circle intersect an ellipse in four points, the several pairs of the chords of intersection are equally inclined to the axes. For if QQ , qq be a pair of the chords of intersection, and if these meet in O, or be produced to meet in O, the rectangles OQ . OQ , Oq . Oq are proportional to the squares on the parallel diameters. But these rectangles are equal since QQ , qq are chords of a circle. Therefore the parallel diameters are equal, and, since equal diameters are equally inclined to the axes, it follows that the chords QQ , qq are equally inclined to the axes. Conversely, if two chords, not parallel, be equally inclined to the axes a circle can be drawn through their extremities. For, as in Art. 92, if OQQ , Oqq be two chords, and CD, Cd the parallel semi-diameters, OQ . OQ : Oq . Oq :: CD2 : Cd2 ;

EXAMPLES. but, if CD and Cd be equally inclined to the axes, they are equal, and OQ . OQ = Oq . Oq , and the points Q, Q , q, q are concyclic.

78

EXAMPLES.
1. If the tangent at B meet the latus rectum produced in D, CDX is a right angle. 2. If P Cp be a diameter, and the focal distance pS produced meet the tangent at P in T , SP = ST . 3. If the normal at P meet the axis minor in G and G N be the perpendicular from G on SP , then P N = AC. 4. The tangent at P bisects any straight line perpendicular to AA and terminated by AP , A P , produced if necessary. 5. Draw a tangent to an ellipse parallel to a given line. 6. SR being the semi-latus rectum, if RA meet the directrix in E, and S E meet the tangent at A in T , AT = AS. 7. Prove that SY : SP :: SR : P G. Find where the angle SP S is greatest. 8. If two points E and E be taken in the normal P G such that P E = P E = CD, the loci of E and E are circles. 9. If from the focus S a line be drawn parallel to SP , it will meet the perpendicular SY in the circumference of a circle. 10. If the normal at P meet the axis major in G, prove that P G is an harmonic mean between the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangent at P . 11. The straight line N Q is drawn parallel to AP to meet CP in Q; prove that AQ is parallel to the tangent at P . 12. The locus of the intersection with the ordinate of the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent is an ellipse.

EXAMPLES.

79

13. If a rectangle circumscribes an ellipse, its diagonals are the directions of conjugate diameters. 14. If tangents T P , T Q be drawn at the extremities, P , Q of any focal chord of an ellipse, prove that the angle P T Q is half the supplement of the angle which P Q subtends at the other focus. 15. If Y , Z be the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangent at P ; prove that Y , N , Z, C are concyclic. 16. If AQ be drawn from one of the vertices perpendicular to the tangent at any point P , prove that the locus of the point of intersection of P S and QA produced will be a circle. 17. The straight lines joining each focus to the foot of the perpendicular from the other focus on the tangent at any point meet on the normal at the point and bisect it. 18. If two circles touch each other internally, the locus of the centres of circles touching both is an ellipse whose foci are the centres of the given circles. 19. The subnormal at any point P is a third proportional to the intercept of the tangent at P on the major axis and half the minor axis. 20. If the normal at P meet the axis major in G and the axis minor in g, Gg : Sg :: SA : AX, and if the tangent meet the axis minor in t, St : tg :: BC : CD. 21. If the normal at a point P meet the axis in G, and the tangent at P meet the axis in T , prove that T Q : T P :: BC : P G, Q being the point where the ordinate at P meets the auxiliary circle. 22. If the tangent at any point P meet the tangent at the extremities of the axis AA in F and F , prove that the rectangle AF , A F is equal to the square on the semi-axis minor. 23. T P , T Q are tangents; prove that a circle can be described with T as centre so as to touch SP , HP , SQ, and HQ, or these lines produced, S and H being the foci. 24. If two equal and similar ellipses have the same centre, their points of intersection are at the extremities of diameters at right angles to one another.

EXAMPLES.

80

25. The external angle between any two tangents to an ellipse is equal to the semi-sum of the angles which the chord joining the points of contact subtends at the foci. 26. The tangent at any point P meets the axes in T and t; if S be a focus the angles P St, ST P are equal. 27. A conic is drawn touching an ellipse at the extremities A, B of the axes, and passing through the centre C of the ellipse; prove that the tangent at C is parallel to AB. 28. The tangent at any point P is cut by any two conjugate diameters in T , t, and the points T , t are joined with the foci S, H respectively; prove that the triangles SP T , HP t are similar to each other. 29. If the diameter conjugate to CP meet SP , and HP (or these produced) in E and E , prove that SE is equal to HE , and that the circles which circumscribe the triangles SCE, HCE , are equal to one another. 30. P G is a normal, terminating in the major axis; the circle, of which P G is a diameter, cuts SP , HP , in K, L, respectively: prove that KL is bisected by P G, and is perpendicular to it. 31. Tangents are drawn from any point in a circle through the foci, prove that the lines bisecting the angles between the several pairs of tangents all pass through a xed point. 32. If a quadrilateral circumscribe an ellipse, the angles subtended by opposite sides at one of the foci are together equal to two right angles. 33. If the normal at P meet the axis minor in G, and if the tangent at P meet the tangent at the vertex A in V , shew that SG : SC :: P V : V A. 34. P , Q are points in two confocal ellipses, at which the line joining the common foci subtends equal angles; prove that the tangents at P , Q are inclined at an angle which is equal to the angle subtended by P Q at either focus. 35. The transverse axis is the greatest and the conjugate axis the least of all the diameters. 36. Prove that the locus of the centre of the circle inscribed in the triangle SP S is an ellipse.

EXAMPLES.

81

37. If the tangent and ordinate at P meet the transverse axis in T and N , prove that any circle passing through N and T will cut the auxiliary circle orthogonally. 38. If SY , S Y be the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangent at a point P , and P N the ordinate, prove that P Y : P Y :: N Y : N Y . 39. If a circle, passing through Y and Z, touch the major axis in Q, and that diameter of the circle, which passes through Q, meet the tangent in P , then P Q = BC. 40. From the centre of two concentric circles a straight line is drawn to cut them in P and Q; from P and Q straight lines are drawn parallel to two given lines at right angles. Shew that the locus of their point of intersection is an ellipse. 41. From any two points P , Q on an ellipse four lines are drawn to the foci S, S : prove that SP . S Q and SQ . S P are to one another as the squares of the perpendiculars from a focus on the tangents at P and Q. 42. Two conjugate diameters are cut by the tangent at any point P in M , N ; prove that the area of the triangle CP M varies inversely as that of the triangle CP N . 43. If P be any point on the curve, and AV be drawn parallel to P C to meet the conjugate CD in V , prove that the areas of the triangles CAV , CP N are equal, P N being the ordinate. 44. Two tangents to an ellipse intersect at right angles; prove that the sum of the squares on the chords intercepted on them by the auxiliary circle is constant. 45. Prove that the distance between the two points on the circumference, at which a given chord, not passing through the centre, subtends the greatest and least angles, is equal to the diameter which bisects that chord. 46. The tangent at P intersects a xed tangent in T ; if S is the focus and a line be drawn through S perpendicular to ST , meeting the tangent at P in Q, shew that the locus of Q is a straight line touching the ellipse. the the the the 47. Shew that, if the distance between the foci be greater than the length of axis minor, there will be four positions of the tangent, for which the area of triangle, included between it and the straight lines drawn from the centre of curve to the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangent, will be greatest possible.

EXAMPLES.

82

48. Two ellipses whose axes are equal, each to each, are placed in the same plane with their centres coincident, and axes inclined to each other. Draw their common tangents. 49. An ellipse is inscribed in a triangle, having one focus at the orthocentre; prove that the centre of the ellipse is the centre of the nine-point circle of the triangle and that its transverse axis is equal to the radius of that circle. 50. The tangent at any point P of a circle meets the tangent at a xed point A in T , and T is joined with B the extremity of the diameter passing through A; the locus of the point of intersection of AP , BT is an ellipse. 51. The ordinate N P at a point P meets, when produced, the circle on the major axis in Q. If S be a focus of the ellipse, prove that SQ : SP :: the axis major : the chord of the circle through Q and S, and that the diameter of the ellipse parallel to SP is equal to the same chord. 52. If the perpendicular from the centre C on the tangent at P meet the focal distance SP produced in R, the locus of R is a circle, the diameter of which is equal to the axis major. 53. A perfectly elastic billiard ball lies on an elliptical billiard table, and is projected in any direction along the table: shew that all the lines in which it moves after each successive impact touch an ellipse or an hyperbola confocal with the billiard table. 54. Shew that a circle can be drawn through the foci and the intersections of any tangent with the tangents at the vertices. 55. If CP , CD be conjugate semi-diameters, and a rectangle be described so as to have P D for a diagonal and its sides parallel to the axes, the other angular points will be situated on two xed straight lines passing through the centre C. 56. If the tangent at P meet the minor axis in T , prove that the areas of the triangles SP S , ST S are in the ratio of the squares on CD and ST . 57. Find the locus of the centre of the circle touching the transverse axis, SP , and S P produced. 58. In an ellipse SQ and S Q, drawn perpendicularly to a pair of conjugate diameters, intersect in Q; prove that the locus of Q is a concentric ellipse. 59. If the ordinate N P meet the auxiliary circle in Q, the perpendicular from S on the tangent at Q is equal to SP .

EXAMPLES.

83

60. If P T , QT be tangents at corresponding points of an ellipse and its auxiliary circle, shew that P T : QT :: BC : P F. 61. If CQ be conjugate to the normal at P , then is CP conjugate to the normal at Q. 62. P Q is one side of a parallelogram described about an ellipse, having its sides parallel to conjugate diameters, and the lines joining P , Q to the foci intersect in D, E; prove that the points D, E and the foci are concyclic. 63. If the centre, a tangent, and the transverse axis be given, prove that the directrices pass each through a xed point. 64. The straight line joining the feet of perpendiculars from the focus on two tangents is at right angles to the line joining the intersection of the tangents with the other focus. 65. A circle passes through a focus, has its centre on the major axis of the ellipse, and touches the ellipse: shew that the straight line from the focus to the point of contact is equal to the latus rectum. 66. Prove that the perimeter of the quadrilateral formed by the tangent, the perpendiculars from the foci, and the transverse axis, will be the greatest possible when the focal distances of the point of contact are at right angles to each other. 67. Given a focus, the length of the transverse axis, and that the second focus lies on a straight line, prove that the ellipse will touch two xed parabolas having the given focus for focus. 68. Tangents are drawn from a point on one of the equi-conjugate diameters; prove that the point, the centre, and the two points of contact are concyclic. 69. If P N be the ordinate of P , and if with centre C and radius equal to P N a circle be described intersecting P N in Q, prove that the locus of Q is an ellipse. 70. If AQO be drawn parallel to CP , meeting the curve in Q and the minor axis in O, 2CP 2 = AO . AQ. 71. P S is a focal distance; CR is a radius of the auxiliary circle parallel to P S, and drawn in the direction from P to S; SQ is a perpendicular on CR: shew that the rectangle contained by SP and QR is equal to the square on half the minor axis.

EXAMPLES.

84

72. If a focus be joined with the point where the tangent at the nearer vertex intersects any other tangent, and perpendiculars be let fall from the other focus on the joining line and on the last-mentioned tangent, prove that the distance between the feet of these perpendiculars is equal to the distance from either focus to the remoter vertex. 73. A parallelogram is described about an ellipse; if two of its angular points lie on the directrices, the other two will lie on the auxiliary circle. 74. From a point in the auxiliary circle straight lines are drawn touching the ellipse in P and P ; prove that SP is parallel to S P . 75. Find the locus of the points of contact of tangents to a series of confocal ellipses from a xed point in the axis major. 76. A series of confocal ellipses intersect a given straight line; prove that the locus of the points of intersection of the pairs of tangents drawn at the extremities of the chords of intersection is a straight line at right angles to the given straight line. 77. Given a focus and the length of the major axis; describe an ellipse touching a given straight line and passing through a given point. 78. Given a focus and the length of the major axis; describe an ellipse touching two given straight lines. 79. Find the positions of the foci and directrices of an ellipse which touches at two given points P , Q, two given straight lines P O, QO, and has one focus on the line P Q, the angle P OQ being less than a right angle. 80. Through any point P of an ellipse are drawn straight lines AP Q, A P R, meeting the auxiliary circle in Q, R, and ordinates Qq, Rr are drawn to the transverse axis; prove that, L being an extremity of the latus rectum, Aq . A r : Ar . A q :: AC 2 : SL2 . 81. If a tangent at a point P meet the major axis in T , and the perpendiculars from the focus and centre in Y and Z, then T Y 2 : P Y 2 :: T Z : P Z. 82. An ellipse slides between two lines at right angles to each other; nd the locus of its centre.

EXAMPLES.

85

83. T P , T Q are two tangents, and CP , CQ are the radii from the centre respectively parallel to these tangents, prove that P Q is parallel to P Q. 84. The tangent at P meets the minor axis in t; prove that St . P N = BC . CD. 85. If the circle, centre t, and radius tS, meet the ellipse in Q, and QM be the ordinate, prove that QM : P N :: BC : BC + CD. 86. Perpendiculars SY , S Y are let fall from the foci upon a pair of tangents T Y , T Y ; prove that the angles ST Y , S T Y are equal to the angles at the base of the triangle Y CY . 87. P Q is the chord of an ellipse normal at P , LCL the diameter bisecting it, shew that P Q bisects the angle LP L and that LP + P L is constant. 88. ABC is an isosceles triangle of which the side AB is equal to the side AC. BD, BE drawn on opposite sides of BC and equally inclined to it meet AC in D and E. If an ellipse is described round BDE having its axis minor parallel to BC, then AB will be a tangent to the ellipse. 89. If A be the extremity of the major axis and P any point on the curve, the bisectors of the angles P SA, P S A meet on the tangent at P . 90. If two ellipses intersect in four points, the diameters parallel to a pair of the chords of intersection are in the same ratio to each other. 91. From any point P of an ellipse a straight line P Q is drawn perpendicular to the focal distance SP , and meeting in Q the diameter conjugate to that through P ; shew that P Q varies inversely as the ordinate of P . 92. If a tangent to an ellipse intersect at right angles a tangent to a confocal ellipse, the point of intersection lies on a xed circle. 93. If from a point T in the director circle of an ellipse tangents T P , T P are drawn, the line joining T with the intersection of the normals at P and P passes through C. 94. Through the middle point of a focal chord a straight line is drawn at right angles to it to meet the axis in R; prove that SR bears to SC the duplicate ratio of the chord to the diameter parallel to it, S being the focus and C the centre.

EXAMPLES.

86

95. The tangent at a point P meets the auxiliary circle in Q to which corresponds Q on the ellipse; prove that the tangent at Q cuts the auxiliary circle in the point corresponding to P . 96. If a chord be drawn to a series of concentric, similar, and similarly situated ellipses, and meet one in P and Q, and if on P Q as diameter a circle be described meeting that ellipse again in RS, shew that RS is constant in position for all the ellipses. 97. An ellipse touches the sides of a triangle; prove that if one of its foci move along the arc of a circle passing through two of the angular points of the triangle, the other will move along the arc of a circle through the same two angular points. 98. The normal at a point P of an ellipse meets the conjugate axis in K, and a circle is described with centre K and passing through the foci S and H. The lines SQ, HQ, drawn through any point Q of this circle, meet the tangent at P in T and t; prove that T and t lie on a pair of conjugate diameters. 99. If SP , S Q be parallel focal distances drawn towards the same parts, the tangents at P and Q intersect on the auxiliary circle. 100. Having given one focus, one tangent and the eccentricity of an ellipse, prove that the locus of the other focus is a circle. 101. P SQ is a focal chord of an ellipse, and pq is any parallel chord; if P Q meet in T the tangent at p, pq : P Q :: Sp : ST. 102. If an ellipse be inscribed in a quadrilateral so that one focus is equidistant from the four vertices, the other focus must be at the intersection of the diagonals. 103. If a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse be produced to meet either directrix, prove that the orthocentre of the triangle so formed is the corresponding focus of the curve. 104. A pair of conjugate diameters intercept, on the tangent at either vertex, a length which subtends supplementary angles at the foci. 105. The straight lines T P , T Q are the tangents at the points P , Q of an ellipse; one circle touches T P at P and meets T Q in Q and Q , and another circle touches T Q at Q and meets T P in P and P ; prove that P Q and P Q are parallel, and that they are divided in the same ratio by the ellipse.

EXAMPLES.

87

106. If the normals at P and D meet in E, prove that EC is perpendicular to P D, and that the straight line joining C to the centroid of the triangle EP D bisects the line joining E to T , the point of intersection of the tangents at P and D. 107. A chord P Q, normal at P , meets the directrices in K and L, and the tangents at P and Q meet in T ; prove that P K and QL subtend equal angles at T , and that KL subtends at T an angle which is half the sum of the angles subtended by SS at the ends of the chord. 108. The tangent at the point P meets the directrices in E and F ; prove that the other tangents from E and F intersect on the normal at P . 109. If the tangent at any point meets a pair of conjugate diameters in T and T , prove that T T subtends supplementary angles at the foci. 110. P SQ, P S R are focal chords; prove that the tangent at P and the chord QR cut the major axis at equal distances from the centre.

CHAPTER IV.
The Hyperbola.
DEFINITION. An hyperbola is the curve traced by a point which moves in such a manner, that its distance from a given point is in a constant ratio of greater inequality to its distance from a given straight line.

Tracing the Curve. 94. Let S be the focus, EX the directrix, and A the vertex.

Then, as in Art. 1, any number of points on the curve may be obtained by taking successive positions of E on the directrix.

THE HYPERBOLA.

89

In SX produced, nd a point A such that SA : A X :: SA : AX, then A is the other vertex as in the ellipse, and, the eccentricity being greater than unity, the points A and A are evidently on opposite sides of the directrix. Find the point P corresponding to E, and let A E, P S produced meet in P , then, if P K perpendicular to the directrix meet SE produced in L , P L : P K :: SA : A X :: SA : AX, and the angle P L S = L SX = L SP ; SP = P L . Hence P is a point in the curve, and P SP is a focal chord. Following out the construction we observe that, since SA is greater than AX, there are two points on the directrix, e and e , such that Ae and Ae are each equal to AS. If E coincide with e, the angle QSL = LSN = ASe = AeS.

Hence SQ, AP are parallel, and the corresponding point of the curve is at an innite distance; and similarly the curve tends to innity in the direction Ae . Further, the angle ASE is less or greater than AES, according as the point E is, or is not, between e and e . Hence, when E is below e, the curve lies above the axis, to the right of the directrix; when between e and X, below the axis to the left; when between

THE HYPERBOLA.

90

X and e , above the axis to the left; and when above e , below the axis to the right. Hence a general idea can be obtained of the form of the curve, tending to innity in four directions, as in the gure of Art. 102.

DEFINITIONS. The line AA is called the transverse axis of the hyperbola. The middle point, C, of AA is the centre. Any straight line, drawn through C and terminated by the curve, is called a diameter. 95. Prop. I. If P be any point of an hyperbola, and AA its transverse axis, and if A P , and P A produced, (or P A and P A produced ) meet the directrix in E and F , EF subtends a right angle at the focus.

By the theorem of Art. 4, ES bisects the angle ASP and F S bisects ASP ; ESF is a right angle. SAA being a focal chord, this is a particular case of the theorem of Art. 6. 96. Prop. II. If P N be the ordinate of a point P , and ACA the transverse axis, P N 2 is to AN . N A in a constant ratio. Join AP, A P , meeting the directrix in E and F . Then P N : AN :: EX : AX, and P N : A N :: F X : A X; 2 P N : AN . N A :: EX . F X : AX . A X :: SX 2 : AX . A X, since ESF is a right angle; that is, P N 2 is to AN . N A , in a constant ratio.

THE HYPERBOLA.

91

Through C, the middle point of AA , draw CB at right angles to the axis, and such that BC 2 : AC 2 :: SX 2 : AX . A X; then P N 2 : AN . N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 or P N 2 : CN 2 AC 2 :: BC 2 AC 2 Cor. If P M be the perpendicular from P to BC P M = CN, and P N = CM ; CM 2 : P M 2 AC 2 :: BC 2 : AC 2 or CM 2 : BC 2 :: P M 2 AC 2 : AC 2 CM 2 + BC 2 : BC 2 :: P M 2 : AC 2 or P M 2 : CM 2 + BC 2 :: AC 2 : BC 2 97. If we describe the circle on AA as diameter, which we may term, for convenience, the auxiliary circle, the rectangle AN . N A is equal to the square on the tangent to the circle from N . Hence the preceding theorem may be thus expressed: The ordinate of an hyperbola is to the tangent from its foot to the auxiliary circle in the ratio of the conjugate to the transverse axis. Def. If CB be taken equal to CB, on the other side of the axis, the line BCB is called the conjugate axis. The two lines AA , BB are the principal axes of the curve. When these lines are equal, the hyperbola is said to be equilateral, or rectangular. The lines AA , BB are sometimes called major and minor axes, but, as AA is not necessarily greater than BB , these terms cannot with propriety be generally employed.

THE HYPERBOLA.

92

If a point N be taken on CA produced, such that CN = CN , the corresponding ordinate P N = P N , and therefore it follows that the curve is symmetrical with regard to BCB , and that there is another focus and directrix, corresponding to the vertex A . 98. Prop. III. If ACA be the transverse axis, C the centre, S one of the foci, and X the foot of the directrix, and CS : CA :: CA : CX :: SA : AX, CS : CX :: CS 2 : CA2 .

Interchanging the positions of S and X for a new

gure, the proof of these relations is identical with the proof given for the ellipse in Art. 61. 99. axis, Prop. IV. If S be a focus, and B an extremity of the conjugate BC 2 = AS . SA , and SC 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 . Referring to Art. (98), SX = SA + AX; SX : AX :: SA + AX : AX, :: SC + AC : AC; and similarly SX : A X :: SC AC : AC; SX 2 : AX . A X :: SC 2 AC 2 : AC 2 . But BC 2 : AC 2 :: SX 2 : AX . A X; BC 2 = SC 2 AC 2 = AS . SA . Hence SC 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 = AB 2 ; i.e. SC is equal to the line joining the ends of the axes.

THE HYPERBOLA.

93

100. Prop. V. The dierence of the focal distances of any point is equal to the transverse axis. For, if P KK , perpendicular to the directrices, meet them in K and K , S P : P K :: SA : AX, and SP : P K :: SA : AX; S P SP : KK :: SA : AX, :: AA : XX (Art. 98); S P SP = AA . Cor. 1. SP : N X SP : AC SP + AC : AC SP + AC : CN S P AC : CN :: AC : CX; :: N X : CX; :: CN : CX, :: SA : AX. :: SA : AX.

or Hence also

Cor. 2. Hence also it can be easily shewn, that the dierence of the distances of any point from the foci of an hyperbola, is greater or less than the transverse axis, according as the point is within or without the concave side of the curve. 101. Mechanical Construction of the Hyperbola.

Let a straight rod S L be moveable in the plane of the paper about the point S . Take a piece of string, the length of which is less than that of the rod, and fasten one end to a xed point S, and the other end to L; then, pressing a pencil against the string so as to keep it stretched, and a part of it P L in contact with the rod, the pencil will trace out on the paper an hyperbola, having its foci at S and S , and its transverse axis equal to the dierence between the length of the rod and that of the string.

THE HYPERBOLA.

94

This construction gives the right-hand branch of the curve; to trace the other branch, take the string longer than the rod, and such that it exceeds the length of the rod by the transverse axis. We may remark that by taking a longer rod M S L, and taking the string longer than SS + S L, so that the point P will be always on the end S M of the rod, we shall obtain an ellipse of which S and S are the foci. Moreover, remembering that a parabola is the limiting form of an ellipse when one of the foci is removed to an innite distance, the mechanical construction given for the parabola will be seen to be a particular case of the above.

The Asymptotes. 102. We have shewn in Art. 94 that if two points, e and e , be taken on the directrix such that Ae = Ae = AS, the lines eA, e A meet the curve at an innite distance. These lines are parallel to the diagonals of the rectangle formed by the axes, for Ae : AX :: AS : AX :: SC : AC, :: AB : AC, (Art. 99). Definition. The diagonals of the rectangle formed by the principal axes are called the asymptotes.

THE HYPERBOLA.

95

We observe that the axes bisect the angles between the asymptotes, and that if a double ordinate, P N P , when produced, meet the asymptotes in Q and Q , PQ = P Q . The gure appended will give the general form of the curve and its connection with the asymptotes and the auxiliary circle. 103. Prop. VI. The asymptotes intersect the directrices in the same points as the auxiliary circle, and the lines joining the corresponding foci with the points of intersection are tangents to the circle. If the asymptote CL meet the directrix in D, joining SD (g. Art. 102), 2 CL = AC 2 + BC 2 = SC 2 , and CD : CX :: CL : CA :: SC : CA :: CA : CX; CD = CA, and D is on the auxiliary circle. Also CS . CX = CA2 = CD2 ; CDS is a right angle, and SD is the tangent at D. Cor. CD2 + SD2 = CS 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 (Art. 99); SD = BC. 104. An asymptote may also be characterized as the ultimate position of a tangent when the point of contact is removed to an innite distance. It appears from Art. 10 that in order to nd the point of contact of a tangent drawn from a point T in the directrix, we must join T with the focus S, and draw through S a straight line at right angles to ST ; this line will meet the curve in the point of contact. In the gures of Arts. 94 and 102 we know that the line through S, parallel to eA or CL, meets the curve in a point at an innite distance, and also that this straight line is at right angles to SD, since SD is at right angles to CD. Hence the tangent from D, that is the line from D to the point at an innite distance, is perpendicular to DS and therefore coincident with CD. The asymptotes therefore touch the curve at an innite distance. 105. Def. If an hyperbola be described, having for its transverse and conjugate axes, respectively, the conjugate and transverse axes of a given hyperbola, it is called the conjugate hyperbola. It is evident from the preceding article that the conjugate hyperbola has the same asymptotes as the original hyperbola, and that the distances of its foci from the centre are also the same.

THE HYPERBOLA.

96

The relations of Art. 96 and its Corollary are also true, mutatis mutandis, of the conjugate hyperbola; thus, if R be a point in the conjugate hyperbola, RM 2 : CM 2 BC 2 :: AC 2 : BC 2 , and CM 2 : RM 2 + AC 2 :: BC 2 : AC 2 . Def. A straight line drawn through the centre and terminated by the conjugate hyperbola is also called a diameter of the original hyperbola. 106. Prop. VII. If from any point Q in one of the asymptotes, two straight lines QP N , QRM be drawn at right angles respectively to the transverse and conjugate axes, and meeting the hyperbola in P , p, and the conjugate hyperbola in R, r, QP . Qp = BC 2 , and QR . Qr = AC 2 .

For

or i.e. Similarly,

or

QN 2 : BC 2 :: CN 2 : AC 2 ; QN 2 BC 2 : BC 2 :: CN 2 AC 2 : AC 2 :: P N 2 : BC 2 ; QN 2 BC 2 = P N 2 , QN 2 P N 2 = BC 2 ; QP . Qp = BC 2 . QM 2 : AC 2 :: CM 2 : BC 2 ; QM 2 AC 2 : AC 2 :: CM 2 BC 2 : BC 2 , :: RM 2 : AC 2 ; QM 2 RM 2 = AC 2 , QR . Qr = AC 2 .

THE HYPERBOLA. These relations may also be given in the form, QP . P q = BC 2 , QR . Rq = AC 2 .

97

Cor. If the point Q be taken at a greater distance from C, the length QN and therefore Qp will be increased, and may be increased indenitely. But the rectangle QP . Qp is of nite magnitude; hence QP will be indenitely diminished, and the curve, therefore, as it recedes from the centre, tends more and more nearly to coincide with the asymptote. A further illustration is thus given of the remarks in Art. 104. 107. If in the preceding gure the line Qq be produced to meet the conjugate hyperbola in E and e, it can be shewn, in the same manner as in Art. 106, that QE . Qe = BC 2 ; and this equality is still true when the line Qq lies between C and A, in which case Qq does not meet the hyperbola.

Properties of the Tangent and Normal. 108. In the case of the hyperbola the theorem, proofs of which are given in Arts. 15 and 16, takes the following form: The tangents drawn from any point to an hyperbola subtend equal or supplementary angles at either focus according as they touch the same or opposite branches of the curve.

THE HYPERBOLA.

98

For, T being the point of intersection of tangents to opposite branches of the curve, let T M , T M be the perpendiculars let fall from T on SP and SQ, then, as in Arts. 15 and 16, T M = T M ; the angles T SM , T SM are equal, and consequently the angles T SP , T SQ are supplementary. 109. Prop. VIII. The tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of that point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal distances. Let the normal at P meet the axis in G. Then (Art. 18), and SG : SP :: SA : AX, S G : S P :: SA : AX; SG : S G :: SP : S P ;

and therefore the angle between SP and S P produced is bisected by P G. Hence P T , the tangent which is perpendicular to P G, bisects the angle SP S . Cor. 1. If P T and GP produced meet, respectively, the conjugate axis in t and g, it can be shewn, in exactly the same manner as in the corresponding case of the ellipse (Art. 68), that S, P , S , t, and g are concyclic. Cor. 2. If an ellipse be described having S and S for its foci, and if this ellipse meet the hyperbola in P , the normal at P to the ellipse bisects the angle SP S , and therefore coincides with the tangent to the hyperbola. Hence, if an ellipse and an hyperbola be confocal, that is, have the same foci, they intersect at right angles. 110. Prop. IX. Every diameter is bisected at the centre, and the tangents at the ends of a diameter are parallel. Let P Cp be a diameter, and P N , pn the ordinates. Then CN 2 : Cn2 :: P N 2 : pn2 , :: CN 2 AC 2 : Cn2 AC 2 ;

hence CN = Cn, and CP = Cp. Again, if P T , pt be the tangents, The triangles P CS, pCS are equal in all respects, and therefore SP S p is a parallelogram.

THE HYPERBOLA.

99

Hence the angles SP S , SpS are equal, and therefore SP T = S pt. But SP C = S pC, the dierence T P C = the dierence tpC, and P T is parallel to pt. It can be shewn in exactly the same manner, that, if the diameter be terminated by the conjugate hyperbola, it is bisected in C, and the tangents at its extremities are parallel. Cor. The distances SP , Sp are equally inclined to the tangents at P and p. 111. Prop. X. The perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent meet the tangent on the auxiliary circle, and the semi-conjugate axis is a mean proportional between their lengths. Let SY , S Y be the perpendiculars, and let SY produced meet S P in L.

THE HYPERBOLA. Then the triangles SP Y , LP Y are equal in all respects, and SY = LY.

100

Hence, C being the middle point of SS and Y of SL, CY is parallel to S L, and S L = 2CY . But S L = S P P L = S P SP = 2AC; CY = AC, and Y is on the auxiliary circle. So also Y is a point in the circle. Let SY produced meet the circle in Z, and join Y Z; then, Y Y Z being a right angle, ZY is a diameter and passes through C. Hence, the triangles SCZ, S CY being equal, S Y = SZ, and SY . S Y = SY . SZ = SA . SA = BC 2 . Cor. 1. If P be the other extremity of the diameter P C, the tangent at P is parallel to P Y , and therefore Z is the foot of the perpendicular from S on the tangent at P . Cor. 2. If the diameter DCD , drawn parallel to the tangent at P , meet S P , SP in E and E , P ECY is a parallelogram; P E = CY = AC, and so also P E = CY = AC. 112. Prop. XI. To draw tangents to an hyperbola from a given point. The construction of Art. 17 may be employed, or, as in the cases of the ellipse and parabola, the following.

THE HYPERBOLA.

101

Let Q be the given point; join SQ, and upon SQ as diameter describe a circle intersecting the auxiliary circle in Y and Y ; QY and QY are the required tangents. Producing SY to L, so that Y L = SY , draw S L cutting QY in P , and join SP . The triangles SP Y , LP Y are equal in all respects, and S P SP = S L = 2CY = 2AC; P is a point on the hyperbola.

Also QP bisects the angle SP S , and is therefore the tangent at P . A similar construction will give the other tangent QP . If the point Q be within the angle formed by the asymptotes, the tangents will both touch the same branch of the curve; but if it lie within the external angle, they will touch opposite branches. 113. Prop. XII. If two tangents be drawn from any point to an hyperbola they are equally inclined to the focal distances of that point. Let P Q, P Q be the tangents, SY , S Y , SZ, S Z the perpendiculars from the foci; join Y Z, Y Z .

Then the angles Y SZ, Y S Z are equal, for they are the supplements of Y QZ, Y QZ . Also or SY . S Y = SZ . S Z (Art. 111); SY : SZ :: S Z : S Y ;

THE HYPERBOLA. the triangles Y ZS, Y S Z are similar, and the angle Y ZS = Z Y S . But the angle Y QS = Y ZS, and Z QS = ZY S ; Y QS = Z QS .

102

That is, the tangent QP and the tangent P Q produced are equally inclined to SQ and S Q. Or, producing S Q, QP and QP are equally inclined to QS and S Q produced. In exactly the same manner it can be shewn that if QP , QP touch opposite branches of the curve the angles P QS, P QS are equal. Cor. If Q be a point in a confocal hyperbola, the normal at Q bisects the angle between SQ and S Q produced and therefore bisects the angle P QP . Hence, if from any point of an hyperbola tangents be drawn to a confocal hyperbola, these tangents are equally inclined to the normal or the tangent at the point, according as it lies within or without that angle formed by the asymptotes of the confocal which contains the transverse axes. 114. Prop. XIII. If P T , the tangent at P , meet the transverse axis in T , and P N be the ordinate, CN . CT = AC 2 Let fall the perpendicular SY upon P T , and join Y N , CY , SP , and S P . The angle CY T = S P Y = SP Y = the supplement of SN Y = CN Y ; also the angle Y CT is common to the two triangles CY T , CY N ; these triangles are therefore similar, and CN : CY :: CY : CT, or CN . CT = CY 2 = AC 2 Cor. 1. Hence CN . N T = CN 2 CN . CT = CN 2 AC 2 = AN . N A

THE HYPERBOLA.

103

Cor. 2. Hence also it follows that If any number of hyperbolas be described having the same transverse axis, and an ordinate be drawn cutting the hyperbolas, the tangents at the points of section will all meet the transverse axis in the same point. Cor. 3. If CN be increased indenitely, CT is diminished indenitely, and the tangent ultimately passes through C, as we have already shewn in Art. 104. 115. Prop. XIV. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, and P N be the ordinate, Ct . P N = BC 2 . Ct : P N :: CT : N T ; (Fig. Art. 114) Ct . P N : P N 2 :: CT . CN : CN . N T :: AC 2 : AN . N A . Ct . P N : AC 2 :: P N 2 : AN . N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 , and Ct . P N = BC 2 . In exactly the same manner as in Art. 76, it can be shewn that CG . CT = SC 2 , CG : CN :: SC 2 : AC 2 , Cg : P N :: SC 2 : BC 2 , and N G : CN :: BC 2 : AC 2 . For

116. Prop. XV. If the normal at P meet the transverse axis in G, the conjugate axis in g, and the diameter parallel to the tangent at P in F , P F . P G = BC 2 , and P F . P g = AC 2 . Let N P , P M , perpendicular to the axes, meet the diameter CF in K and L; Then KN G, KF G being right angles, K, F , N , G are concyclic; PF . PG = PK . PN = Ct . P N = BC 2 . Similarly F , L, M , g are concyclic; P F . P g = P L . P M = CT . CN = AC 2 .

THE HYPERBOLA.

104

117. Prop. XVI. If P Cp be a diameter, and QV an ordinate, and if the tangent at Q meet the diameter P p in T , CV . CT = CP 2 . Let the tangents at P and p meet the tangent at Q in R and r;

Then the angle SP R = Spr (Cor. Art. 110) and therefore if RN , rn be the perpendiculars on SP , sp, the triangles RP N , rpn are similar. Draw RM , rm perpendiculars on SQ. Then T R : T r :: RP : rp :: RN : rn, :: RM : rm (Cor. Art. 15) :: RQ : rQ. T P : T p :: P V : pV ; T P + T p : T p T P :: P V + pV : pV P V, 2CP : 2CT :: 2CV : 2CP, CV . CT = CP 2 .

Hence, QV , RP , and rp being parallel,

or or

THE HYPERBOLA.

105

118. Prop. XVII. A diameter bisects all chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities.

Let P Cp be the diameter, and QQ the chord, parallel to the tangents at P and p. Then if the tangents T Q, T Q at Q and Q meet the tangents at P and p, in the points E, E , e, e , EP = E P and ep = e p, (Art. 21) the point T is on the line P p; but T P bisects QQ ; that is, the diameter pCP produced bisects QQ . Def. The line DCd, drawn parallel to the tangent at P and terminated by the conjugate hyperbola, that is, the diameter parallel to the tangent at P , is said to be conjugate to P Cp. A diameter therefore bisects all chords parallel to its conjugate. 119. Prop. XVIII. If the diameter DCd be conjugate to P Cp, then will P Cp be conjugate to DCd. Let the chord QV q be parallel to CD and be bisected in V by CP produced. Draw the diameter qCR, and join RQ meeting CD in U . Then RC = Cq and QV = V q; QR is parallel to CP . Also QU : U R :: Cq : CR, and QU = U R, that is, CD bisects the chords parallel to CP , and P Cp is therefore conjugate to DCd.

THE HYPERBOLA.

106

Hence, when two diameters are conjugate, each bisects the chords parallel to the other. Def. Chords drawn from the extremities of any diameter to a point on the hyperbola are called supplemental chords. Thus, qQ, QR are supplemental chords, and they are parallel to CD and CP ; supplemental chords are therefore parallel to conjugate diameters. Def. A line QV , drawn from any point Q of an hyperbola, parallel to a diameter DCd, and terminated by the conjugate diameter P Cp, is called an ordinate of the diameter P Cp, and if QV produced meet the curve in Q , QV Q is the double ordinate. This denition includes the two cases in which QQ may be drawn so as to meet the same, or opposite branches of the hyperbola. 120. Prop. XIX. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter. This can be proved as in Art. 81.

Properties of Asymptotes. 121. Prop. XX. If from any point Q in an asymptote QP pq be drawn meeting the curve in P , p and the other asymptote in q, and if CD be the semi-diameter parallel to Qq, QP . P q = CD2 and QP = pq. Through P and D draw RP r, DT t perpendicular to the transverse axis, and meeting the asymptotes.

THE HYPERBOLA.

107

Then and But Similarly

QP : RP :: CD : DT, P q : P r :: CD : Dt; QP . P q : RP . P r :: CD2 : DT . Dt. RP . P r = BC 2 = DT . Dt (Arts. 106 and 107), QP . P q = CD2 . qp . pQ = CD2 ; QP . P q = qp . pQ;

or, if V be the middle point of Qq, QV 2 P V 2 = QV 2 pV 2 . Hence P V = pV , and P Q = pq. We have taken the case in which Qq meets one branch of the hyperbola. It may however be shewn in the same manner that the same relations hold good for the case in which Qq meets opposite branches. Cor. If a straight line P P p p meet the hyperbola in P , p, and the conjugate hyperbola in P , p , P P = pp . For, if the line meet the asymptotes in Q, q, QP = p q, and P Q = qp; P P = pp . 122. Prop. XXI. The portion of a tangent which is terminated by the asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact, and is equal to the parallel diameter. LEl being the tangent (Fig. Art. 121), and DCd the parallel diameter, draw any parallel straight line QP pq meeting the curve and the asymptotes. Then QP = pq; and, if the line move parallel to itself until it coincides with Ll, the points P and p coincide with E, and LE = El.

THE HYPERBOLA. Also QP . P q = CD2 , always; LE . El = CD2 , or LE = CD.

108

Properties of Conjugate Diameters. 123. Prop. XXII. Conjugate diameters of an hyperbola are also conjugate diameters of the conjugate hyperbola, and the asymptotes are diagonals of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at their extremities. P Cp and DCd being conjugate, let QV q, a double ordinate of CD, meet the conjugate hyperbola in Q and q . Then QV = V q, and QQ = qq (Cor. Art. 121), QV =Vq. That is, CD bisects the chords of the conjugate hyperbola parallel to CP . Hence CD and CP are conjugate in both hyperbolas, and therefore the tangent at D is parallel to CP . Let the tangent at P meet the asymptote in L; then P L = CD (Art. 122).

Hence LD is parallel and equal to CP ; but the tangent at D is parallel to CP ; LD is the tangent at D. Completing the gure, the tangents at p and d are parallel to those at P and D, and therefore the asymptotes are the diagonals of the parallelogram Lll L .

THE HYPERBOLA.

109

Cor. Hence, joining P D, it follows that P D is parallel to the asymptote lCL , since LP = P L , and LD = Dl, 124. Prop. XXIII. If QV be an ordinate of a diameter P Cp, and DCd the conjugate diameter, QV 2 : P V . V p :: CD2 : CP 2 .

Let QV and the tangent at P meet the asymptote in R and L. Then LP being equal to CD, RV 2 : CD2 :: CV 2 : CP 2 ; RV 2 CD2 : CD2 :: CV 2 CP 2 : CP 2 . But Hence RV 2 QV 2 = CD2 . QV 2 : CD2 :: CV 2 CP 2 : CP 2 , or QV 2 : P V . V p :: CD2 : CP 2 .

125. Prop. XXIV. If QV be an ordinate of a diameter P Cp, and if the tangent at Q meet the conjugate diameter, DCd, in t, Ct . QV = CD2 . For, (Fig. Art. 118) Ct : QV :: CT : V T, and Ct . QV : QV 2 :: CV . CT : CV . V T. But CV . CT = CP 2 , and CV . V T = CV 2 CV . CT = CV 2 CP 2 ; Ct . QV : QV 2 :: CP 2 : CV 2 CP 2 , :: CD2 : QV 2 . Ct . QV = CD2 .

Hence

THE HYPERBOLA.

110

126. Prop. XXV. If ACa, BCb be conjugate diameters, and P Cp, DCd another pair of conjugate diameters, and if P N , DM be ordinates of ACa, CM : P N :: AC : BC, and DM : CN :: BC : AC. Let the tangents at P and D meet ACa in T and t; then CN . CT = AC 2 = CM . Ct (Art. 117), CM : CN :: CT : Ct, :: P T : CD, :: P N : DM, :: CN : M t; so that CN 2 = CM . M t = CM 2 + CM . Ct = CM 2 + AC 2 , CM 2 = CN 2 AC 2 .

But and, similarly,

P N 2 : CN 2 AC 2 :: BC 2 : AC 2 ; CM : P N :: AC : BC; DM : CN :: BC : AC. CN 2 CM 2 = AC 2 .

Cor. We have shewn in the course of the proof, that Similarly, if P n, Dm be ordinates of BC, that is, Cm2 Cn2 = BC 2 ; DM 2 P N 2 = BC 2 ;

and it must be noticed that these relations are shewn for any pair of conjugate diameters ACa, BCb, including of course the axes.

THE HYPERBOLA.

111

127. Prop. XXVI. If CP , CD be conjugate semi-diameters, and AC, BC the semi-axes, CP 2 CD2 = AC 2 BC 2 . For, drawing the ordinates P N , DM , and remembering that in this case the angles at N and M are right angles, we have, from the gure of the previous article, CP 2 = CN 2 + P N 2 , CD2 = CM 2 + DM 2 . But CN 2 CM 2 = AC 2 and DM 2 P N 2 = BC 2 ; CP 2 CD2 = AC 2 BC 2 . 128. Prop. XXVII. If the normal at P meet the axes in G and g, and P G : CD :: BC : AC, P g : CD :: AC : BC.

For the proofs of these relations, see Art. 86. Observe also that P G . P g = CD2 , and that Gg : CD :: SC 2 : AC . BC. 129. Prop. XXVIII. The area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the ends of conjugate diameters is equal to the rectangle contained by the axes. Let CP , CD be the semi-diameters, and P N , DM the ordinates of the transverse axis. Let the normal at P meet CD in F , and the axis in G. Then P N G, CDM are similar triangles, and, exactly as in Art. 87, it can be shewn that P F . CD = AC . BC. Hence it follows that, in the gure of Art. 123, the triangle LCL is of constant area. For the triangle is equal to the parallelogram CP LD.

THE HYPERBOLA.

112

130. Prop. XXIX. If SP , S P be the focal distances of a point P , and CD be conjugate to CP , SP . S P = CD2 . Attending to the gure of Art. 111, the proof is the same as that of Art. 88. 131. Prop. XXX. If the tangent at P meet a pair of conjugate diameters in T and t, and CD be conjugate to CP , P T . P t = CD2 . This can be proved as in Art. 89. It can also be shewn that if the tangent at P meet two parallel tangents in T and t , P T . P t = CD2 . 132. Prop. XXXI. If the tangent at P meet the asymptotes in L and L, CL . CL = SC 2 .

Let the tangent at A meet the asymptotes in K and K ; then (Art. 129) the triangles LCL , KCK are of equal area, and therefore CL : CK :: CK : CL (Euclid, Book vi.), or CL . CL = CK 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 = SC 2 . Cor. If P H, P H be drawn parallel to, and terminated by the asymptotes, 4 . P H . P H = CS 2 , for CL = 2P H , and CL = 2P H.

THE HYPERBOLA.

113

133. Prop. XXXII. Pairs of tangents at right angles to each other intersect on a xed circle. P T , QT being two tangents at right angles, let SY , perpendicular to P T , meet S P in K.

Then (Art. 113) the angle S T Y = QT S, and obviously, KT P = P T S; therefore S T Y is complementary to KT P , and S T K is a right angle. Hence 4AC 2 = S K 2 = S T 2 + T K 2 = S T 2 + ST 2 = 2 . CT 2 + 2 . CS 2 by Euclid ii. 12 and 13; CT 2 = AC 2 BC 2 , and the locus of T is a circle. If AC be less than BC, this relation is impossible. In this case, however, the angle between the asymptotes is greater than a right angle, and the angle P T Q between a pair of tangents, being always greater than the angle between the asymptotes, is greater than a right angle. The problem is therefore ` priori impossible for the hyperbola, but becomes a possible for the conjugate hyperbola. As in the case of the ellipse, the locus of T is called the director circle. 134. Prop. XXXIII. The rectangles contained by the segments of any two chords which intersect each other are in the ratio of the squares on the parallel diameters.

EXAMPLES.

114

Through any point O in a chord QOQ draw the diameter ORR ; and let CD be parallel to QQ , and CP conjugate to CD, bisecting QQ in V . Draw RU an ordinate of CP . Then RU 2 : CU 2 CP 2 :: CD2 : CP 2 ; CD2 + RU 2 : CU 2 :: CD2 : CP 2 , :: CD2 + QV 2 : CV 2 . RU 2 : CU 2 :: OV 2 : CV 2 ; CD2 : CU 2 :: CD2 + QV 2 OV 2 : CV 2 , or CD2 : CD2 + QV 2 OV 2 :: CU 2 : CV 2 , :: CR2 : CO2 ; CD2 : QV 2 OV 2 :: CR2 : CO2 CR2 , CD2 : QO . OQ :: CR2 : OR . OR . Similarly, if qOq be any other chord, and Cd the parallel semi-diameter, Cd2 : qO . Oq :: CR2 : OR . OR ; QO . OQ : qO . Oq :: CD2 : Cd2 ; that is, the ratio of the rectangles depends only on the directions of the chords. Prop. XXXIV. If a circle intersect an hyperbola in four points, the several pairs of the chords of intersection are equally inclined to the axes. For the proof, see Art. 93.

But

or

EXAMPLES. EXAMPLES.

115

1. If a circle be drawn so as to touch two xed circles externally, the locus of its centre is an hyperbola. 2. If the tangent at B to the conjugate meet the latus rectum in D, the triangles SCD, SXD are similar. 3. The straight line drawn from the focus to the directrix, parallel to an asymptote, is equal to the semi-latus rectum, and is bisected by the curve. 4. Given the asymptotes and a focus, nd the directrix. 5. Given the centre, one asymptote, and a directrix, nd the focus. 6. Parabolas are described passing through two xed points, and having their axes parallel to a xed line; the locus of their foci is an hyperbola. 7. The base of a triangle being given, and also the point of contact with the base of the inscribed circle, the locus of the vertex is an hyperbola. 8. If the normal at P meet the conjugate axis in g, and gN be the perpendicular on SP , then P N = AC. 9. Draw a tangent to an hyperbola, or its conjugate, parallel to a given line. 10. If AA be the axis of an ellipse, and P N P a double ordinate, the locus of the intersection of A P and P A is an hyperbola. 11. The tangent at P bisects any straight line perpendicular to AA , and terminated by AP , and A P . 12. If P Cp be a diameter, and if Sp meet the tangent at P in T , SP = ST. 13. Given an asymptote, the focus, and a point; construct the hyperbola. 14. A circle can be drawn through the foci and the intersections of any tangent with the tangents at the vertices. 15. Given an asymptote, the directrix, and a point; construct the hyperbola. 16. If through any point of an hyperbola straight lines are drawn parallel to the asymptotes and meeting any semi-diameter CQ in P and R, CP . CR = CQ2 .

EXAMPLES.

116

17. P N is an ordinate and N Q parallel to AB meets the conjugate axis in Q; prove that QB . QB = P N 2 . 18. N P is an ordinate and Q a point in the curve; AQ, A Q meet N P in D and E; prove that N D . N E = N P 2 . 19. If a tangent cut the major axis in the point T , and perpendiculars SY , HZ be let fall on it from the foci, then AT . A T = Y T . ZT. 20. In the tangent at P a point Q is taken such that P Q is proportional to CD; shew that the locus of Q is an hyperbola. 21. Tangents are drawn to an hyperbola, and the portion of each tangent intercepted by the asymptotes is divided in a constant ratio; prove that the locus of the point of section is an hyperbola. 22. If the tangent and normal at P meet the conjugate axis in t and K respectively, prove that a circle can be drawn through the foci and the three points P , t, K. Shew also that GK : SK :: SA : AX, and CD being conjugate to CP . 23. Shew that the points of trisection of a series of conterminous circular arcs lie on branches of two hyperbolas; and determine the distance between their centres. 24. If the tangent at any point P cut an asymptote in T , and if SP cut the same asymptote in Q, then SQ = QT . 25. A series of hyperbolas having the same asymptotes is cut by a straight line parallel to one of the asymptotes, and through the points of intersection lines are drawn parallel to the other, and equal to either semi-axis of the corresponding hyperbola: prove that the locus of their extremities is a parabola. 26. Prove that the rectangle P Y . P Y in an ellipse is equal to the square on the conjugate axis of the confocal hyperbola passing through P . St : tK :: BC : CD,

EXAMPLES.

117

27. If the tangent at P meet one asymptote in T , and a line T Q be drawn parallel to the other asymptote to meet the curve in Q; prove that if P Q be joined and produced both ways to meet the asymptotes in R and R , RR will be trisected at the points P and Q. 28. The tangent at a point P of an ellipse meets the hyperbola having the same axes as the ellipse in C and D. If Q be the middle point of CD, prove that OQ and OP are equally inclined to the axes, O being the centre of the ellipse. 29. Given one asymptote, the direction of the other, and the position of one focus, determine the position of the vertices. 30. Two points are taken on the same branch of the curve, and on the same side of the axis; prove that a circle can be drawn touching the four focal distances. 31. Supposing the two asymptotes and one point of the curve to be given in position, shew how to construct the curve; and nd the position of the foci. 32. Given a pair of conjugate diameters, construct the axes. 33. If P H, P K be drawn parallel to the asymptotes from a point P on the curve, and if a line through the centre meet them in R, T , and the parallelogram P RQT be completed, Q is a point on the curve. 34. The ordinate N P at any point of an ellipse is produced to a point Q, such that N Q is equal to the sub-tangent at P ; prove that the locus of Q is an hyperbola. 35. If a given point be the focus of any hyperbola, passing through a given point and touching a given straight line, prove that the locus of the other focus is an arc of a xed hyperbola. 36. An ellipse and hyperbola are described, so that the foci of each are at the extremities of the transverse axis of the other; prove that the tangents at their points of intersection meet the conjugate axis in points equidistant from the centre. 37. A circle is described about the focus as centre, with a radius equal to onefourth of the latus rectum; prove that the focal distances of the points at which it intersects the hyperbola are parallel to the asymptotes. 38. The tangent at any point forms a triangle with the asymptotes: determine the locus of the point of intersection of the straight lines drawn from the angles of this triangle to bisect the opposite sides.

EXAMPLES.

118

39. If SY , S Y be the perpendiculars on the tangent at P , a circle can be drawn through the points Y , Y , N , C. 40. The straight lines joining each focus to the foot of the perpendicular from the other focus on the tangent meet on the normal and bisect it. 41. If the tangent and normal at P meet the axis in T and G, N G.CT = BC 2 . 42. If the tangent at P meet the axes in T and t, the angles P St, ST P are supplementary. 43. If the tangent at P meet any conjugate diameters in T and t, the triangles SP T , S P t are similar. 44. If the diameter conjugate to CP meet SP and S P in E and E , prove that the circles about the triangles SCE, S CE are equal. 45. The locus of the centre of the circle inscribed in the triangle SP S is a straight line. 46. If P N be an ordinate, and N Q parallel to AP meet CP in Q, AQ is parallel to the tangent at P . 47. If an asymptote meet the directrix in D, and the tangent at the vertex in E, AD is parallel to SE. 48. The radius of the circle touching the curve and its asymptotes is equal to the portion of the latus rectum produced, between its extremity and the asymptote. 49. If G be the foot of the normal, and if the tangent meet the asymptotes in L and M , GL = GM . 50. With two conjugate diameters of an ellipse as asymptotes, a pair of conjugate hyperbolas is constructed: prove that if one hyperbola touch the ellipse, the other will do so likewise; prove also that the diameters drawn through the points of contact are conjugate to each other. 51. If two tangents be drawn the lines joining their intersections with the asymptotes will be parallel. 52. The locus of the centre of the circle touching SP , S P produced, and the major axis, is an hyperbola. 53. If from a point P in an hyperbola, P K be drawn parallel to an asymptote to meet the directrix in K, then P K = SP .

EXAMPLES.

119

54. If P D be drawn parallel to an asymptote, to meet the conjugate hyperbola in D, CP and CD are conjugate diameters. 55. If QR be a chord parallel to the tangent at P , and if QL, P N , RM be drawn parallel to one asymptote to meet the other, CL . CM = CN 2 . 56. If a circle touch the transverse axis at a focus, and pass through one end of the conjugate, the chord intercepted by the conjugate is a third proportional to the conjugate and transverse semi-axes. 57. A line through one of the vertices, terminated by two lines drawn through the other vertex parallel to the asymptotes, is bisected at the other point where it cuts the curve. 58. If P SQ be a focal chord, and if the tangents at P and Q meet in T , the dierence between P T Q and half P S Q is a right angle. 59. If a straight line passing through a xed point C meet two xed lines OA, OB in A and B, and if P be taken in AB such that CP 2 = CA . CB, the locus of P is an hyperbola, having its asymptotes parallel to OA, OB. 60. If from the points P and Q in an hyperbola there be drawn P L, QM parallel to each other to meet one asymptote, and P R, QN also parallel to each other to meet the other asymptote, P L . P R = QM . QN . 61. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to a parabola which cut at a constant angle is an hyperbola, and that the angle between its asymptotes is double the external angle between the tangents. 62. An ordinate V Q of any diameter CP is produced to meet the asymptote in R, and the conjugate hyperbola in Q ; prove that QV 2 + Q V 2 = 2RV 2 . Prove also that the tangents at Q and Q meet the diameter CP in points equidistant from C. 63. A chord QP L meets an asymptote in L, and a tangent from L is drawn touching at R; if P M , RE, QN , be drawn parallel to the asymptote to meet the other, P M + QN = 2 . RE.

EXAMPLES.

120

64. Tangents are drawn from any point in a circle through the foci; prove that the lines bisecting the angle between the tangents, or between one tangent and the other produced, all pass through a xed point. 65. If a circle through the foci meet two confocal hyperbolas in P and Q, the angle between the tangents at P and Q is equal to P SQ. 66. If SY , S Y be perpendiculars on the tangent at P , and if P N be the ordinate, the angles P N Y , P N Y are supplementary. 67. Find the position of P when the area of the triangle Y CY is the greatest possible, and shew that, in that case, P N . SC = BC 2 . 68. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, the areas of the triangles SP S , StS are in the ratio of CD2 : St2 . 69. If SY , SZ be perpendiculars on two tangents which meet in T , Y Z is perpendicular to S T . 70. A circle passing through a focus, and having its centre on the transverse axis, touches the curve; shew that the focal distance of the point of contact is equal to the latus rectum. 71. If CQ be conjugate to the normal at P , then is CP conjugate to the normal at Q. 72. From a point in the auxiliary circle lines are drawn touching the curve in P and P ; prove that SP , S P are parallel. 73. If any hyperbola is drawn confocal with a given ellipse, and if P N is the ordinate of a point of intersection of the hyperbola with the ellipse, and N T the tangent from N to the auxiliary circle of the hyperbola, prove that the angle P N T is always the same. 74. Find the locus of the points of contact of tangents to a series of confocal hyperbolas from a xed point in the axis. 75. Tangents to an hyperbola are drawn from any point in one of the branches of the conjugate, shew that the chord of contact will touch the other branch of the conjugate. 76. An ordinate N P meets the conjugate hyperbola in Q; prove that the normals at P and Q meet on the transverse axis.

EXAMPLES.

121

77. A parabola and an hyperbola have a common focus S and their axes in the same direction. If a line SP Q cut the curves in P and Q, the angle between the tangents at P and Q is equal to half the angle between the axis and the other focal distance of the hyperbola. 78. If an hyperbola be described touching the four sides of a quadrilateral which is inscribed in a circle, and one focus lie on the circle, the other focus will also lie on the circle. 79. A conic section is drawn touching the asymptotes of an hyperbola. Prove that two of the chords of intersection of the curves are parallel to the chord of contact of the conic with the asymptotes. 80. A parabola P and an hyperbola H have a common focus, and the asymptotes of H are tangents to P ; prove that the tangent at the vertex of P is a directrix of H, and that the tangent to P at the point of intersection passes through the further vertex of H. 81. From a given point in an hyperbola draw a straight line such that the segment intercepted between the other intersection with the hyperbola and a given asymptote shall be equal to a given line. When does the problem become impossible? 82. If an ellipse and a confocal hyperbola intersect in P , an asymptote passes through the point on the auxiliary circle of the ellipse corresponding to P . 83. P is a point on an hyperbola whose foci are S and H; another hyperbola is described whose foci are S and P , and whose transverse axis is equal to SP 2P H: shew that the hyperbolas will meet only at one point, and that they will have the same tangent at that point. 84. A point D is taken on the axis of an hyperbola, of which the eccentricity is 2, such that its distance from the focus S is equal to the distance of S from the further vertex A ; P being any point on the curve, A P meets the latus rectum in K. Prove that DK and SP intersect on a certain xed circle. 85. Shew that the locus of the point of intersection of tangents to a parabola, making with each other a constant angle equal to half a right angle, is an hyperbola. 86. The tangent and normal at any point intersect the asymptotes and axes respectively in four points which lie on a circle passing through the centre of the curve. The radius of this circle varies inversely as the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent.

EXAMPLES.

122

87. The dierence between the sum of the squares of the distances of any point from the ends of any diameter and the sum of the squares of its distances from the ends of the conjugate is constant. 88. If a tangent meet the asymptotes in L and M , the angle subtended by LM at the farther focus is half the angle between the asymptotes. 89. If P N be the ordinate of P , and P T the tangent, prove that SP : ST :: AN : AT . 90. If an ellipse and an hyperbola are confocal, the asymptotes pass through the points on the auxiliary circle of the ellipse which correspond to the points of intersection of the two curves. 91. Two adjacent sides of a quadrilateral are given in magnitude and position; if the quadrilateral be such that a circle can be inscribed in it, the locus of the point of intersection of the other two sides is an hyperbola. 92. The tangent at P meets the conjugate axis in t, and tQ is perpendicular to SP ; prove that SQ is of constant length. 93. An hyperbola, having a given transverse axis, has one focus xed, and always touches a given straight line; the locus of the other focus is a circle. 94. A chord P RV Q meets the directrices in R and V ; shew that P R and V Q subtend, each at the focus nearer to it, angles of which the sum is equal to the angle between the tangents at P and Q. 95. A circle is drawn touching the transverse axis of an hyperbola at its centre, and also touching the curve; prove that the diameter conjugate to the diameter through either point of contact is equal to the distance between the foci. 96. A parabola is described touching the conjugate axes of an hyperbola at their extremities; prove that one asymptote is parallel to the axis of the parabola, and that the other asymptote is parallel to the chords of the parabola bisected by the rst. If a straight line parallel to the second asymptote meet the hyperbola and its conjugate in P , P , and the parabola in Q, Q , it may be shewn that P Q = P Q . 97. If two points E and E be taken in the normal P G such that P E = P E = CD, the loci of E and E are hyperbolas having their axes equal to the sum and dierence of the axes of the given hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.

123

98. If two tangents are drawn to the same branch of an hyperbola, the external angle between them is half the dierence between the angles which the chord of contact subtends at the foci. If the tangents are drawn to opposite branches, the angle between them is half the sum, or half the dierence, of these angles according as the points of contact are on the same or on opposite sides of the transverse axis. 99. Parabolas are drawn passing through two xed points A and B, and having their axes in a given direction; nd the locus of the foci, and, if a tangent be drawn at right angles to AB, prove that the locus of its point of contact P is an hyperbola. 100. Tangents are drawn from a point T to an hyperbola whose centre is C, and CT produced meets the hyperbola in P and the chord of contact of the tangents in V . If CD be the diameter conjugate to CP , and DT , DV meet the tangent at P in K and U , prove that the triangles P U V , T P K are equal in area. 101. One asymptote and three points P , Q, R of an hyperbola are given, construct the other asymptote. 102. If an ellipse be described having its centre on a given hyperbola, its foci on the asymptotes, and passing through the centre of the hyperbola, prove that the minor axis of the ellipse is equal to the major axis of the hyperbola, and the ellipse touches the minor axis of the hyperbola. 103. The angular point A of a triangle ABC is xed, and the angle A is given, while the points B and C move on a xed straight line; prove that the locus of the centre of the circle circumscribing the triangle is an hyperbola, and that the envelope of the circle is another circle. 104. Given an asymptote CQ and two points on an hyperbola, P , p on the curve, shew that the envelope of the axes is a parabola. 105. Find the locus of the middle points of a system of chords of an hyperbola, passing through a xed point on one of the asymptotes. 106. If a conic be described having for its axes the tangent and normal at any point of a given ellipse, and touching at its centre the axis-major of the given ellipse, and if another conic be described in the same manner, but touching the minor axis at the centre, prove that the foci of these conics lie in two circles concentric with the given ellipse, and having their diameters equal to the sum and dierence of its axes.

EXAMPLES.

124

107. An ellipse and an hyperbola are confocal; if a tangent to one intersect at right angles a tangent to the other, the locus of the point of intersection is a circle. Shew also that the dierence of the squares on the distances from the centre of parallel tangents is constant. 108. If a circle passing through any point P of the curve, and having its centre on the normal at P , meets the curve again in Q and R, the tangents at Q and R intersect on a xed straight line. 109. If the tangent at P meet an asymptote in T , the angle between that asymptote and S P is double the angle ST P . 110. Four tangents to an hyperbola form a rectangle. If one side AB of the rectangle intersect a directrix in F , and S be the corresponding focus, the triangles F SA, F BS are similar. 111. An ellipse and hyperbola have the same transverse axis, and their eccentricities are the reciprocals of one another; prove that the tangents to each through the focus of the other intersect at right angles in two points and also meet the conjugate axis on the auxiliary circle. 112. ACA and BCB are the transverse and conjugate axes of an ellipse, of which S and S are the foci. P is one of the points of intersection of this ellipse and a confocal hyperbola, and aCa is the transverse axis of the hyperbola. Prove that SP = Aa, S P = A a, and aB = CP . 113. Prove that if A, B and S are three given points, two parabolas can be drawn through A and B with S as focus, and that the axes of these parabolas are parallel to the asymptotes of the hyperbola which can be drawn through S with its foci at A and B.

CHAPTER V.
The Rectangular Hyperbola.
If the axes of an hyperbola be equal, the angle between the asymptotes is a right angle, and the curve is called equilateral or rectangular. 135. Prop. I. In a rectangular hyperbola CS 2 = 2AC 2 , and SA2 = 2AX 2 . For and CS 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 = 2AC 2 , SA : AX :: SC : AC; SA2 = 2AX 2 . Observe that, in the gure of Art. 102, SDC is an isosceles triangle, since SD = BC, and CD = AC, and therefore SD = DC.

136. Prop. II. The asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola bisect the angles between any pair of conjugate diameters. For, in a rectangular or equilateral hyperbola, and therefore, since CA = CB, CP CD2 = CA2 CB 2 , CP = CD,
2

CP , CD being any conjugate semi-diameters. Also, in the gure of Art. 123, the parallelogram CP LD is a rhombus, and therefore CL bisects the angle P CD. Cor. Supplemental chords are equally inclined to the asymptotes, for they are parallel to conjugate diameters.

THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. 137. Prop. III. If CY be the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent at P , the angle P CY is bisected by the transverse axis, and half the transverse axis is a mean proportional between CY and CP . For the angle P CL = DCL = Y CL ; P CA = ACY. Hence it follows that the triangles P CN , T CY are similar, and that CY : CT :: CN : CP ; CY . CP = CT . CN = AC 2 . Hence also, if we join P A and AY , we observe that the triangles P AC, AY C are similar.

126

138. Prop. IV. Diameters at right angles to each other are equal. Let CP , CP be semi-diameters at right angles to each other, and CD conjugate to CP . Then, if CL, CL be the asymptotes, the angle P CL = P CL = DCL; CP = CD = CP. Hence it follows, by help of the theorem of Art. 120, that focal chords at right angles to each other are equal, and that focal chords parallel to conjugate diameters are equal. 139. Prop. V. If the normal at P meet the axes in G and g, CN = N G and P G = P g = CD, CD being conjugate to CP . For (Art. 115) N G : CN :: BC 2 : AC 2 ; N G = CN. Also P F . P G = BC 2 and P F . P g = AC 2 ; P G = P g. Further (Art. 128) P G : CD :: BC : AC; P G = CD = CP.

THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. 140. Prop. VI. If QV be an ordinate of a diameter P Cp, QV 2 = P V . V p. For and QV 2 : P V . V p :: CD2 : CP 2 , CD = CP ; 2 QV = P V . V p = CV 2 CP 2 .

127

141. Prop. VII. The angle between a chord P Q, and the tangent at P , is equal to the angle subtended by P Q at the other extremity of the diameter through P .

Let P Q and the tangent at P meet the asymptote in l and L. Then, if CV be conjugate to P Q, the angle LP Q = P LC V lC = LCP V Cl = V CP = QpP.
Or thus, let QU parallel to the tangent at P , meet CP produced in U . Then QU 2 = P U . U p, or, QU : P U :: U p : U Q. Therefore the triangles P QU , QU p are similar, and the angle QpU = P QU = LP Q.

If P and Q are on opposite branches of the curve, the same proof shews that the angle QpU = U QP = LP Q; QP L = QpP.

THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA.

128

If QP is the normal at P , it follows that QP subtends a right angle at the other end of the diameter through P . 142. Prop. VIII. Any chord subtends, at the ends of any diameter, angles which are equal or supplementary. This theorem divides itself into four cases, which are shewn in the appended gures. Let QR be the chord, and P p the diameter. Then, if LP be the tangent at P , g. (1), the angle LP Q = QpP, and LP R = RpP ; QP R = QpR. In g. (2), if pl be the tangent at p, parallel to P L, QpR = Qpl + lpR = Qpl + pP R,

THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. QP R = QP L + LP R = QpP + LP R; QpR + QP R =lpP + LP p, that is, QpR and QP R are together equal to two right angles. In g. (3) QP R = QP L + LP p + pP R = QpP + P pl + lpR = QpR. In g. (4) QP L = QpP, and RP L = RpP ; QpR = QP L + RP L ; therefore QpR and QP R are together equal to two right angles. Hence it will be seen that when QR, or QR produced, meet the diameter P p between P and p, the angles subtended at P and p are equal; in other cases they are supplementary. In the cases of the second and third gures, if one of the angles QP R is a right angle, the other angle QpR is also a right angle. The four points Q, P , p, R are then concyclic, and QR is a diameter of the circle. and

129

143. Prop. IX. If a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe a triangle, it passes through the orthocentre. Note. The orthocentre is the point of intersection of the perpendiculars from the angular points on the opposite sides. If O be the orthocentre, the triangles LOP , LQR are similar, and LO : LP :: LQ : LR; LO . LR = LP . LQ. But, if a rectangular hyperbola pass through P , Q, R, the diameters parallel to LR, P Q are equal: hence O is a point on the curve. If the angle P RQ is a right angle, the line ROL will be the tangent to the curve at R, so that if a rectangular hyperbola pass through the

EXAMPLES.

130

angular points of a right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse will be parallel to the normal at the right-angle vertex. 144. Prop. X. If a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe a triangle, the locus of its centre is the nine-point circle of the triangle.

If P QR be the triangle, let L, L be the points in which an asymptote meets the sides P Q, P R. Join C, the centre of the hyperbola, with E and F , the middle points of P R and P Q. Then CF is conjugate to P Q, and CE to P R; therefore the angle F CE = F CL + L CE = CLF + EL C = P LL + P L L = F P E = F DE, if D be the middle point of QR. D, E, F , C are concyclic; that is, C lies on the nine-point circle. A similar proof is applicable to the case in which the points P , Q, R lie on the same branch of the hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.
1. P CP is a transverse diameter, and QV an ordinate; shew that QV is the tangent at Q to the circle circumscribing the triangle P Qp.

EXAMPLES.

131

2. If the tangent at P meet the asymptotes in L and M , and the normal meet the transverse axis in G, a circle can be drawn through C, L, M , and G, and LGM is a right angle. 3. If AA be any diameter of a circle, P P any ordinate to it, then the locus of the intersections of AP , A P is a rectangular hyperbola. 4. Given an asymptote and a tangent at a given point, construct the rectangular hyperbola. 5. The points of intersection of an ellipse and a confocal rectangular hyperbola are the extremities of the equi-conjugate diameters of the ellipse. 6. If CP , CD be conjugate semi-diameters, and P N , DM ordinates of any diameter, the triangles P CN , DCM are equal in all respects. 7. The distance of any point from the centre is a geometric mean between its distances from the foci. 8. If P be a point on an equilateral hyperbola, and if the tangent at Q meet CP in T , the circle circumscribing CT Q touches the ordinate QV conjugate to CP . 9. If a circle be described on SS as diameter, the tangents at the vertices will intersect the asymptotes in the circumference. 10. If two concentric rectangular hyperbolas be described, the axes of one being the asymptotes of the other, they will intersect at right angles. 11. If the tangents at two points Q and Q meet in T , and if CQ, CQ meet these tangents in R and R , the points R, T , R , C are concyclic. 12. If from a point Q in the conjugate axis QA be drawn to the vertex, and QR parallel to the transverse axis to meet the curve, QR = AQ. 13. Straight lines, passing through a given point, are bounded by two xed lines at right angles to each other; nd the locus of their middle points. 14. Given a point Q and a straight line AB, if a line QCP be drawn cutting AB in C, and P be taken in it, so that, P D being a perpendicular upon AB, CD may be of constant magnitude, the locus of P is a rectangular hyperbola. 15. Every conic passing through the centres of the four circles which touch the sides of a triangle, is a rectangular hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.

132

16. Ellipses are inscribed in a given parallelogram, shew that their foci lie on a rectangular hyperbola. 17. If two focal chords be parallel to conjugate diameters, the lines joining their extremities intersect on the asymptotes. 18. If P , Q be two points of a rectangular hyperbola, centre O, and QN the perpendicular let fall on the tangent at P , the circle through O, N , and P will pass through the middle point of the chord P , Q. 19. Having given the centre, a tangent, and a point of a rectangular hyperbola, construct the asymptotes. 20. If a right-angled triangle be inscribed in the curve, the normal at the right angle is parallel to the hypotenuse. 21. On opposite sides of any chord of a rectangular hyperbola are described equal segments of circles; shew that the four points, in which the circles, to which these segments belong, again meet the hyperbola, are the angular points of a parallelogram. 22. Two lines of given lengths coincide with and move along two xed lines, in such a manner that a circle can always be drawn through their extremities; the locus of the centre is a rectangular hyperbola. 23. If a rectangular hyperbola, having its asymptotes coincident with the axes of an ellipse, touch the ellipse, the axis of the hyperbola is a mean proportional between the axes of the ellipse. 24. The tangent at a point P of a rectangular hyperbola meets a diameter QCQ in T . Shew that CQ and T Q subtend equal angles at P . 25. If A be any point in a rectangular hyperbola, of which O is the centre, BOC the straight line through O at right angles to OA, D any other point in the curve, and DB, DC parallel to the asymptotes, prove that B, D, A, C are concyclic. 26. The angle subtended by any chord at the centre is the supplement of the angle between the tangents at the ends of the chord. 27. If two rectangular hyperbolas intersect in A, B, C, D; the circles described on AB, CD as diameters intersect each other orthogonally.

EXAMPLES.

133

28. Prove that the triangle, formed by the tangent at any point and its intercepts on the axes, is similar to the triangle formed by the straight line joining that point with the centre, and the abscissa and ordinate of the point. 29. The angle of inclination of two tangents to a parabola is half a right angle; prove that the locus of their point of intersection is a rectangular hyperbola, having one focus and the corresponding directrix coincident with the focus and directrix of the parabola. 30. P is a point on the curve, and P M , P N are straight lines making equal angles with one of the asymptotes; if M P , N P be produced to meet the curve in P and Q , then P Q passes through the centre. 31. A circle and a rectangular hyperbola intersect in four points and one of their common chords is a diameter of the hyperbola; shew that the other common chord is a diameter of the circle. 32. AB is a chord of a circle and a diameter of a rectangular hyperbola; P any point on the circle; AP , BP , produced if necessary, meet the hyperbola in Q, Q , respectively; the point of intersection of BQ, AQ will be on the circle. 33. P P is any diameter, Q any point on the curve, P R, P R are drawn at right angles to P Q, P Q respectively, intersecting the normal at Q in R, R ; prove that QR and QR are equal. 34. Parallel tangents are drawn to a series of confocal ellipses; prove that the locus of the points of contact is a rectangular hyperbola having one of its asymptotes parallel to the tangents. 35. If tangents, parallel to a given direction, are drawn to a system of circles passing through two xed points, the points of contact lie on a rectangular hyperbola. 36. If from a point P on the curve chords are equally inclined to the asymptotes, the line joining their other extremities passes through the centre. 37. From the point of intersection of the directrix with one of the asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola a tangent is drawn to the curve and meets the other asymptote in T ; shew that CT is equal to the transverse axis. 38. The normals at the ends of two conjugate diameters intersect on the asymptote, and are parallel to another pair of conjugate diameters. 39. If the base AB of a triangle ABC be xed, and if the dierence of the angles at the base is constant, the locus of the vertex is a rectangular hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.

134

40. A circle described through the angular points A, B of a given triangle ABC meets AC in D. If BD meet the tangent at A in P , shew that the vertex and orthocentre of the triangle AP B lie on xed rectangular hyperbolas. 41. The locus of the point of intersection of tangents to an ellipse which make equal angles with the transverse and conjugate axes respectively, and are not at right angles, is a rectangular hyperbola whose vertices are the foci of the ellipse. 42. If OT is the tangent at the point O of a rectangular hyperbola, and P Q a chord meeting it at right angles in T , the two bisectors of the angle OCT bisect OP and OQ. 43. With two sides of a square as asymptotes, and the opposite point as focus, a rectangular hyperbola is described; prove that it bisects the other sides. 44. With the focus S of a rectangular hyperbola as centre and radius equal to SC a circle is described, prove that it touches the conjugate hyperbola. 45. If parallel normal chords are drawn to a rectangular hyperbola, the diameter bisecting them is perpendicular to the join of their feet. 46. From the foot of the ordinate P N of a point P of a rectangular hyperbola, tangents N Q, N R are drawn to the circle on AA as diameter. Prove that P Q passes through A , and P R through A, and that, if QR intersect AA in M , P M is the tangent at P . 47. Shew that the angle between two tangents to a rectangular hyperbola is equal or supplementary to the angle which their chord of contact subtends at the centre, and that the bisectors of these angles meet on the chord of contact. 48. Through a point P on an equilateral hyperbola two lines are drawn parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters; the one meeting the curve in P , P , and the other meeting the asymptotes in Q, Q ; shew that P P = QQ . 49. If four points forming a parallelogram be taken on a rectangular hyperbola, then the product of the perpendiculars from any point of the curve on one pair of opposite sides equals the product of the perpendiculars on the other pair of sides.

CHAPTER VI.
The Cylinder and the Cone.
DEFINITION. 145. If a straight line move so as to pass through the circumference of a given circle, and to be perpendicular to the plane of the circle, it traces out a surface called a Right Circular Cylinder. The straight line drawn through the centre of the circle perpendicular to its plane is the Axis of the Cylinder. It is evident that a section of the surface by a plane perpendicular to the axis is a circle, and that a section by any plane parallel to the axis consists of two parallel lines. Prop. I. Any section of a cylinder by a plane not parallel or perpendicular to the axis is an ellipse. If AP A be the section, let the plane of the paper be the plane through the axis perpendicular to AP A . Inscribe in the cylinder a sphere touching the cylinder in the circle EF and the plane AP A in the point S. Let the planes AP A , EF intersect in XK, and from any point P of the section draw P K perpendicular to XK. Draw through P the circular section QP , cutting AP A in P N , so that P N is at right angles to AA and therefore parallel to XK. Let the generating line through P meet the circle EF in R; and join SP . Then P S and P R are tangents to the sphere; SP = P R = EQ.

THE CYLINDER.

136

But and

EQ : N X :: AE : AX :: SA : AX, N X = P K, SP : P K :: SA : AX.

Also, AE being less than AX, SA is less than AX, and the curve AP A is therefore an ellipse, of which S is the focus and XK the directrix. If another sphere be inscribed in the cylinder touching AA in S , S is the other focus, and the corresponding directrix is the intersection of the plane of contact E F with AP A . Producing the generating line RP to meet the circle E F in R we observe that S P = P R , and therefore SP + S P = RR = EE = AE + AE = AS + AS ;

THE CONE. and AS = AE = A F = A S, SP + S P = AA .

137

The transverse axis of the section is AA and the conjugate, or minor, axis is evidently a diameter of a circular section. 146. Def. If O be a xed point in a straight line OE drawn through the centre E of a xed circle at right angles to the plane of the circle, and if a straight line QOP move so as always to pass through the circumference of the circle, the surface generated by the line QOP is called a Right Circular Cone.

The line OE is called the axis of the cone, the point O is the vertex, and the constant angle P OE is the semi-vertical angle of the cone. It is evident that any section by a plane perpendicular to the axis, or parallel to the base of the cone, is a circle; and that any section by a plane through the vertex consists of two straight lines, the angle between which is greatest and equal to the vertical angle when the plane contains the axis. Any plane containing the axis is called a Principal Section. 147. Prop. II. The section of a cone by a plane, which is not perpendicular to the axis, and does not pass through the vertex, is either an Ellipse, a Parabola, or an Hyperbola.

THE CONE.

138

Let U AP be the cutting plane, and let the plane of the paper be that principal section which is perpendicular to the plane U AP ; OV , OAQ being the generating lines in the plane of the paper. Let AU be the intersection of the principal section V OQ by the plane P AU perpendicular to it, and cutting the cone in the curve AP . Inscribe a sphere in the cone, touching the cone in the circle EF and the plane AP in the point S, and let XK be the intersection of the planes AP , EF . Then XK is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Taking any point P in the curve, join OP cutting the circle EF in R, and join SP . Draw through P the circular section QP V cutting the plane AP in P N which is therefore perpendicular to AN and parallel to XK. Then, SP and P R being tangents to the sphere, SP = P R = EQ; and Also EQ : N X :: AE : AX :: AS : AX. N X = P K; SP : P K :: SA : AX.

THE CONE.

139

The curve AP is therefore an Ellipse, Parabola, or Hyperbola, according as SA is less than, equal to, or greater than AX. In any case the point S is a focus and the corresponding directrix is the intersection of the plane of the curve with the plane of contact of the sphere.

148. (1) If AU be parallel to OV , the angle so that AXE = OF E = OEF = AEX, SA = AE = AX;

the section is therefore a parabola when the cutting plane is parallel to a generating line, and perpendicular to the principal section which contains the generating line. (2) Let the line AU meet the curve again in the point A on the same side of the vertex as the point A.

THE CONE. Then the angle AEX = OF X > F XA, AE < AX, SA < AX,

140

and therefore that is

and the curve is an ellipse. In this case another sphere can be inscribed in the cone, touching the cone along the circle E F and touching the plane AP in S . It may be shewn as before that S is a focus and that the corresponding directrix is the intersection of the planes E F , AP A . (3) Let the line U A produced meet the cone on the other side of the vertex. The section then consists of two separate branches.

THE CONE.

141

Also the angle and therefore that is

AEX = A F X < AXF, AE > AX, AS > AX,

and the curve AP is one branch of an hyperbola, the other branch being the section A P . Taking P in the other branch the proof is the same as before that SP : P K :: SA : AX. In this case a sphere can be inscribed in the other branch of the cone, touching the cone along the circle E F , and the plane U A P in S , and it can be shewn that S is the other focus of the hyperbola, and that the directrix is the intersection of the cutting plane with the plane of contact E F . Hence the section of a cone by a plane cutting in AU the principal section V OQ perpendicular to it is an Ellipse, Parabola, or Hyperbola, according as the angle EAX is greater than, equal to, or less than, the vertical angle of the cone. Further, it is obvious that, if any plane be drawn parallel to the plane AP , the ratio of AE to AX is always the same; hence it follows that all parallel sections have the same eccentricity. 149. This method of determining the focus and directrix was published by Mr Pierce Morton, of Trinity College, in the rst volume of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. The method was very nearly obtained by Hamilton, who gave the following construction. First nding the vertex and focus, A and S, take AE along the generating line equal to AS, and draw the circular section through E; the directrix will be the line of intersection of the plane of the circle with the given plane of section. Hamilton also demonstrated the equality of SP and P R. 150. Prop. III. To prove that, in the case of an elliptic section, SP + S P = AA .

THE CONE. Taking the 2nd gure, SP = P R and S P = P R ; SP + S P = RR = EE = AE + AE = AS + AS . But A S = A F = FF A F = EE A S, also A S + SS = A S; 2A S + SS = EE . Similarly 2AS + SS = EE ; A S = AS, and AS = A S. Hence SP + S P = AA , and the transverse, or major axis = EE . In a similar manner it can be shewn that in an hyperbolic section S P SP = AA . 151. Prop. IV. To shew that, in a parabolic section, P N 2 = 4AS . AN.

142

THE CONE.

143

Let A be the vertex of the section, and let ADE be the diameter of the circular section through A. From D let fall DS perpendicular to AN ; then P N 2 = QN . N Q = QN . AE = 4N L . AD, if AL be perpendicular to N Q. But the triangles AN L, ADS being similar, N L : AN :: AS : AD; N L . AD = AN . AS, and P N 2 = 4AS . AN. 152. Prop. V. To shew that, in an elliptic section, P N 2 is to AN . N A in a constant ratio. Draw through P the circular section QP Q , bisect AA in C, and draw through C the circular section EBE . Then QN : AN :: CE : AC, and N Q : N A :: CE : A C; QN . N Q : AN . N A :: EC . CE : AC 2 , or P N 2 : AN . N A :: EC . CE : AC 2 ; and, the transverse axis being AA , the square of the semi-minor axis = BC 2 = EC . CE . Again, if ADF be perpendicular to the axis, AD = DF , and, AC being equal to CA , CD is parallel to A F , and therefore CE = F D = AD. Similarly, CE = A D , the perpendicular from A on the axis; BC 2 = AD . A D , that is, the semi-minor axis is a mean proportional between the perpendiculars from the vertices on the axis of the cone.

THE CONE.

144

Cor. If H, H are the centres of the focal spheres, the angles HAH , HA H are right angles, so that H, A, H , A are concyclic.

It follows that the triangles ASH, A H D are similar, as are also the triangles A S H , AHD, so that and SH : A D :: AH : A H :: AD : S H ; SH . S H = AD . A D = BC 2 ;

the semi-minor axis is a mean proportional between the radii of the focal spheres. The fact that H, A, H , A are concyclic also shews that the sphere of which HH is a diameter intersects the plane of the ellipse in its auxiliary circle. 153. In exactly the same manner it can be shewn that, for an hyperbolic section, and that P N 2 : AN . N A :: CE . CE : AC 2 , CE = AD, and CE = A D .

THE CONE.

145

Also, as in the case of the ellipse, BC is a mean proportional between AD and A D , and is also a mean proportional between the radii of the focal spheres.

154. Prop. VI. The two straight lines in which a cone is intersected by a plane through the vertex parallel to an hyperbolic section are parallel to the asymptotes of the hyperbola. Taking the preceding gure, let the parallel plane cut the cone in the lines OG, OG , and the circular section through C in the line GLG , which will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper, and therefore perpendicular to EE and to OL. Hence GL2 = EL . E L.

THE CONE. But and or EL : EC :: OL : A C, E L : E C :: OL : AC; 2 GL : EC . E C :: OL2 : AC 2 , GL : OL :: BC : AC;

146

therefore, (Art. 102), OG and OG are parallel to the asymptotes of the hyperbola. Hence, for all parallel hyperbolic sections, the asymptotes are parallel to each other. If the hyperbola be rectangular, the angle GOG is a right angle; but this is evidently not possible if the vertical angle of the cone be less than a right angle. When the vertical angle of the cone is not less than a right angle, and when GOG is a right angle, LOG is half a right angle, and therefore and OL = LG, 2 . OL2 = OG2 = OE 2 ,

and the length OL is easily constructed. Hence, placing OL, and drawing the plane GOG perpendicular to the principal section through OL, any section by a plane parallel to GOG is a rectangular hyperbola. It will be observed that the eccentricity of the section is greatest when its plane is parallel to the axis of the cone.

155. Prop. VII. The sphere which passes through the circles of contact of the focal spheres with the surface of the cone intersects the plane of the section in its director circle. Let Q, Q be the points in which the straight line AA is intersected by the sphere which passes through the circles EF and E F . Then the sphere intersects the plane of the ellipse in the circle of which QQ is the diameter. Also CQ2 CA2 = AQ . AQ = AE . AE = AS . AS = BC 2 ; CQ2 = AC 2 + BC 2 ,

so that CQ is the radius of the director circle.

THE CONE.

147

Changing the gure the proof is exactly the same for the hyperbola. 156. Prop. VIII. If two straight lines be drawn through any point, parallel to two xed lines, and intersecting a given cone, the ratio of the rectangles formed by the segments of the lines will be independent of the position of the point. Thus, if through E, the lines EP Q, EP Q be drawn, parallel to two given lines, and cutting the cone in the points P , Q and P , Q , the ratio of EP . EQ to EP . EQ is constant. Through O draw OK parallel to the given line to which EP Q is parallel, and let the plane through OK, EP Q, which contains the generating lines OP , OQ, meet the circular section through E in R and S, and the plane base in the straight line DF K, cutting the circular base in D and F . Then DF K and ERS being sections of parallel planes by a plane are parallel to each other.

THE CONE.

148

Also, EP Q is parallel to OK; Therefore ERP , ODK are similar triangles, as are also ESQ, OF K; and EP : ER :: OK : DK, EQ : ES :: OK : F K; EP . EQ : ER . ES :: OK 2 : DK . F K :: OK 2 : KT 2 ,

if KT be the tangent to the circular base from K. If a similar construction be made for EP Q , we shall have EP . EQ : ER . ES :: OK 2 : K T 2 . But ER . ES = ER . ES ; therefore the rectangles EP . EQ and EP . EQ are each in a constant ratio to the same rectangle, and are therefore in a constant ratio to each other. Since the plane through EP Q, EP Q cuts the cone in an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, this theorem includes as particular cases those of Arts. 51, 58, 82, 92, 96, 124 and 134. The proof is the same if the point P be within the cone, or if one or both of the lines meet opposite branches of the cone. If the chords be drawn through the centre of the section P EP , the rectangles become the squares of the semi-diameters.

EXAMPLES.

149

Hence the parallel diameters of all parallel sections of a cone are proportional to each other. If the lines move until they become tangents the rectangles then become the squares of the tangents; therefore if a series of points be so taken that the tangents from them are parallel to given lines, these tangents are always in the same proportion. The locus of the point E will be the line of intersection of two xed planes touching the cone, that is, a xed line through the vertex.

EXAMPLES.
1. Shew how to cut from a cylinder an ellipse of given eccentricity. 2. What is the locus of the foci of all sections of a cylinder of a given eccentricity? 3. Shew how to cut from a cone an ellipse of given eccentricity. 4. Prove that all sections of a cone by parallel planes are conics of the same eccentricity. 5. What is the locus of the foci of the sections made by planes inclined to the axis at the same angle? 6. Find the least angle of a cone from which it is possible to cut an hyperbola, whose eccentricity shall be the ratio of two to one. 7. The centre of a spherical ball is moveable in a vertical plane which is equidistant from two candles of the same height on a table; nd its locus when the two shadows on the ceiling are always just in contact. 8. Through a given point draw a plane cutting a given cone in a section which has the given point for a focus. 9. If the vertical angle of a cone, vertex O, be a right angle, P any point of a parabolic section, and P N perpendicular to the axis of the parabola, OP = 2AS + AN, A being the vertex and S the focus. 10. Prove that the directrices of all parabolic sections of a cone lie in the tangent planes of a cone having the same axis.

EXAMPLES.

150

11. If the curve formed by the intersection of any plane with a cone be projected upon a plane perpendicular to the axis; prove that the curve of projection will be a conic section having its focus at the point in which the axis meets the plane of projection. 12. Prove that the latera recta of parabolic sections of a right circular cone are proportional to the distances of their vertices from the vertex of the cone. 13. The shadow of a ball is cast by a candle on an inclined plane in contact with the ball; prove that as the candle burns down, the locus of the centre of the shadow will be a straight line. 14. The vertex of a right cone which contains a given ellipse lies on a certain hyperbola, and the axis of the cone will be a tangent to the hyperbola. 15. Find the locus of the vertices of the right circular cones which can be drawn so as to pass through a given xed hyperbola, and prove that the axis of the cone is always tangential to the locus. 16. An ellipse and an hyperbola are so situated that the vertices of each curve are the foci of the other, and the curves are in planes at right angles to each other. If P be a point on the ellipse, and O a point on the hyperbola, S the vertex, and A the interior focus of that branch of the hyperbola, then AS + OP = AO + SP. 17. The latus rectum of any plane section of a given cone is proportional to the perpendicular from the vertex on the plane. 18. If a sphere is described about the vertex of a right cone as centre, the latera recta of all sections made by tangent planes to the sphere are equal. 19. Dierent elliptic sections of a right cone are taken such that their minor axes are equal; shew that the locus of their centres is the surface formed by the revolution of an hyperbola about the axis of the cone. 20. If two cones be described touching the same two spheres, the eccentricities of the two sections of them made by the same plane bear to one another a ratio constant for all positions of the plane. 21. If elliptic sections of a cone be made such that the volume between the vertex and the section is always the same, the minor axis will be always of the same length.

EXAMPLES.

151

22. The vertex of a cone and the centre of a sphere inscribed within it are given in position: a plane section of the cone, at right angles to any generating line of the cone, touches the sphere: prove that the locus of the point of contact is a surface generated by the revolution of a circle, which touches the axis of the cone at the centre of the sphere. 23. Given a right cone and a point within it, there are two sections which have this point for focus; and the planes of these sections make equal angles with the straight line joining the given point and the vertex of the cone. 24. Prove that the centres of all plane sections of a cone, for which the distance between the foci is the same, lie on the surface of a right circular cylinder.

CHAPTER VII.
The Similarity of Conics, the Areas of Conics, and the Curvatures of Conics.
SIMILAR CONICS. 157. Def. Conics which have the same eccentricity are said to be similar to each other. This denition is justied by the consideration that the character of the conic depends on its eccentricity alone, while the dimensions of all parts of the conic are entirely determined by the distance of the focus from the directrix. Hence, according to this denition, all parabolas are similar curves. Prop. I. If radii be drawn from the vertices of two parabolas making equal angles with the axis, these radii are always in the same proportion. Let AP , ap be the radii, P N and pn the ordinates, the angles P AN , pan, being equal. AP 2 : ap2 :: P N 2 : pn2 :: AS . AN : as . an. AP : ap :: AN : an; AP : ap :: AS : as. It can also be shewn that focal radii making equal angles with the axes are always in the same proportion. Then But 158. Prop. II. If two ellipses be similar their axes are in the same proportion, and any other diameters, making equal angles with the respective axes, are in the proportion of the axes. Let CA, CB be the semi-axes of one ellipse, ca, cb of the other, and CP , cp two radii such that the angle P CA = pca.

AREAS. Then, since the eccentricities are the same, we have, if S, s be foci, AC : SC :: ac : sc; AC : AC 2 SC 2 :: ac2 : ac2 sc2 , AC 2 : BC 2 :: ac2 : bc2 .
2

153

or

Hence it follows, if P N , pn be ordinates, that P N 2 : AC 2 CN 2 :: pn2 : ac2 cn2 ; but, by similar triangles, therefore and Hence P N : pn :: CN : cn, CN : AC CN 2 :: cn2 : ac2 cn2 ; CN 2 : AC 2 :: cn2 : ac2 . CP : cp :: CN : cn :: AC : ac.
2 2

So also lines drawn similarly from the foci, or any other corresponding points of the two gures, will be in the ratio of the transverse axes. Exactly the same demonstration is applicable to the hyperbola, but in this case, if the ratio of SC to AC in two hyperbolas be the same, it follows from Art. (102) that the angle between the asymptotes is the same in both curves. In the case of hyperbolas we have thus a very simple test of similarity.

The Areas bounded by Conics. 159. Prop. III. If AB, AC be two tangents to a parabola, the area between the curve and the chord BC is two-thirds of the triangle ABC. Draw the tangent DP E parallel to BC; then and therefore the triangle AP = P N, BC = 2 . DE; BP C = 2ADE.

Again, draw the diameter DQM meeting BP in M . By the same reasoning, F QG being the tangent parallel to BP , the triangle P QB = 2F DG. Through F draw the diameter F RL, meeting P Q in L, and let this process be continued indenitely.

AREAS.

154

Then the sum of the triangles within the parabola is double the sum of the triangles without it. But, since the triangle BP C is half ABC, it is greater than half the parabolic area BQP C; Therefore (Euclid, Bk. xii.) the dierence between the parabolic area and the sum of the triangles can be made ultimately less than any assignable quantity; And, the same being true of the outer triangles, it follows that the area between the curve and BC is double of the area between the curve and AB, AC, and is therefore two-thirds of the triangle ABC. Cor. Since P N bisects every chord parallel to BC, it bisects the parabolic area BP C; therefore, completing the parallelogram P N BU , the parabolic area BP N is two-thirds of the parallelogram U N . 160. Prop. IV. The area of an ellipse is to the area of the auxiliary circle in the ratio of the conjugate to the transverse axis. Draw a series of ordinates, QP N , Q P N , . . . near each other, and draw P R, QR parallel to AC.

AREAS.

155

Then, since the area P N : QN :: BC : AC, P N : QN :: BC : AC,

and, this being true for all such areas, the sum of the parallelograms P N is to the sum of the parallelograms QN as BC to AC. But, if the number be increased indenitely, the sums of these parallelograms ultimately approximate to the areas of the ellipse and circle. Hence the ellipse is to the circle in the ratio of BC to AC. The student will nd in Newtons 2nd and 3rd Lemmas (Principia, Section i.) a formal proof of what we have here assumed as suciently obvious, that the sum of the parallelograms P N is ultimately equal to the area of the ellipse. 161. Prop. V. If P , Q be two points of an hyperbola, and if P L, QM parallel to one asymptote meet the other in L and M , the hyperbolic sector CP Q is equal to the hyperbolic trapezium P LM Q.

AREAS.

156

For the triangles CP L, CQM are equal, and, if P L meet CQ in R, it follows that the triangle CP R = the trapezium LRQM ; hence, adding to each the area RP Q, the theorem is proved. 162. Prop. VI. If points L, M , N , K be taken in an asymptote of an hyperbola, such that CL : CM :: CN : CK, and if LP , M Q, N R, KS, parallel to the asymptote, meet the curve in P , Q, R, S, the hyperbolic areas CP Q, CRS will be equal. Let QR and P S produced meet the asymptotes in F , F , G, G ; then RF = QF and SG = P G (Art. 121), N F = CM and KG = CL. Hence N F : KG :: CM : CL :: CK : CN :: RN : SK, and therefore SP is parallel to QR.

The diameter CU V conjugate to P S bisects all chords parallel to P S, and therefore bisects the area P QRS; also the triangle CP V = CSV, and CQU = CU R;

CURVATURE.

157

therefore, taking from CP V and CSV the equal triangles CQU , CRU , and the equal areas P QU V , SRU V , the remaining areas, which are the hyperbolic sectors CP Q, CRS, are equal. Cor. Hence if a series of points, L, M , N , . . . be taken such that CL, CM , CN , CK, . . . are in continued proportion, it follows that the hyperbolic sectors CP Q, CQR, CRS, &c. will be all equal. It will be noticed in this case that the tangent at Q will be parallel to P R, the tangent at R parallel to QS, and so also for the rest.

The Curvature of Conics. 163. Def. If a circle touch a conic at a point P , and pass through another point Q of the conic, and if the point Q move near to, and ultimately coincide with P , the circle in its ultimate condition is called the circle of curvature at P . Prop. VII. The chord of intersection of a conic with the circle of curvature at any point is inclined to the axis at the same angle as the tangent at the point. It has been shewn that, if a circle intersect a conic in four points P , Q, R, V , the chords P Q, RV are equally inclined to the axis. Let P and Q coincide with each other; then the tangent at P and the chord RV are equally inclined to the axis. Let the point V now approach to and coincide with P ; the circle becomes the circle of curvature at P , and the chord V R becomes P R the chord of intersection. Hence P R and the tangent at P are equally inclined to the axis. 164. Prop. VIII. If the tangent at any point P of a parabola meet the axis in T , and if the circle of curvature at P meet the curve in Q, P Q = 4 . P T. Draw the ordinate P N P ; then taking the gure of the next article, T P is the tangent at P , and the angle P TF = PTF = PFT; therefore P Q is parallel to T P , and is bisected by the diameter P E. Hence P Q = 2 . P E = 4P T = 4P T .

CURVATURE.

158

165. Prop. IX. To nd the chord of curvature through the focus and the diameter of curvature at any point of a parabola. Let the circle meet P S produced in V , and the normal P G produced in O. The angle P F S = P T S = SP T = P QV, since P T is a tangent to the circle. Therefore QV is parallel to the axis, and P V : SP :: P Q : P F. Hence P V = 4 . SP. Again, the angle P OQ = P V Q = P SN ;

P O : P Q :: SP : P N, or P O : SP :: 4P T : P N :: 4SP : SY, if SY be perpendicular to P T .

CURVATURE.

159

Cor. 1. Since the normal bisects the angle between SP and the diameter through P , it follows that the chord of curvature parallel to the axis is 4SP . Cor. 2. The diameter of curvature, P O, may also be expressed as follows: Let GL be the perpendicular from G on SP ; then P L = the semi-latus rectum = 2AS. Also P V O being a right angle, P O : P G :: P V : P L :: 4SP : P L :: 4SP . P L : P L2 ; 4SP . P L = 8SP . AS = 8SY 2 = 2P G2 ; P O : P G :: 2P G2 : P L2 .

but

166. Prop. X. If the chord of intersection, P Q, of an ellipse, or hyperbola, with the circle of curvature at P, meet CD, the semi-diameter conjugate to CP , in K, P Q . P K = 2CD2 .

Drawing the ordinate P N P , the tangent at P is parallel to P Q, as in the parabola, and P Q is therefore bisected in V , by the diameter CP .

CURVATURE. Let P Q meet the axes in U and U ; then, U C being parallel to P P , P V : P U :: V P : CP :: U T : CT, since P U , P T are parallel. Also U T : CT :: P U : P K; P V : P U :: P U : P K. Hence PV . PK = PU . PU = P T . P T = CD2 , observing that P U = P T , and P U = P T , by the theorem of Art. 163, and P Q . P K = 2CD2 . 167. Prop. XI. If the chord of curvature P Q , of an ellipse or hyperbola in any direction, meet CD in K , P Q . P K = 2CD2 .

160

Let P O be the diameter of curvature meeting CD in F : then P QO, P Q O are right angles, and a circle can be drawn through Q K F O;

CURVATURE. PQ . PK = PF . PO = P K . P Q = 2 . CD2 . Cor. 1. Hence P O being the diameter of curvature, P F . P O = 2 . CD2 . Cor. 2. If P Q pass through the focus, P K = AC, and P Q . AC = 2 . CD2 . Cor. 3. If P Q pass through the centre, P Q . CP = 2 . CD2 .

161

168. We can also express the diameter of curvature as follows: P G being the normal, let GL be perpendicular to SP , and let P R be the chord of curvature through S. Then GL is parallel to OR, and P O : P G :: P R : P L :: P R . P L : P L2 . But P R . AC = 2 . CD2 ; P R : AC :: 2 . CD2 : AC 2 :: 2 . P G2 : BC 2 , and P R . P L : AC . P L :: 2 . P G2 : BC 2 . But, P L being equal to the semi-latus rectum, P L . AC = BC 2 ; P R . P L = 2 . P G2 , and P O : P G :: 2P G2 : P L2 . Hence, in any conic, the radius of curvature at any point is to the normal at the point as the square of the normal to the square of the semi-latus rectum. 169. Prop. XII. The chord of curvature through the focus at any point is equal to the focal chord parallel to the tangent at the point. Since P Q . AC = 2CD2 , it follows that P Q . AA = DD 2 . But, if pp is the focal chord parallel to the tangent at P , pp . AA = DD 2 (Art. 81), P Q = pp .

EXAMPLES.

162

EXAMPLES.
1. The radius of curvature at the end of the latus rectum of a parabola is equal to twice the normal. 2. The circle of curvature at the end of the latus rectum intersects the parabola on the normal at that point. 3. If P V is the chord of curvature through the focus, what is the locus of the point V ? 4. An ellipse and a parabola, whose axes are parallel, have the same curvature at a point P and cut one another in Q; if the tangent at P meets the axis of the parabola in T prove that P Q = 4 . P T . 5. In a rectangular hyperbola, the radius of curvature at P varies as CP 3 . 6. If P be a point of an ellipse equidistant from the axis minor and one of the directrices, the circle of curvature at P will pass through one of the foci. 7. If the normal at a point P of a parabola meet the directrix in L, the radius of curvature at P is equal to 2 . P L. 8. The normal at any point P of a rectangular hyperbola meets the curve again in Q; shew that P Q is equal to the diameter of curvature at P . 9. In the rectangular hyperbola, if CP be produced to Q, so that P Q = CP , and QO be drawn perpendicular to CQ to intersect the normal in O, O is the centre of curvature at P . 10. At any point of an ellipse the chord of curvature P V through the centre is to the focal chord pp , parallel to the tangent, as the major axis is to the diameter through the point. 11. If the common tangent of an ellipse and its circle of curvature at P be bisected by their common chord, prove that CD2 = AC . BC. 12. The tangent at a point P of an ellipse whose centre is C meets the axes in T and t; if CP produced meet in L the circle described about the triangle T Ct, shew that P L is half the chord of curvature at P in the direction of C, and that the rectangle contained by CP , CL, is constant.

EXAMPLES.

163

13. If P be a point on a conic, Q a point near it, and if QE, perpendicular to P Q, meet the normal at P in E, then ultimately when Q coincides with P , P E is the diameter of curvature at P . 14. If a tangent be drawn from any point of a parabola to the circle of curvature at the vertex, the length of the tangent will be equal to the abscissa of the point measured along the axis. 15. The circle of curvature at a point where the conjugate diameters are equal, meets the ellipse again at the extremity of the diameter. 16. The chord of curvature at P perpendicular to the major axis is to P M , the ordinate at P , :: 2 . CD2 : BC 2 . 17. Prove that there is a point P on an ellipse such that if the normal at P meet the ellipse in Q, P Q is a chord of the circle of curvature at P , and nd its position. 18. The chord of curvature at a point P of a rectangular hyperbola, perpendicular to an asymptote, is to CD :: CD : 2 . P N , where P N is the distance of P from the asymptote. 19. If G be the foot of the normal at a point P of an ellipse, and GK, perpendicular to P G, meet CP in K, then KE, parallel to the axis minor, will meet P G in the centre of curvature at P . 20. The chord of curvature through the vertex at a point of a parabola is to 4P Y :: P Y : AP . 21. Prove that the locus of the middle points of the common chords of a given parabola and its circles of curvature is a parabola, and that the envelope of the chords is also a parabola. 22. The circles of curvature at the extremities P , D of two conjugate diameters of an ellipse meet the ellipse again in Q, R, respectively, shew that P R is parallel to DQ. 23. The tangent at any point P in an ellipse, of which S and H are the foci, meets the axis major in T , and T QR bisects HP in Q and meets SP in R; prove that P R is one-fourth of the chord of curvature at P through S. 24. An ellipse, a parabola, and an hyperbola, have the same vertex and the same focus; shew that the curvature, at the vertex, of the parabola is greater than that of the hyperbola, and less than that of the ellipse.

EXAMPLES.

164

25. The circle of curvature at a point of an ellipse cuts the curve in Q; the tangent at P is met by the other common tangent, which touches the curves at E and F , in T ; if P Q meet T EF in O, T EOF is cut harmonically. 26. If E is the centre of curvature at the point P of a parabola, SE 2 + 3 . SP 2 = P E 2 . 27. Find the locus of the foci of the parabolas which have a given circle as circle of curvature, at a given point of that circle. 28. Two parabolas, whose latera recta have a constant ratio, and whose foci are two given points A, B, have a contact of the second order at P . Shew that the locus of P is a circle. 29. If the xed straight line P Q is the chord of an ellipse, and is also the diameter of curvature at P , prove that the locus of the centre of the ellipse is a rectangular hyperbola, the transverse axis of which is coincident in direction with P Q, and equal in length to one-half of P Q.

CHAPTER VIII.
Orthogonal Projections.
170. Def. The projection of a point on a plane is the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the point on the plane. If from all points of a given curve perpendiculars be let fall on a plane, the curve formed by the feet of the perpendiculars is the projection of the given curve. The projection of a straight line is also a straight line, for it is the line of intersection with the given plane of a plane through the line perpendicular to the given plane. Parallel straight lines project into parallel lines, for the projections are the lines of intersection of parallel planes with the given plane. 171. Prop. I. Parallel straight lines, of nite lengths, are projected in the same ratio. That is, if ab, pq be the projections of the parallel lines AB, P Q, ab : AB :: pq : P Q. For, drawing AC parallel to ab and meeting Bb in C, and P R parallel to pq and meeting Qq in R, ABC and P QR are similar triangles; therefore AC : AB :: P R : P Q, and AC = ab, P R = pq. 172. Prop. II. The projection of the tangent to a curve at any point is the tangent to the projection of the curve at the projection of the point. For if p, q be the projections of the two points P , Q of a curve, the line pq is the projection of the line P Q, and when the line P Q turns round P until Q coincides with P , pq turns round p until q coincides with p, and the ultimate position of pq is the tangent at p.

PROJECTIONS.

166

173. Prop. III. The projection of a circle is an ellipse. Let aba be the projection of a circle ABA .

Take a chord P Q parallel to the plane of projection, then its projection pq = P Q. Let the diameter AN A perpendicular to P Q meet in F the plane of projection, and let aa F be the projection of AA F . Then aa bisects pq at right angles in the point n, and an : AN an:AN AN . N A : an . na AN . N A pn2 : an . na :: aF : AF, :: aF : AF ; :: AF 2 : aF 2 ; = P N 2 = pn2 , :: AF 2 : aF 2 ,

but

and the curve apa is an ellipse, having its axes in the ratio of aF : AF, or of aa : AA . Moreover, since we can place the circle so as to make the ratio of aa to AA whatever we please, an ellipse of any eccentricity can be obtained. In this demonstration we have assumed only the property of the principal diameters of an ellipse. Properties of other diameters can be obtained by help of the preceding theorems, as in the following instances.

PROJECTIONS.

167

174. Prop. IV. The locus of the middle points of parallel chords of an ellipse is a straight line. For, projecting a circle, the parallel chords of the ellipse are the projections of parallel chords of the circle, and as the middle points of these latter lie in a diameter of the circle, the middle points of the chords of the ellipse lie in the projection of the diameter, which is a straight line, and is a diameter of the ellipse. Moreover, the diameter of the circle is perpendicular to the chords it bisects; hence Perpendicular diameters of a circle project into conjugate diameters of an ellipse. 175. Prop. V. If two intersecting chords of an ellipse be parallel to xed lines, the ratio of the rectangles contained by their segments is constant. Let OP Q, ORS be two chords of a circle, parallel to xed lines, and opq, ors their projections. Then OP . OQ is to op . oq in a constant ratio, and OR . OS is to or . os in a constant ratio; but OP . OQ = OR . OS. Therefore op . oq is to or . os in a constant ratio; and opq, ors are parallel to xed lines. 176. Prop. VI. If qvq be a double ordinate of a diameter cp, and if the tangent at q meet cp produced in t, cv . ct = cp2 . The lines qvq and cp are the projections of a chord QV Q of a circle which is bisected by a diameter CP , and t is the projection of T the point in which the tangent at Q meets CP produced. But, in the circle, CV . CT = CP 2 , or CV : CP :: CP : CT ; and, these lines being projected in the same ratio, it follows that cv : cp :: cp : ct, or cv . ct = cp2 . Hence it follows that tangents to an ellipse at the ends of any chord meet in the diameter conjugate to the chord.

PROJECTIONS.

168

The preceding articles will shew the utility of the method in dealing with many of the properties of an ellipse. The student will nd it useful to prove, by orthogonal projections, the theorems of Arts. 58, 69, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 89, 90, and 92. 177. Prop. VII. An ellipse can be projected into a circle. This is really the converse of Art. 173, but we give a construction for the purpose. Draw a plane through AA , the transverse axis, perpendicular to the plane of the ellipse, and in this plane describe a circle on AA as diameter. Also take the chord AD, equal to the conjugate axis, and join A D, which is perpendicular to AD. Through AD draw a plane perpendicular to A D, and project a principal chord P N P on this plane. Then But P N 2 : AN . N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 . P N = pn, An : AN :: AD : AA :: BC : AC, Dn : A N :: BC : AC. An . nD : AN.N A :: BC 2 : AC 2 , pn2 =An . nD,

and Hence and therefore

and the projection ApD is a circle. This theorem, in the same manner as that of Art. 173, may be employed in deducing properties of oblique diameters and oblique chords of an ellipse. 178. If any gures in one plane be projected on another plane, the areas of the projections will all be in the same ratio to the areas of the gures themselves. Let BAD be the plane of the gures, and let them be projected on the plane CAD, C being the projection of the point B, and BAD being a right angle.

PROJECTIONS.

169

Taking a rectangle EF GH, the sides of which are parallel and perpendicular to AD, the projection is ef gh, and it is clear that the ratio of the areas of these rectangles is that of AC to AB.

Now the area of any curvilinear gure in the plane BAD is the sum of the areas of parallelograms such as EF GH, which are inscribed in the gure, if we take the widths, such as EF , innitesimally small. It follows that the area of the projection of the gure is to the area of the gure itself in the ratio of AC to AB. As an illustration, let a square be drawn circumscribing a circle, and project the gure on any plane. The square projects into tangents parallel to conjugate diameters of the ellipse which is the projection of the circle. The area of the parallelogram thus formed is the same whatever be the position of the square, and we thus obtain the theorem of Art. 87. 179. It follows that maxima and minima areas project into maxima and minima areas. For example, the greatest triangle which can be inscribed in a circle is an equilateral triangle. Projecting this gure we nd that the triangle of maximum area inscribed in an ellipse is such that the tangent at each angular point is parallel to the opposite side, and that the centre of the ellipse is the point of intersection of the lines joining the vertices of the triangle with the middle points of the opposite sides. 180. Prop. VII. The projection of a parabola is a parabola. For if P N P be a principal chord, bisected by the axis AN , the projection pnp will be bisected by the projection an.

EXAMPLES. Moreover pn : P N will be a constant ratio, as also will be an : AN . And P N 2 = 4AS . AN.

170

Hence pn2 will be to 4AS . an in a constant ratio, and the projection is a parabola, the tangent at a being parallel to pn. 181. Prop. VIII. An hyperbola can be always projected into a rectangular hyperbola. For the asymptotes can be projected into two straight lines cl, cl at right angles, and if P M , P N be parallels to the asymptotes from a point P of the curve, P M . P N is constant. But pm : P M and pn : P N are constant ratios; pm . pn is constant. And since pm and pn are perpendicular respectively to cl and cl , it follows that the projection is a rectangular hyperbola. The same proof evidently shews that any projection of an hyperbola is also an hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.
1. A parallelogram is inscribed in a given ellipse; shew that its sides are parallel to conjugate diameters, and nd its greatest area. 2. T P , T Q are tangents to an ellipse, and CP , CQ semi-diameters; P Q is parallel to P Q . are parallel

3. If a straight line meet two concentric similar and similarly situated ellipses, the portions intercepted between the curves are equal. 4. Find the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents at the extremities of pairs of conjugate diameters of an ellipse. 5. Find the locus of the middle points of the lines joining the extremities of conjugate diameters. 6. If a tangent be drawn at the extremity of the major axis meeting two equal conjugate diameters CP , CD produced in T and t; then P D2 = 2AT 2 . 7. If a chord AQ drawn from the vertex be produced to meet the minor axis in O, and CP be a semi-diameter parallel to it, then AQ . AO = 2CP 2 .

EXAMPLES.

171

8. OQ, OQ are tangents to an ellipse from an external point O, and OR is a diagonal of the parallelogram of which OQ, OQ are adjacent sides; prove that if R be on the ellipse, O will lie on a similar and similarly situated concentric ellipse. 9. AB is a given chord of an ellipse, and C any point in the ellipse; shew that the locus of the point of intersection of lines drawn from A, B, C to the middle points of the opposite sides of the triangle ABC is a similar ellipse. 10. CP , CD are conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse; if an ellipse, similar and similarly situated to the given ellipse, be described on P D as diameter, it will pass through the centre of the given ellipse. 11. Parallelograms are inscribed in an ellipse and one pair of opposite sides constantly touch a similar, similarly situated and concentric ellipse; shew that the remaining pair of sides are tangents to a third ellipse and the square on a principal semi-axis of the original ellipse is equal to the sum of the squares on the corresponding semi-axes of the other two ellipses. 12. Find the locus of the middle point of a chord of an ellipse which cuts o a constant area from the curve. 13. Find the locus of the middle point of a chord of a parabola which cuts o a constant area from the curve. 14. A parallelogram circumscribes an ellipse, touching the curve at the extremities of conjugate diameters, and another parallelogram is formed by joining the points where its diagonals meet the ellipse: prove that the area of the inner parallelogram is half that of the outer one. If four similar and similarly situated ellipses be inscribed in the spaces between the outer parallelogram and the curve, prove that their centres lie in a similar and similarly situated ellipse. 15. About a given triangle P QR is circumscribed an ellipse, having for centre the point of intersection (C) of the lines from P , Q, R bisecting the opposite sides, and P C, QC, RC are produced to meet the curve in P , Q , R ; shew that, if tangents be drawn at these points, the triangle so formed will be similar to P QR, and four times as great. 16. The locus of the middle points of all chords of an ellipse which pass through a xed point in an ellipse similar and similarly situated to the given ellipse, and with its centre in the middle point of the line joining the given point and the centre of the given ellipse.

EXAMPLES.

172

17. P T , pt are tangents at the extremities of any diameter P p of an ellipse; any other diameter meets P T in T and its conjugate meets pt in t; also any tangent meets P T in T and pt in t ; shew that P T : P T :: pt : pt. 18. From the ends P , D of conjugate diameters of an ellipse lines are drawn parallel to any tangent line; from the centre C any line is drawn cutting these lines and the tangent in p, d, t, respectively; prove that Cp2 + Cd2 = Ct2 . 19. If CP , CD be conjugate diameters of an ellipse, and if BP , BD be joined, and also AD, A P , these latter intersecting in O, the gure BDOP will be a parallelogram. 20. T is a point on the tangent at a point P of an ellipse, so that a perpendicular from T on the focal distance SP is of constant length; shew that the locus of T is a similar, similarly situated and concentric ellipse. 21. Q is a point in one asymptote, and q in the other. If Qq move parallel to itself, nd the locus of intersection of tangents to the hyperbola from Q and q. 22. Tangents are drawn to an ellipse from an external point T . The chord of contact and the major axis, or these produced, intersect in K, and T N is drawn perpendicular to the major axis. Prove that CN . CK = CA2 . 23. Q is a variable point on the tangent at a xed point P of an ellipse and R is taken so that P Q = QR. If the other tangent from Q meet the ellipse in K, prove that RK passes through a xed point. 24. If through any point on an ellipse there be drawn lines conjugate to the sides of an inscribed triangle they will meet the sides in three points in a straight line. 25. P CP is a diameter of an ellipse, and a chord P Q meets the tangent at P in R. Prove that P Q, P R have the parallel diameter for a mean proportional. 26. If AOA , BOB are conjugate diameters of an ellipse, and if AP and BQ are parallel chords, A Q and B P are parallel to conjugate diameters. 27. If the tangents at the ends of a chord of an hyperbola meet in T , and T M , T M be drawn parallel to the asymptotes to meet them in M , M , then M M is parallel to the chord.

EXAMPLES.

173

28. If a windmill in a level eld is working uniformly on a sunny day, the speed of the end of the shadow of one sail varies as the length of the shadow of the next sail. 29. Spheres are drawn passing through a xed point and touching two xed planes. Prove that the points of contact lie on two circles, and that the locus of the centre of the sphere is an ellipse. If the angle between the planes is the angle of an equilateral triangle, prove that the distance between the foci of the ellipse is half the major axis.

CHAPTER IX.
Of Conics in General.
The Construction of a Conic. 182. The method of construction, given in Chapter I., can be extended in the following manner. Let f Sn be any straight line drawn through the focus S, and draw Ax from the vertex parallel to f S, and meeting the directrix in x.

Divide the line f Sn in a and a so that Sa : af :: Sa : a f :: SA : Ax;

OF CONICS IN GENERAL.

175

then a and a are points on the curve, for, if ak be the perpendicular on the directrix, ak : af :: AX : Ax, and therefore Sa : ak :: SA : AX. Take any point e in the directrix, draw the lines eSl, ea through S and a, and draw SP making the angle P Sl equal to lSn. Through P draw F P l parallel to f S, and meeting eS produced in l, then P l = SP, and P l : P F :: Sa : af ; SP : P F :: Sa : af, and SP : P K :: Sa : ak; therefore P is a point in the curve. 183. The construction for the point a gives a simple proof that the tangent at the vertex is perpendicular to the axis. For when the angle ASa is diminished, Sa approaches to equality with SA, and therefore the angle aAS is ultimately a right angle. 184. Prop. I. To nd the points in which a given straight line is intersected by a conic of which the focus, the directrix, and the eccentricity are given.

OF CONICS IN GENERAL.

176

Let F P P be the straight line, and draw Ax parallel to it. Join F S, and nd the points D and E such that SD : DF :: SE : EF :: SA : Ax. Describe the circle on DE as diameter, and let it intersect the given line in P and P . Join DP , EP and draw SG, F H at right angles to EP . Then DP E, being the angle in a semicircle, is a right angle, and DP is parallel to SG and F H. Hence SG : F H :: SE : EF :: SD : DF :: P G : P H; therefore the angles SP G, F P H are equal, and therefore P D bisects the angle SP F . Hence SP : P F :: SD : DF :: SA : Ax, and P is a point in the curve. Similarly P is also a point in the curve, and the perpendicular from O, the centre of the circle, on F P P meets it in V , the middle point of the chord PP . Since SE : EF :: SA : Ax and SD : DF :: SA : Ax; SE SD : DE :: SA : Ax, or SO : OD :: SA : Ax, a relation analogous to SC : AC :: SA : AX. We have already shewn, for each conic, that the middle points of parallel chords lie in a straight line; the following article contains a proof of the theorem which includes all the three cases. 185. Prop. II. To nd the locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords. Let P P one of the chords be produced to meet the directrix in F , draw Ax parallel to F P , and divide F S so that SD : DF :: SE : EF :: SA : Ax; then, as in the preceding article, the perpendicular OV upon P P from O, the middle point of DE, bisects P P .

OF CONICS IN GENERAL.

177

Draw the parallel focal chord aSa ; then Oc parallel to the directrix bisects aa in c. Also draw SG perpendicular to the chords, and meeting the directrix in G.

Then, if OV meet aa in n, V n : nO :: SF : SO, :: Sf : Sc, and, since ncO, SGf are similar triangles, nO : nc :: SG : Sf ; V n : nc :: SG : Sc, and the line V c passes through G. The straight line Gc is therefore the locus of the middle points of all chords parallel to aSa . The ends of the diameter GC may be found by the construction of the preceding article. 186. When the conic is a parabola, SA = AX, and Sa : af :: AX : Ax :: SX : Sf. So Sa : a f :: SX : Sf ;

EXAMPLES.

178

Sc : ac :: SX : Sf, and ac : cf :: SX : Sf. Hence Sc : cf :: SX 2 : Sf 2 :: GX . Xf : Gf . f X :: GX : Gf ; and therefore Gc is parallel to SX, that is, the middle points of parallel chords of a parabola lie in a straight line parallel to the axis. 187. Prop. III. To nd the locus of the middle points of all focal chords of a conic. Taking the case of a central conic, and referring to the gure of the preceding article, let Oc meet SC in N ; then cN : N S :: f X : SX, and cN : N C :: GX : CX; 2 cN : SN . N C :: f X . GX : SX . CX :: SX 2 : SX . CX. Hence it follows that the locus of c is an ellipse of which SC is the transverse axis, and such that the squares of its axes are as SX : CX, or (Cor. Art. 63) as BC 2 : AC 2 . Hence the locus of c is similar to the conic itself.

EXAMPLES.
1. If an ordinate, P N P , to the transverse axis meet the tangent at the end of the latus rectum in T , SP = T N, and T P . T P = SN 2 . 2. A focal chord P SQ of a conic section is produced to meet the directrix in K, and KM , KN are drawn through the feet of the ordinates P M , QN of P and Q. If KN produced meet P N produced in R, prove that P R = P M. 3. The tangents at P and Q, two points in a conic, intersect in T ; if through P , Q, chords be drawn parallel to the tangents at Q and P , and intersecting the conic in p and q respectively, and if tangents at p and q meet in T , shew that T t is a diameter.

EXAMPLES.

179

4. Two tangents T P , T P are drawn to a conic intersecting the directrix in F, F . If the chord P Q cut the directrix in R, prove that SF : SF :: RF : RF . 5. The chord of a conic P P meets the directrix in K, and the tangents at P and P meet in T ; if RKR , parallel to ST , meet the tangents in R and R , KR = KR . 6. The tangents at P and P , intersecting in T , meet the latus rectum in D and D ; prove that the lines through D and D , respectively perpendicular to SP and SP , intersect in ST . 7. If P , Q be two points on a conic, and p, q two points on the directrix such that pq subtends at the focus half the angle subtended by P Q, either P p and Qq or P q and Qp meet on the curve. 8. A chord P P of a conic meets the directrix in F , and from any point T in P P , T LL is drawn parallel to SF and meeting SP , SP in L and L ; prove that the ratio of SL or SL to the distance of T from the directrix is equal to the ratio of SA : AX. 9. If an ellipse and an hyperbola have their axes coincident and proportional, points on them equidistant from one axis have the sum of the squares on their distances from the other axis constant. 10. If Q be any point in the normal P G, QR the perpendicular on SP , and QM the perpendicular on P N , QR : P M :: SA : AX. 11. Given a focus of a conic section inscribed in a triangle, nd the points where it touches the sides. 12. P SQ is any focal chord of a conic section; the normals at P and Q intersect in K, and KN is drawn perpendicular to P Q; prove that P N is equal to SQ, and hence deduce the locus of N . 13. Through the extremity P , of the diameter P Q of an ellipse, the tangent T P T is drawn meeting two conjugate diameters in T , T . From P , Q the lines P R, QR are drawn parallel to the same conjugate diameters. Prove that the rectangle under the semi-axes of the ellipse is a mean proportional between the triangles P QR and CT T .

EXAMPLES.

180

14. Shew that a conic may be drawn touching the sides of a triangle, having one focus at the centre of the circumscribing circle, and the other at the orthocentre. 15. The perpendicular from the focus of a conic on any tangent, and the central radius to the point of contact, intersect on the directrix. 16. AB, AC are tangents to a conic at B, and C, and DEGF is drawn from a point D in AC, parallel to AB and cutting the curve in E and F , and BC in G; shew that DG2 = DE . DF. 17. A diameter of a parabola, vertex F , meets two tangents in D and E and their chord of contact is G, shew that F G2 = ED . F E. 18. P and Q are two xed points in a parabola, and from any other point R in the curve, RP , RQ are drawn cutting a xed diameter, vertex E, in B and C; prove that the ratio of EB to EC is constant. 19. If the normal at P meet the conjugate axis in g, and gk be perpendicular to SP , P k is constant; and if kl, parallel to the transverse axis, meet the normal at P in l, kl is constant. 20. A system of conics is drawn having a common focus S and a common latus rectum LSL . A xed straight line through S intersects the conics, and at the points of intersection normals are drawn. Prove that the envelope of each of these normals is a parabola whose focus lies on LSL , and which has the given line as tangent at the vertex.

CHAPTER X.
Ellipses as Roulettes and Glissettes.
188. If a circle rolls on the inside of the circumference of a circle of double its radius, any point in the area of the rolling circle traces out an ellipse. Let C be the centre of the rolling circle, E the point of contact.

Then, if the circle meet in Q a xed radius OA of the xed circle, the angle ECQ is twice the angle EOA, and therefore the arcs EQ, EA are equal. Hence, when the circles touch at A, the point Q of the rolling circle coincides with A, and the subsequent path of Q is the diameter through A. Let P be a given point in the given radius CQ, and draw RP N perpendicular to OA, and P R parallel to OA. Then, OQE being a right angle, EQ is parallel to RP and therefore CR = CP = CR , so that OR and OR are constant. Also P N : RN :: P Q : OR; therefore, the locus of R being a circle, the locus of P is an ellipse, whose axes are as P Q : OR.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

182

But OR is clearly the length of one semi-axis, and P Q or OR is therefore the length of the other, OR, OR being equal to OC + CP and OC CP . 189. Properties of the ellipse are deducible from this construction. Thus, as the circle rolls, the point E is instantaneously at rest, and the motion of P is therefore at right angles to EP , i.e. producing EP to F , in the direction F O. Therefore, drawing P T parallel to OF , P T is the tangent, and P F the normal.

The angles EP T , EQT being right angles, the points E, P , Q, T are concyclic; but the circle through QP E clearly passes through R; therefore the angle ERT and consequently the angle ORT is a right angle, and or ON : OR :: OR : OT, ON . OT = OR2 ,

which is the theorem of Art. 74. Again, since EQ t and EP t are right angles, E, Q , t, P are concyclic; but the circle through EQ P clearly passes through R ; therefore the angle ER t and consequently the angle OR t is a right angle, and or P N : OR :: OR : Ot, P N . Ot = OR 2 ,

which is the theorem of Art. 75.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

183

Further, if P F meet OQ in G, the angles P QG, P F Q are equal, being on equal bases EQ, OQ ; or P G : P Q :: P Q : P F, P G . P F = P Q2 = OR 2 ,

which is the rst of theorems of Art. 77. And again, if P GF produced meet Q O produced in g, the angles P Q g, P F Q are equal, being on equal bases QO, EQ ; and the angle Q P g is common to the two triangles P Q g, P F Q . Therefore these triangles are similar, and or But Pg : PQ Pg . PF P Q = ER Pg . PF :: P Q : P F, = P Q 2. = OR; = OR2 ,

which is the second theorem of Art. 77. 190. If the carried point P is outside the circle the line P N R, perpendicular to OA, will meet OE produced in R, and CR will be equal to CP , so that OR will be constant and the locus of R will be a circle. Also, the triangles P QN , RON being similar, we shall have P N : RN :: P Q : OR, so that the locus of P will be an ellipse, the semi-axes of which will be CP + OC and CP OC.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

184

191. The fact that a point on the circumference of the rolling circle oscillates in a straight line is utilized in the construction of Wheatstones Photometer. By help of machinery a metallic circle, about an inch in diameter, is made to roll rapidly round the inside of a circle of double this diameter, and carries a small bright bead which is fastened to its circumference. If this machine is held between two candles or other sources of light, so that the line of oscillation of the bead is equidistant from the candles, two bright lines will be seen in close contiguity, and it is easy to form an estimate of their comparative brightnesses. If bright beads are fastened to points in the area of the rolling circle not on the circumference, and the machine be held near sources of light, the appearance, when the circle is made to rotate rapidly, will be that of a number of bright concentric ellipses. 192. A given straight line has its ends moveable on two straight lines at right angles to each other; the path of any given point in the moving line is an ellipse.

Let P be the point in the moving line AB, and C the middle point of AB. Let the ordinate N P , produced if necessary, meet OC in Q; then CQ = CP and OQ = AP , so that the locus of Q is a circle. Also P N : QN :: P B : OQ :: P B : P A;

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

185

therefore the locus of P is an ellipse, and its semi-axes are equal to AP and BP . 193. The theorem of Art. 188 is at once reducible to this case, for, taking the gure of Art. 189, QP Q is a diameter of the rolling circle and is therefore of constant length, and the points Q and Q move along xed straight lines at right angles to each other; the locus of P is therefore an ellipse of which Q P and P Q are the semi-axes. 194. From this construction also properties of the tangent and normal are deducible. Complete the rectangle OAEB; then, since the directions of motion of A and B are respectively perpendicular to EA and EB, the state of motion of the line AB may be represented by supposing that the triangle EAB is turning round the point E. Hence it follows that EP is the normal to the locus of P , and that P T perpendicular to EP is the tangent. Let OF , parallel to P T , meet EP in F ; then O, F , B, E are concyclic; the angle P F B = EOB = P BG, and the triangles P GB, P F B are similar. Hence P G : P B :: P B : P F, or P G . P F = P B2, where P B is equal to the semi-conjugate axis.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES. Similarly, by joining AF , it can be shewn that P g . P F = P A2 ,

186

g being the point of intersection of P G and AO. Again, since EP T , EBT are right angles, B, T , P , E are concyclic, and Q is clearly concyclic with B, P , E; so that T QE is a right angle. Hence OQN and OQT are similar triangles, and or ON : OQ :: OQ : OT, ON . OT = P A2 ,

where P A is equal to the semi-transverse axis. 195. Observing that F , O, A, E, B are concyclic, we have P F . P E = P A . P B; P E is equal to the semi-diameter conjugate to OP . This suggests a construction for the solution of the problem, Having given a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse, it is required to determine the position and magnitudes of the principal axes. Taking OP and OD as the given semi-conjugate diameters, draw P F perpendicular to OD, and, in F P produced, take P E equal to OD. Join OE, bisect it in C, and in CE take CQ equal to CP . Then OB, OA, drawn perpendicular and parallel to P Q, and meeting CP in B and A, will be the directions of the axes, and their lengths will be AP and P B. 196. If a given triangle AQB move in its own plane so that the extremities A, B, of its base AB move on two xed straight lines at right angles to each other, the path of the point Q is an ellipse. If O be the point of intersection of the xed lines, and C the middle point of AB, the angles COB, CBO are equal, so that, as AB slides, the line CB, and therefore also the line CQ, turns round as fast as CO, but in the contrary direction. Produce OC to P , making CP = CQ; then the locus of P is a circle the radius of which is equal to OC + CQ. There is clearly one position of AB for which the points O, C, and Q are in one straight line.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

187

Let OX be this straight line, and let OC, CQ, be any other corresponding positions of the lines; then, if CE is parallel to OX, CE bisects the angle P CQ, and, drawing P QN and CL perpendicular to OX, QN = CL P E, P N = CL + P E, hence QN : P N :: OC CP : OC + CP :: OC CQ : OC + CQ, and the locus of Q is an ellipse of which the semi-axes are OC + CQ and OC CQ. If the straight lines through A and B perpendicular to OA and OB meet in K, the point K is the instantaneous centre of rotation. The normal to the path of Q is therefore QK and the tangent is the straight line through Q perpendicular to QK. 197. Elliptic Compasses. If two ne grooves, at right angles to each other, be made on the plane surface of a plate of wood or metal, and if two pegs, fastened to a straight rod, be made to move in these grooves, then a pencil attached to any point of the rod will trace out an ellipse. By xing the pencil at dierent points of the rod, we can obtain ellipses of any eccentricity, but of dimensions limited by the lengths of the rod and the grooves.

Burstows Elliptograph.
OE is a groove in a stand which can be xed to the paper or drawing board, and OA, OB are rods jointed at A, so that the end B can slip along the groove, while AO turns round the xed end O.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

188

C is the middle point of AB, CD is a rod, the length of which is half that of AB, and the end D can slide along the groove. It follows that the angle ADB is always a right angle. A rod DP is taken of any convenient length, and, by means of a chain round the triangle ADC, is made to move so as to be always parallel to OA. If the end B be moved along the groove, the end P will trace out an ellipse of which O is the centre, and the lengths of its semi-axes will be the length of DP and of the dierence between the lengths of OA and DP . This can be seen by drawing a line OF perpendicular to OE, and producing DP to meet it in F . The motion will be that of a rod of length OA sliding between OE and OF . See Dyck, Katalog der mathematischen Instrumente, Mnchen, 1892. u

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

189

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

I.

1. On a plane eld the crack of the rie and the thud of the ball striking the target are heard at the same instant; nd the locus of the hearer. 2. P Q, P Q are two focal chords of a parabola, and P R, parallel to P Q , meets in R the diameter through Q; prove that P Q . P Q = P R2 . 3. CP and CD are conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse; P Q is a chord parallel to one of the axes; shew that DQ is parallel to one of the straight lines which join the ends of the axes. 4. A line cuts two concentric, similar and similarly situated ellipses in P , Q, q, p. If the line move parallel to itself, P Q . Qp is constant. 5. The portion of a tangent to an hyperbola intersected between the asymptotes subtends a constant angle at the focus. 6. If a circle be described passing through any point P of a given hyperbola and the extremities of the transverse axis, and the ordinate N P be produced to meet the circle in Q, the locus of Q is an hyperbola. 7. P Q is one of a series of chords inclined at a constant angle to the diameter AB of a circle; nd the locus of the intersection of AP , BQ. 8. If from a point T in the director circle of an ellipse tangents T P , T P be drawn, the line joining T with the intersection of the normals at P and P passes through the centre. 9. The points, in which the tangents at the extremities of the transverse axis of an ellipse are cut by the tangent at any point of the curve, are joined, one with each focus; prove that the point of intersection of the joining lines lies in the normal at the point. 10. Having given a focus, the eccentricity, a point of the curve, and the tangent at the point, shew that in general two conics can be described. 11. A parabola is described with its focus at one focus of a given central conic, and touches the conic; prove that its directrix will touch a xed circle.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

190

12. The extremities of the latera recta of all conics which have a common transverse axis lie on two parabolas. 13. The tangent at a moveable point P of a conic intersects a xed tangent in Q, and from S a straight line is drawn perpendicular to SQ and meeting in R the tangent at P ; prove that the locus of R is a straight line. 14. On all parallel chords of a circle a series of isosceles triangles are described, having the same vertical angle, and having their planes perpendicular to the plane of the circle. Find the locus of their vertices; and nd what the vertical angle must be in order that the locus may be a circle. 15. A series of similar ellipses whose major axes are in the same straight line pass through two given points. Prove that the major axes subtend right angles at four xed points. 16. From the centre of two concentric circles a straight line is drawn to cut them in P and Q; through P and Q straight lines are drawn parallel to two given lines at right angles to each other. Shew that the locus of their point of intersection is an ellipse. 17. A circle always passes through a xed point, and cuts a given straight line at a constant angle, prove that the locus of its centre is an hyperbola. 18. The area of the triangle formed by three tangents to a parabola is equal to one half that of the triangle formed by joining the points of contact. 19. If a parabola be described with any point on an hyperbola for focus and passing through the foci of the hyperbola, shew that its axis will be parallel to one of the asymptotes. 20. S and H being the foci, P a point in the ellipse, if HP be bisected in L, and AL be drawn from the vertex cutting SP in Q, the locus of Q is an ellipse whose focus is S. 21. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral circumscribing an ellipse meet in the centre the quadrilateral is a parallelogram. 22. A series of ellipses pass through the same point, and have a common focus, and their major axes of the same length; prove that the locus of their centres is a circle. What are the limits of the eccentricities of the ellipses, and what does the ellipse become at the higher limit? 23. If S, H be the foci of an hyperbola, LL any tangent intercepted between the asymptotes, SL . HL = CL . LL .

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

191

24. Tangents are drawn to an ellipse from a point on a similar and similarly situated concentric ellipse; shew that if P , Q be the points of contact, A, A the ends of the axis of the rst ellipse, the loci of the intersections of AP , A Q, and of AQ, A P are two ellipses similar to the given ellipses. 25. Draw a parabola which shall touch four given straight lines. Under what condition is it possible to describe a parabola touching ve given straight lines? 26. A xed hyperbola is touched by a concentric ellipse. If the curvatures at the point of contact are equal the area of the ellipse is constant. 27. A circle passes through a xed point, and cuts o equal chords AB, CD from two given parallel straight lines; prove that the envelope of each of the chords AD, BC is a central conic having the xed point for one focus. 28. A straight line is drawn through the focus parallel to one asymptote and meeting the other; prove that the part intercepted between the curve and the asymptote is one-fourth the transverse axis, and the part between the curve and the focus one-fourth the latus rectum. 29. P Q is any chord of a parabola, cutting the axis in L; R, R are the two points in the parabola at which this chord subtends a right angle: if RR be joined, meeting the axis in L , LL will be equal to the latus rectum. 30. If two equal parabolas have the same focus, tangents at points angularly equidistant from the vertices meet on the common tangent. 31. A parabola has its focus at S, and P SQ is any focal chord, while P P , QQ are two chords drawn at right angles to P SQ at its extremities; shew that the focal chord drawn parallel to P P is a mean proportional between P P and QQ . 32. With the orthocentre of a triangle as centre are described two ellipses, one circumscribing the triangle and the other touching its sides; prove that these ellipses are similar, and their homologous axes at right angles. 33. ABCD is a quadrilateral, the angles at A and C being equal; a conic is described about ABCD so as to touch the circumscribing circle of ABC at the point B; shew that BD is a diameter of the conic. 34. The volume of a cone cut o by a plane bears a constant ratio to the cube, the edge of which is equal to the minor axis of the section. 35. A tangent to an ellipse at P meets the minor axis in t, and tQ is perpendicular to SP ; prove that SQ is of constant length, and that if P M be the perpendicular on the minor axis, QM will meet the major axis in a xed point.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

192

36. Describe an ellipse with a given focus touching three given straight lines, no two of which are parallel and on the same side of the focus. 37. Prove that the conic which touches the sides of a triangle, and has its centre at the centre of the nine-point circle, has one focus at the orthocentre, and the other at the centre of the circumscribing circle. 38. From Q, the middle point of a chord P P of an ellipse whose focus is S, QG is drawn perpendicular to P P to meet the major axis in G; prove that 2 . SG : SP + SP :: SA : AX. 39. A straight rod moves in any manner in a plane; prove that, at any instant, the directions of motion of all its particles are tangents to a parabola. 40. If from a point T on the auxiliary circle, two tangents be drawn to an ellipse touching it in P and Q, and when produced meeting the circle again in p, q; shew that the angles P Sp and QSq are together equal to the supplement of P T Q. 41. Tangents at the extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse meet in T ; prove that ST , S T meet the conjugate diameters in four concyclic points. 42. From the point of intersection of an asymptote and a directrix of an hyperbola a tangent is drawn to the curve; prove that the line joining the point of contact with the focus is parallel to the asymptote. 43. If a string longer than the circumference of an ellipse be always drawn tight by a pencil, the straight portions being tangents to the ellipse, the pencil will trace out a confocal ellipse. 44. D is any point in a rectangular hyperbola from which chords are drawn at right angles to each other to meet the curve. If P , Q be the middle points of these chords, prove that P , Q, D and the centre of the hyperbola are concyclic. 45. From a point T in the auxiliary circle tangents are drawn to an ellipse, touching it in P and Q, and meeting the auxiliary circle again in p and q; shew that the angle pCq is equal to the sum of the angles P SQ and P S Q. 46. The angle between the focal distance and tangent at any point of an ellipse is half the angle subtended at the focus by the diameter through the point.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

193

47. H is a xed point on the bisector of the exterior angle A of the triangle ABC; a circle is described upon HA as chord cutting the lines AB, AC in P and Q; prove that P Q envelopes a parabola which has H for focus, and for tangent at the vertex the straight line joining the feet of the perpendiculars from H on AB and AC. 48. Tangents to an ellipse, foci S and H, at the ends of a focal chord P HP meet the further directrix in Q, Q . The parabola, whose focus is S, and directrix P P , touches P Q, P Q , in Q, Q ; it also touches the normals at P , P , and the minor axis, and has for the tangent at its vertex the diameter parallel to P P . 49. S is a xed point, and E a point moving on the arc of a given circle; prove that the envelope of the straight line through E at right angles to SE is a conic. 50. A circle passing through a xed point S cuts a xed circle in P , and has its centre at O; the lines which bisect the angle SOP all touch a conic of which S is a focus. 51. The tangent to an ellipse at P meets the directrix, corresponding to S, in Z: through Z a straight line ZQR is drawn cutting the ellipse in Q, R; and the tangents at Q, R intersect (on SP ) in T . Shew that a conic can be described with focus S, and directrix P Z, to pass through Q, R and T ; and that T Z will be the tangent at T . 52. T P , T Q are tangents to an ellipse at P and Q; one circle touches T P at P and meets T Q in Q and Q ; another touches T Q at Q and meets T P in P and P ; prove that P Q and QP are divided in the same ratio by the ellipse. 53. If a chord RP QV meet the directrices of an ellipse in R and V , and the circumference in P and Q, then RP and QV subtend, each at the focus nearer to it, angles of which the sum is equal to the angle between the tangents at P and Q. 54. Two tangents are drawn to the same branch of a rectangular hyperbola from an external point; prove that the angles which these tangents subtend at the centre are respectively equal to the angles which they make with the chord of contact. 55. If the normal at a point P of an hyperbola meet the minor axis in g, P g will be to Sg in a constant ratio. 56. An ordinate N P of an ellipse is produced to meet the auxiliary circle in Q, and normals to the ellipse and circle at P and Q meet in R; RK, RL are drawn perpendicular to the axes; prove that KP L is a straight line, and also that KP = BC and LP = AC.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

194

57. If the tangent at any point P cut the axes of a conic, produced if necessary, in T and T , and if C be the centre of the curve, prove that the area of the triangle T CT varies inversely as the area of the triangle P CN , where P N is the ordinate of P . 58. The circle of curvature of an ellipse at P passes through the focus S, SM is drawn parallel to the tangent at P to meet the diameter P CP in M ; shew that it divides this diameter in the ratio of 3 : 1. 59. Prove the following construction for a pair of tangents from any external point T to an ellipse of which the centre is C: join CT , let T P CP T a similar and similarly situated ellipse be drawn, of which CT is a diameter, and P , P are its points of intersection with the given ellipse; T P , T P will be tangents to the given ellipse. 60. Through a xed point a pair of chords of a circle are drawn at right angles: prove that each side of the quadrilateral formed by joining their extremities envelopes a conic of which the xed point and the centre of the circle are foci. 61. Any conic passing through the four points of intersection of two rectangular hyperbolas will be itself a rectangular hyperbola. 62. R is the middle point of a chord P Q of a rectangular hyperbola whose centre is C. Through R, RQ , RP are drawn parallel to the tangents at P and Q respectively, meeting CQ, CP in Q , P . Prove that C, P , R, Q are concyclic. 63. The tangents at two points Q, Q of a parabola meet the tangent at P in R, R respectively, and the diameter through their point of intersection T meets it in K; prove that P R = KR , and that, if QM , Q M , T N be the ordinates of Q, Q , T respectively to the diameter through P , P N is a mean proportional between P M and P M . 64. Common tangents are drawn to two parabolas, which have a common directrix, and intersect in P , Q: prove that the chords joining the points of contact in each parabola are parallel to P Q, and the part of each tangent between its points of contact with the two curves is bisected by P Q produced. 65. An ellipse has its centre on a given hyperbola and touches the asymptotes. The area of the ellipse being always a maximum, prove that its chord of contact with the asymptotes always touches a similar hyperbola. 66. A circle and parabola have the same vertex A and a common axis. BA C is the double ordinate of the parabola which touches the circle at A , the other

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

195

extremity of the diameter which passes through A; P P is any other ordinate of the parabola parallel to this, meeting the axis in N and the chord AB produced in R: shew that the rectangle between RP and RP is proportional to the square on the tangent drawn from N to the circle. 67. Tangents are drawn at two points, P , P on an ellipse. If any tangent be drawn meeting those at P , P in R, R , shew that the line bisecting the angle RSR intersects RR on a xed tangent to the ellipse. Find the point of contact of this tangent. 68. Having given a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse, P CP , DCD , let P F be the perpendicular from P on CD, in P F take P E equal to CD, bisect CE in O, and on CE as diameter describe a circle; prove that P O will meet the circle in two points Q and R such that CQ, CR are the directions of the semi-axes, and P Q, P R their lengths. 69. A straight line is drawn through the angular point A of a triangle ABC to meet the opposite side in a; two points O, O are taken on Aa, and CO, CO meet AB in c and c , and BO, BO meet CA in b, b ; shew that a conic passing through abb cc will be touched by BC. 70. If T P , T Q are two tangents to a parabola, and any other tangent meets them in Q and R, the middle point of QR describes a straight line. 71. Lines from the centre to the points of contact of two parallel tangents to a rectangular hyperbola and concentric circle make equal angles with either axis of the hyperbola. 72. A line moves between two lines at right angles so as to subtend a right angle and a half at a xed point on the bisector of the right angle; prove that it touches a rectangular hyperbola. 73. Two cones, whose vertical angles are supplementary, are placed with their vertices coincident and their axes at right angles, and are cut by a plane perpendicular to a common generating line; prove that the directrices of the section of one cone pass through the foci of the section of the other. 74. The normal at a point P of an ellipse meets the curve again in P , and through O, the centre of curvature at P , the chord QOQ is drawn at right angles to P P ; prove that QO . OQ : P O . OP :: 2 . P O : P P .

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

196

75. From an external point T , tangents are drawn to an ellipse, the points of contact being on the same side of the major axis. If the focal distances of these points intersect in M and N , T M , T N are tangents to a confocal hyperbola, which passes through M and N . 76. Two tangents to an hyperbola from T meet the directrix in F and F ; prove that the circle, centre T , which touches SF , SF , meets the directrix in two points the radii to which from the point T are parallel to the asymptotes. 77. QR, touching the ellipse at P , is one side of the parallelogram formed by tangents at the ends of conjugate diameters; if the normal at P meet the axes in G and g, prove that QG and Rg are at right angles. 78. If P P be a double ordinate of an ellipse, and if the normal at P meet CP in O, prove that the locus of O is a similar ellipse, and that its axis is to the axis of the given ellipse in the ratio AC 2 BC 2 : AC 2 + BC 2 . 79. A chord of a conic whose pole is T meets the directrices in R and R ; if SR and S R meet in Q, prove that the minor axis bisects T Q. 80. On a parabola, whose focus is S, three points Q, P , Q are taken such that the angles P SQ, P SQ are equal; the tangent at P meets the tangents at Q, Q in T , T : shew that T Q : T Q :: SQ : SQ . 81. If from any point P of a parabola perpendiculars P N , P L are let fall on the axis and the tangent at the vertex, the line LN always touches another parabola. 82. P Q is any diameter of a section of a cone whose vertex is V ; prove that V P + V Q is constant. 83. If SY , SK are the perpendiculars from a focus on the tangent and normal at any point of a conic, the straight line Y K passes through the centre of the conic. 84. If the axes of two parabolas are in the same direction, their common chord bisects their common tangents. 85. Find the position of the normal chord which cuts o from a parabola the least segment. 86. From the point in which the tangent at any point P of an hyperbola meets either asymptote perpendiculars P M , P N are let fall upon the axes. Prove that M N passes through P .

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

197

87. If two parabolas whose latera recta have a constant ratio, and whose foci are two given points S, S , have a contact of the second order at P , the locus of P is a circle. 88. Find the class of plane curves such that, if from a xed point in the plane, perpendiculars are let fall on the tangent and normal at any point of any one of the curves, the join of the feet of the perpendiculars will pass through another xed point. 89. If two ellipses have one common focus S and equal major axes, and if one ellipse revolves in its own plane about S, the chord of intersection envelopes a conic confocal with the xed ellipse. 90. The tangent at any point P of an ellipse meets the axis minor in T and the focal distances SP , HP meet it in R, r. Also ST , HT , produced if necessary, meet the normal at P in Q, q, respectively. Prove that Qr and qR are parallel to the axis major. 91. Two points describe the circumference of an ellipse, with velocities which are to one another in the ratio of the squares on the diameters parallel to their respective directions of motion. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of their directions of motion will be an ellipse, confocal with the given one. 92. If AA be the axis major of an elliptic section of a cone, vertex O, and if AG, A G perpendicular to AV , A V meet the axis of the cone in G and G , and GU , G U be the perpendiculars let fall on AA , prove that U and U are the centres of curvature at A and A . 93. By help of the geometry of the cone, or otherwise, prove that the sum of the tangents from any point of an ellipse to the circles of curvature at the vertices is constant. 94. If two tangents be drawn to a section of a cone, and from their intersection two straight lines be drawn to the points where the tangent plane to the cone through one of the tangents touches the focal spheres, prove that the angle contained by these lines is equal to the angle between the tangents. 95. If CP , CD are conjugate semi-diameters and if through C is drawn a line parallel to either focal distance of P , the perpendicular from D upon this line will be equal to half the minor axis. 96. The area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the ends of any pair of diameters of a central conic varies inversely as the area of the parallelogram formed by joining the points of contact.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

198

97. Shew how to draw through a given point a plane which will have the given point for (1) focus, (2) centre, of the section it makes of a given right circular cone: noticing any limitations in the position of the point which may be necessary. 98. In the rst gure of Art. 148, if a plane be drawn intersecting the focal spheres in two circles and the cone in an ellipse, the sum or dierence of the tangents from any point of the ellipse to the circles is constant. 99. If sections of a right cone be made, perpendicular to a given plane, such that the distance between a focus of a section and that vertex which lies on one of the generating lines in the given plane be constant, prove that the transverse axes, produced if necessary, of all sections will touch one of two xed circles. 100. A sphere rolls in contact with two intersecting straight wires; prove that its centre describes an ellipse.

CHAPTER XI.
Harmonic Properties, Poles and Polars.
198. Def. A straight line is harmonically divided in two points when the whole line is to one of the extreme parts as the other extreme part is to the middle part. Thus AD is harmonically divided in C and B, when AD : AC :: BD : BC.

This denition may also be presented in the following form. The straight line AB is harmonically divided in C and D, when it is divided internally in C, and externally in D, in the same ratio. Under these circumstances the four points A, C, B, D constitute an Harmonic Range, and if through any point O four straight lines OA, OC, OB, OD be drawn, these four lines constitute an Harmonic Pencil. Prop. I. If a straight line be drawn parallel to one of the rays of an harmonic pencil, its segments made by the other three will be equal, and any straight line is divided harmonically by the four rays. Let ACBD be the given harmonic range, and draw ECF through C parallel to OD, and meeting OA, OB in E and F . Then AD : AC :: OD : EC, and BD : BC :: OD : CF ; but from the denition AD : AC :: BD : BC; EC = CF, and any other line parallel to ECF is obviously bisected by OC. Next, let acbd be any straight line cutting the pencil, and draw ecf parallel to Od; so that ec = cf .

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

200

Then and

ad : ac :: Od : ec, bd : bc :: Od : cf ; ad : ac :: bd : bc;

that is, acbd is harmonically divided. If the line c be drawn cutting AO produced, then and or : c :: O : ec, : c :: O : cf ; : c :: : c, c : :: c : ,

and similarly it may be shewn in all other cases that the line is harmonically divided. 199. Prop. II. The pencil formed by two straight lines and the bisectors of the angles between them is an harmonic pencil. For, if OA, OB be the lines, and OC, OD the bisectors, draw KP L parallel to OC and meeting OA, OD, OB. Then the angles OKL, OLK are

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

201

obviously equal, and the angles at P are right angles; therefore KP = P L, and the pencil is harmonic.

200. Prop. III. If ACBD, Acbd be harmonic ranges, the straight lines Cc, Bb, Dd will meet in a point, as also Cd, cD, Bb.

For, if Cc, Dd meet in F , join F b; then the pencil F (Acbd) is harmonic, and will be cut harmonically by AD. Hence F b produced will pass through B. Similarly, if Cd, cD meet in E, E(Acbd) is harmonic, and therefore bE produced will pass through B.

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

202

Harmonic Properties of a Quadrilateral. In the preceding gure, let CcdD be any quadrilateral; and let dc, DC meet in A, Cd, cD in E, and Cc, Dd in F . Then taking b and B so as to divide Acd and ACD harmonically, the ranges Acbd and ACBD are harmonic, and therefore Bb passes through both E and F . Similarly it can be shewn that AF is divided harmonically in L and M , by Dc and dC. For E(Acbd) is harmonic and therefore the transversal ALF M is harmonically divided. 201. Prop. IV. If ACBD be an harmonic range, and E the middle point of CD, EA . EB = EC 2 .

AD : AC :: BD : BC, or AE + EC : AE EC :: EC + EB : EC EB; AE : EC :: EC : EB, or AE . EB = EC 2 = ED2 . Hence also, conversely, if EC 2 = ED2 = AE . EB, the range ACBD is harmonic, C and D being on opposite sides of E. Hence, if a series of points A, a, B, b, . . . on a straight line be such that EA . Ea = EB . Eb = EC . Ec . . . = EP 2 , and if EQ = EP , then the several ranges (AP aQ), (BP bQ), &c. are harmonic. 202. Def. A system of pairs of points on a straight line such that EA . Ea = EB . EB . Eb = . . . = EP 2 = EQ2 is called a system in Involution, the point E being called the centre and P , Q the foci of the system. Any two corresponding points A, a, are called conjugate points, and it appears from above that any two conjugate points form, with the foci of the system, an harmonic range.

For

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

203

It will be noticed that a focus is a point at which conjugate points coincide, and that the existence of a focus is only possible when the points A and a are both on the same side of the centre. 203. Prop. V. Having given two pairs of points, A and a, B and b, it is required to nd the centre and foci of the involution. If E be the centre, EA : EB :: Eb : Ea; EA : AB :: Eb : ab, EA : Eb :: AB : ab.

or

This determines E, and the foci P and Q are given by the relations EP 2 = EQ2 = EA . EA. We shall however nd the following relation useful. Since or but Again, EA : Eb :: EB : Ea; EA : Ab :: EB : aB, EA : EB :: Ab : aB; Eb : EA :: ab : AB; Eb : EB :: Ab . ba : AB . Ba. Qb : P b :: QB : P B; Qb P b : P b :: QB P B : P B, 2 . EP : P b :: 2 . EB : BP ; P b2 : P B 2 :: EP 2 : EB 2 , :: Eb : EB :: Ab . ba : AB . Ba.

This determines the ratio in which Bb is divided by P . 204. If QAP a be an harmonic range and E the middle point of P Q, and if a circle be described on P Q as diameter, the lines joining any point R on this circle with P and Q will bisect the angles between AR and aR.

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

204

For

EA . Ea = EP 2 = ER2 ; EA : ER :: ER : Ea, AR : aR :: EA : ER :: EA : EP. Ea : EP :: EP : EA; aP : EP :: AP : EA. AR : aR :: AP : aP,

and the triangles ARE, aRE are similar. Hence But Hence

and ARa is bisected by RP . Hence, if A and a, B and b be conjugate points of a system in involution of which P and Q are the foci, it follows that AB and ab subtend equal angles at any point of the circle on P Q as diameter. This fact also aords a means of obtaining the relations of Art. 203. We must observe that if the points A, a are on one side of the centre and B, b on the other, the angles subtended by AB, ab are supplementary to each other. 205. Prop. VI. If four points form an harmonic range, their conjugates also form an harmonic range. Let A, B, C, D be the four points, a, b, c, d their conjugates.

Then, as in the eighth line of Art. 203, or EA : Ed :: AD : ad, ED : Ea :: AD : ad; AD . Ea = ED . ad.

HARMONIC PROPERTIES. Similarly AC . Ea = EC . ac, BD . Eb = ED . bd, BC . Eb = EC . bc. But, ABCD being harmonic, AD : AC :: BD : BC; ED . ad : EC . ac :: ED . bd : EC . bc. Hence ad : ac :: bd : bc, or the range of the conjugates is harmonic.

205

206. Prop. VII. If a system of conics pass through four given points, any straight line will be cut by the system in a series of points in involution. The four xed points being C, D, E, F , let the line meet one of the conics in A and a, and the straight lines CF , ED, in B and b. Then the rectangles AB . Ba, CB . BF are in the ratio of the squares on parallel diameters, as also are Ab . ba and Db . bE. But the squares on the diameters parallel to CF , ED are in the constant ratio KF . KC : KE . KD; and, the line Bb being given in position, the rectangles CB . BF and Db . bE are given; therefore the rectangles AB . Ba, Ab . ba are in a constant ratio.

But (Art. 203) this ratio is the same as that of P B 2 to P b2 , if P be a focus of the involution A, a, B, b. Hence P is determined, and all the conics cut the line Bb in points which form with B, b a system in involution. We may observe that the foci are the points of contact of the two conics which can be drawn through the four points touching the line, and that

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

206

the centre is the intersection of the line with the conic which has one of its asymptotes parallel to the line. 207. Prop. VIII. If through any point two tangents be drawn to a conic, any other straight line through the point will be divided harmonically by the curve and the chord of contact. Let AB, AC be the tangents, ADF E the straight line. Through D and E draw GDHK, LEM N parallel to BC. Then the diameter through A bisects DH, and BC, and therefore bisects GK; hence GD = HK, and similarly LE = M N . Also or But hence and therefore LE : EN :: GD : DK; LE . EN : LE 2 :: GD . DK : GD2 , LE . LM : GD . GH :: LE 2 : GD2 :: LA2 : GA2 . LE . LM : GD . GH :: LB 2 : BG2 ; AL : AG :: BL : BG, AE : AD :: F E : F D,

that is, ADF E is harmonically divided.

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

207

208. Prop. IX. If two tangents be drawn to a conic, any third tangent is harmonically divided by the two tangents, the curve, and the chord of contact.

Let DEF G be the third tangent, and through G, the point in which it meets AC, draw GHKL parallel to AB, cutting the curve and the chord of contact in H, K, L. Then GH . GL : GC 2 :: AB 2 : AC 2 :: GK 2 : GC 2 ; GH . GL = GK 2 . DG2 : DE 2 :: GK 2 : EB 2 :: GH . GL : EB 2 :: F G2 : F E 2 ;

Hence

that is, DEF G is an harmonic range.

209. Prop. X. If any straight line meet two tangents to a conic in P and Q, the chord of contact in T and the conic in R and V , P R . P V : QR . QV :: P T 2 : QT 2 .

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

208

Taking the preceding gure, draw the tangent DEF G parallel to P Q. Then P R . P V : EF 2 :: P B 2 : BE 2 :: P T 2 : DE 2 ; and QR . QV : GF 2 :: QC 2 : GC 2 :: QT 2 : DG2 ; but EF : DE :: GF : DG; P R . P V : P T 2 :: QR . QV : QT 2 . 210. Prop. XI. If chords of a conic be drawn through a xed point the pairs of tangents at their extremities will intersect in a xed line. Let B be the xed point and C the centre, and let CB meet the curve in P . Take A in CP such that CA : CP :: CP : CB; then B is the middle point of the chord of contact of the tangents AQ, AR. Draw any chord EBF , and let the tangents at E and F meet in G: also join CG and draw P N parallel to EF .

HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

209

Then if CG meet EF in K and the tangent at P in T , CK . CG = CN . CT ; CG : CT :: CN : CK :: CP : CB :: CA : CP ; hence AG is parallel to P T , and the point G therefore lies on a xed line. If the conic be a parabola, we must take AP equal to BP : then, remembering that KG and N T are bisected by the curve, the proof is the same as before. 211. If A be the xed point, let CA meet the curve in P , and take B in CP such that CB : CP :: CP : CA; then B is the middle point of the chord of contact of the tangents AQ, AR. Draw any chord AEF , and let the tangents at E and F meet in G; also join CG and draw P N parallel to EF .

Then

CK . CG = CN . CT ; CG : CT :: CN : CK :: CP : CA :: CB : CP ;

POLES AND POLARS.

210

BG is parallel to P T and coincides with the chord of contact QR. Hence, conversely, if from points on a straight line pairs of tangents be drawn to a conic, the chords of contact will pass through a xed point.

Poles and Polars. 212. Def. The straight line which is the locus of the points of intersection of tangents at the extremities of chords through a xed point is called the polar of the point. Also, if from points in a straight line pairs of tangents be drawn to a conic, the point in which all the chords of contact intersect is called the pole of the line. If the pole be without the curve the polar is the chord of contact of tangents from the pole. If the pole be on the curve the polar is the tangent at the point. It follows at once from these denitions that the focus of a conic is the pole of the directrix, and that the foot of the directrix is the pole of the latus rectum. 213. Prop. XII. A straight line drawn through any point is divided harmonically by the point, the curve, and the polar of the point. If the point be without the conic this is already proved in Art. 207. If it be within the conic, as B in the gure of Art. 210, then, drawing any chord F BEV meeting in V the polar of B, which is AG, the chord of contact of tangents from V passes through B, by Art. 211, and the line V EBF is therefore harmonically divided. Hence the polar may be constructed by drawing two chords through the pole and dividing them harmonically; the line joining the points of division is the polar. Or, in the gure of Art. 210, CB . CA = CP 2 , so that the polar of B is obtained by taking the point A on the diameter through B, at the distance from C given by the above relation, and then drawing AG parallel to the diameter which is conjugate to CP . Cor. Hence it follows that the centre of a conic is the pole of a line at an innite distance. For, if CB is diminished indenitely, CA is increased indenitely.

POLES AND POLARS.

211

214. Prop. XIII. The polars of two points intersect in the pole of the line joining the two points. For, if A, B be the two points and O the pole of AB, the line AO is divided harmonically by the curve, and therefore the polar of A passes through the point O. Similarly the polar of B passes through O; That is, the polars of A and B intersect in the pole of AB. 215. Prop. XIV. If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a conic, its opposite sides and diagonals will intersect in three points such that each is the pole of the line joining the other two. Let ABCD be the quadrilateral, F and G the points of intersection of AD, BC, and of DC, AB.

Let EG meet F A, F B, in L and M . Then (Art. 200) F DLA and F CM B are harmonic ranges; Therefore L and M are both on the polar of F (Art. 213), and EG is the polar of F . Similarly, EF is the polar of G, and therefore E is the pole of F G (Art. 214). 216. Def. If each of the sides of a triangle be the polar, with regard to a conic, of the opposite angular point, the triangle is said to be self-conjugate with regard to the conic.

POLES AND POLARS.

212

Thus the triangle EGF in the above gure is self-conjugate. To construct a self-conjugate triangle, take a straight line AB and nd its pole C. Draw through C any straight line CD cutting AB in D, and nd the pole E of CD, which lies on AB: then CDE is self-conjugate. 217. Prop. XV. If a quadrilateral circumscribe a conic, its three diagonals form a self-conjugate triangle. Let the polar of F (that is, the chord of contact P P ), meet F G in R; then, since R is on the polar of F , it follows that F is on the polar of R. Now F (AEBG) is harmonic (Art. 200), and, if F E meet P P in T , P T P R is an harmonic range; hence, by the theorem of Art. 213, F T , i.e. F E, is the polar of R.

Similarly, if the other chord of contact QQ meet F G in R , GE is the polar of R ; E is the pole of RR , that is, of LK. Again, DEBK is harmonic, and therefore the pencil C(QEP K) is harmonic. Hence, if QP meet AC in S and CK in V , QSP V is harmonic, and therefore S is on the polar of V . But S is on the polar of C; therefore CV , that is, CK, is the polar of S.

EXAMPLES.

213

Similarly, if P Q meet AC in S , AK is the polar of S . Hence it follows that K is the pole of SS , that is, of EL; ELK is therefore a self-conjugate triangle. 218. Prop. XVI. If a system of conics have a common self-conjugate triangle, any straight line passing through one of the angular points of the triangle is cut in a series of points in involution. For, if ABC be the triangle, and a line AP DQ meet BC in D, and the conic in P and Q, AP DQ is an harmonic range, and all the pairs of points P , Q form with A and D an harmonic range. Hence the pairs of points form a system in involution, of which A and D are the foci. 219. Prop. XVII. The pencil formed by the polars of the four points of an harmonic range is an harmonic pencil. Let ABCD be the range, O the pole of AD. Let the polars Oa, Ob, Oc, Od meet AD in a, b, c, d, and let AD meet the conic in P and Q.

Then AP aQ, CP cQ, &c. are harmonic ranges; and therefore (Arts. 201, 202) a, c, b, d are the conjugates of A, C, B, D. Hence (Art. 205) the range acbd is harmonic, and therefore the pencil O (acbd) is harmonic.

EXAMPLES.
1. If P SP is a focal chord of a conic, any other chord through S is divided harmonically by the directrix and the tangents at P and P . 2. If two sections of a right cone be taken, having the same directrix, the straight line joining the corresponding foci will pass through the vertex. 3. If a series of circles pass through the same two points, any transversal will be cut by the circles in a series of points in involution. 4. If O be the centre of the circle circumscribing a triangle ABC, and B C , C A , A B , the respective polars with regard to a concentric circle of the points A, B, C, prove that O is the centre of the circle inscribed in the triangle A B C .

EXAMPLES.

214

5. OA, OB, OC being three straight lines given in position, shew that there are three other straight lines each of which forms with OA, OB, OC an harmonic pencil; and that each of the three OA, OB, OC forms with the second three an harmonic pencil. 6. The straight line ACBD is divided harmonically in the points C, B; prove that if a circle be described on CD as diameter, any circle passing through A and B will cut it at right angles. 7. Three straight lines AD, AE, AF are drawn through a xed point A, and xed points C, B, D are taken in AD, such that ACBD is an harmonic range. Any straight line through B intersects AE and AF in E and F , and CE, DF intersect in P ; DE, CF in Q. Shew that P and Q always lie in a straight line through A, forming with AD, AE, AF an harmonic pencil. 8. CA, CB are two tangents to a conic section, O a xed point in AB, P OQ any chord of the conic; prove that the intersections of AP , BQ, and also of AQ, BP lie in a xed straight line which forms with CA, CO, CB an harmonic pencil. 9. If three conics pass through the same four points, the common tangent to two of them is divided harmonically by the third. 10. Two conics intersect in four points, and through the intersection of two of their common chords a tangent is drawn to one of them; prove that it is divided harmonically by the other. 11. Prove that the two tangents through any point to a conic, any line through the point and the line to the pole of the last line, form an harmonic pencil. 12. The locus of the poles, with regard to the auxiliary circle, of the tangents to an ellipse, is a similar ellipse. 13. The asymptotes of an hyperbola and any pair of conjugate diameters form an harmonic pencil. 14. P SQ and P S R are two focal chords of an ellipse; two other ellipses are described having P for a common focus, and touching the rst ellipse at Q and R respectively. The three ellipses have equal major axes. Prove that the directrices of the last two ellipses pass through the pole of QR. 15. Tangents from T touch an ellipse in P and Q, and P Q meets the directrices in R and R ; shew that P R and QR subtend equal angles at T . 16. The poles of a given straight line, with respect to sections through it of a given cone, all lie upon a straight line passing through the vertex of the cone.

EXAMPLES.

215

17. If from a given point in the axis of a conic a chord be drawn, the perpendicular from the pole of the chord upon the chord will meet the axis in a xed point. 18. Q is any point in the tangent at a point P of a conic; QG perpendicular to CP meets the normal at P in G, and QE perpendicular to the polar of Q meets the normal at P in E; prove that EG is constant and equal to the radius of curvature at P . 19. The line joining two xed points A and B meets the two xed lines OP , OQ in P and Q. A conic is described so that OP and OQ are the polars of A and B with respect to it. Prove that the locus of its centre is the line OR, where R divides AB so that AR : RB :: QR : RP. 20. If from a point O in the normal at a point R of an ellipse tangents OP , OQ are drawn, the angles P RO, QRO are equal. 21. The focal distances of a point on a conic meet the curve again in Q, R; shew that the pole of QR will lie upon the normal at the rst point. 22. The tangent at any point A of a conic is cut by two other tangents and their chord of contact in B, C, D; shew that (ABDC) is harmonic. 23. A rectangular hyperbola circumscribes a triangle ABC; if D, E, F be the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B, C on the opposite sides, the loci of the poles of the sides of the triangle ABC are the lines EF , F D, DE. 24. Two common chords of a given ellipse and a circle pass through a given point; shew that the locus of the centres of all such circles is a straight line through the given point. 25. If ABCD is a quadrilateral inscribed in a conic, and if AD, BC meet in P , and AC, BD in Q, P Q passes through the pole of AB. 26. P CP is any diameter of an ellipse. The tangents at the points D, E intersect in F , and P E, P D intersect in G. Shew that F G is parallel to DCD . 27. P P is a chord of a conic, QQ any chord through its pole. Prove that lines drawn from P parallel to the tangents at Q and Q to meet P Q, and P Q respectively are bisected by QQ .

EXAMPLES.

216

28. If the pencil joining four xed points on a conic to any one point on the conic is harmonic, the pencil joining the xed points to any point on the conic is harmonic. 29. If P Q is the chord of a conic having its pole on the chord AB or AB produced, and if Qq is the chord parallel to AB, then P q bisects AB. 30. If a quadrilateral circumscribe a conic, the intersection of the lines joining opposite points of contact is the same as the intersection of the diagonals.

CHAPTER XII.
Reciprocal Polars.
220. The pole of a line with regard to any conic being a point and the polar of a point a line, it follows that any system of points and lines can be transformed into a system of lines and points. This process is called reciprocation, and it is clear that any theorem relating to the original system will have its analogue in the system formed by reciprocation. Thus, if a series of lines be concurrent, the corresponding points are collinear; and the theorem of Art. 219 is an instance of the eect of reciprocation. 221. Def. If a point move in a curve (C), its polar will always touch some other curve (C ); this latter curve is called the reciprocal polar of (C) with regard to the auxiliary conic. Prop. I. If a curve C be the polar of C, then will C be the polar of C . For, if P , P be two consecutive points of C, the intersection of the polars of P and P is a point Q, which is the pole of the line P P . But the point Q is ultimately, when P and P coincide, the point of contact of the curve which is touched by the polar of P . Hence the polar of any point Q of C is a tangent to the curve C. 222. So far we have considered poles and polars generally with regard to any conic; we shall now consider the case in which a circle is the auxiliary curve. In this case, if AB be a line, P its pole, and CY the perpendicular from the centre of the circle on AB, the rectangle CP . CY is equal to the square on the radius of the circle. A simple construction is thus given for the pole of a line, or the polar of the point.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

218

As an illustration take the theorem of the existence of the orthocentre in a triangle. Let AOD, BOE, COF be the perpendiculars, O being the orthocentre. The polar reciprocal of the line BC is a point A , and of the point A a line B C . To the line AD corresponds a point P on B C , and since ADB is a right angle, it follows that P SA is a right angle, S being the centre of the auxiliary circle. And, similarly, if SQ, SR, perpendiculars to SB , SC , meet C A and A B in Q and R, these points correspond to BE and CF . But AD, BE, CF are concurrent; P, Q, R are collinear. Hence the reciprocal theorem, If from any point S lines be drawn perpendicular respectively to SA , SB , SC , and meeting B C , C A , A B in P , Q, and R, these points are collinear. As a second illustration take the theorem, If A, B be two xed points, and AC, BC at right angles to each other, the locus of C is a circle. Taking O, the middle point of AB, as the centre of the auxiliary circle, the reciprocals of A and B are two parallel straight lines, P E, QF , perpendicular to AB; the reciprocals of AC, BC are points P , Q on these lines such that P OQ is a right angle, and P Q is the reciprocal of C. Hence, the locus of C being a circle, it follows that P Q always touches a circle. The reciprocal theorem therefore is, If a straight line P Q, bounded by two parallel straight lines, subtend a right angle at a point O, halfway between the lines, the line P Q always touches a circle, having O for its centre. 223. Prop. II. The reciprocal polar of a circle with regard to another circle, called the auxiliary circle, is a conic, a focus of which is the centre of the auxiliary circle, and the corresponding directrix the polar of the centre of the reciprocated circle. Let S be the centre of the auxiliary circle, and KX the polar of C, the centre of the reciprocated circle.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

219

Then, if P be the pole of a tangent QY to the circle C, SP meeting this tangent in Y , SP . SY = SX . SC. Therefore, drawing SL parallel to QY , SP : SC :: SX : QL. But, by similar triangles, SP : SC :: SN : CL; SP : SC :: N X : CQ, or SP : P K :: SC : CQ. Hence the locus of P is a conic, focus S, directrix KX and having for its eccentricity the ratio of SC to CQ. The reciprocal polar of a circle is therefore an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, as the point S is within, upon, or without the circumference of the circle. 224. Prop. III. To nd the latus rectum and axes of the reciprocal conic. The ends of the latus rectum are the poles of the tangents parallel to SC. Hence, if SR be the semi-latus rectum, SR . CQ = SE 2 , SE being the radius of the auxiliary circle.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

220

The ends of the transverse axis A, A are the poles of the tangents at F and G; and SA . SG = SE 2 SA . SF = SE 2 .

Let SU , SU be the tangents from S, then SG . SF = SU 2 , SA : SG :: SE 2 : SU 2 SA : SF :: SE 2 : SU 2 AA : F G :: SE 2 : SU 2 ,

and Hence

().

or, if O be the centre of the reciprocal, AO : CQ :: SE 2 : SU 2 . Again, if BOB be the conjugate axis, therefore, since BO2 = SR . AO; SE 2 = SR . CQ, BO2 : SE 2 :: AO : CQ :: SE 2 : SU 2 BO . SU = SE 2 .

and

The centre O, it may be remarked, is the pole of U U .

RECIPROCAL POLARS. For, from the relations (), SE 2 : SU 2 :: SA + SA : SF + SG :: SO : SC :: SO . SM : SC . SM ; SO . SM = SE 2 .

221

225. In the gures drawn in the two preceding articles, the reciprocal conic is an hyperbola; the asymptotes are therefore the lines through O perpendicular to SU and SU , the poles of these lines being at an innite distance. The semi-conjugate axis is equal to the perpendicular from the focus on the asymptote (Art. 103), i.e. if OD be the asymptote, SD is equal to the semi-conjugate axis. Further, since OD is perpendicular to SU , and O is the pole of U U , it follows that D is the pole of CU , and that SD . SU = SE 2 , as we have already shewn. Again, D, being the intersection of the polars of C and U , is the intersection of SU and the directrix. 226. If the point S be within the circle, so that the reciprocal is an ellipse, the axes are given by similar relations. Through S draw SV perpendicular to F G, and let U M U be the polar of S with regard to the circle.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

222

Then SM . SC = SC . CM SC 2 = CF 2 SC 2 = SV 2 ; also, SE being the radius of the auxiliary circle, and SA . SF = SE 2 = SA . SG, SF . SG = SV 2 ; SA : SG :: SE 2 : SV 2 . SA : SF :: SE 2 : SV 2 SO : SC :: SE 2 : SV 2 , SO . SM : SC . SM :: SE 2 : SV 2 ; SO . SM = SE 2 , SA + SA : SF + SG :: SE 2 : SV 2 , AO : CQ :: SE 2 : SV 2 . SR . CQ = SE 2 , and if BOB is the minor axis SR . AO = BO2 ; BO2 : SE 2 :: SE 2 : SV 2 , BO . SV = SE 2 .

Hence and

so that O is the pole of U U . Again

If RSR is the latus rectum,

and

227. The important Theorem we have just considered enables us to deduce from any property of a circle a corresponding property of a conic, and we are thus furnished with a method, which may serve to give easy proofs of known properties, or to reveal new properties of conics. In the process of reciprocation we observe that points become lines and lines points; that a tangent to a curve reciprocates into a point on the reciprocal, that a curve inscribed in a triangle becomes a curve circumscribing a triangle, and that when the auxiliary curve is a circle, the reciprocal of a circle is a conic, the latus rectum of which varies inversely as the radius of the circle. Also, conversely, the reciprocal of a conic with regard to a circle having its centre at a focus of the conic is a circle the centre of which is the reciprocal of the directrix of the conic. For an ellipse the centre of reciprocation is within the circle, for a parabola it is upon the circle, and for an hyperbola it is outside the circle.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

223

228. We give some transformations of theorems as illustrations of the preceding articles.

Theorem. Reciprocal.

The line joining the points of conThe tangents at the ends of a focal tact of parallel tangents of a circle chord intersect in the directrix. passes through the centre. The angles in the same segment of If a moveable tangent of a conic a circle are equal. meet two xed tangents, the intercepted portion subtends a constant angle at the focus. Two of the common tangents of If two conics have the same focus, two equal circles are parallel. and equal latera recta, the straight line joining two of their common points passes through the focus. The portion of the tangent to a The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the diameter conic between the point of contact and the directrix subtends a right anthrough the point. gle at the focus. A chord of a circle is equally inThe tangents drawn from any clined to the tangents at its ends. point to a conic subtend equal angles at a focus. If two tangents of a conic move so If a chord of a circle subtend a constant angle at a xed point on the that the intercepted portion of a xed curve, the chord always touches a cir- tangent subtends a constant angle at the focus, the locus of the interseccle. tion of the moving tangents is a conic having the same focus and directrix. If a chord of a circle pass through The rectangle contained by the a xed point, the rectangle contained perpendiculars from the focus on two by the segments is constant. parallel tangents is constant. If two chords be drawn from a xed If two tangents of a conic move point on a circle at right angles to so that the intercepted portion of a each other, the line joining their ends xed tangent subtends a right angle passes through the centre. at the focus, the two moveable tangents meet in the directrix.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.
Theorem. Reciprocal.

224

If a circle be inscribed in a triangle, If a triangle be inscribed in a conic the lines joining the vertices with the the tangents at the vertices meet the points of contact meet in a point. opposite sides in three points lying in a straight line. With a given point as focus, four The sum of the reciprocals of the radii of the escribed circles of a tri- conics can be drawn circumscribing angle is equal to the reciprocal of the a triangle, and the latus rectum of one is equal to the sum of the latera radius of the inscribed circle. recta of the other three. The common chord of two interIf two parabolas have a common secting circles is perpendicular to the focus, the line joining it to the interline joining their centres. section of the directrices is perpendicular to the common tangent. If circles pass through two xed If conics have a xed focus and points, the locus of their centres is a pair of xed tangents in common, a straight line. the corresponding directrices all pass through a xed point. Two tangents to a conic at right Chords of a circle which subtend a angles to each other intersect on a right angle at a xed point all touch xed circle. a conic of which that point is a focus.

229. Prop. IV. A system of coaxal circles can be reciprocated into a system of confocal conics. Let X be the point at which the radical axis crosses the line of centres, and let E and S be the limiting points of the system. Then XE is equal to the length of the tangent XD to any one of the circles, and, therefore, if A is the centre of this circle, AD is the tangent at D to the circle whose centre is X and radius XE. Hence it follows that AE . AS = AD2 , shewing that U U , the polar of S with regard to the circle A, passes through E. Reciprocating with regard to S, the centre of the reciprocal curve is the pole of U U , and is consequently xed; and the conics are therefore confocal. Hence, if we reciprocate with regard to either limiting point, we obtain confocal conics. In the particular case in which the circles all touch the radical axis, we obtain confocal and co-axial parabolas.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

225

230. Prop. V. The reciprocal polar of a conic with regard to a circle, or with regard to any conic, is a conic. Taking any two tangents of the conic, their reciprocal polars are points on the reciprocal curve, and the reciprocal polar of their point of intersection is the chord joining the points. Since only two tangents can be drawn from a point to a conic, it follows that the reciprocal curve is always intersected by a straight line in two points only. It follows therefore that the reciprocal curve is a conic. In reciprocating a conic with regard to a circle, the reciprocal polar is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, according as the centre S of the circle is inside, upon, or outside the conic. In the second case the axis of the parabola is parallel to the normal at the point S, and in the third case the asymptotes are perpendicular to the tangents which can be drawn from the point S to the conic. When the auxiliary curve is a conic, centre S, the rst of the preceding statements holds good. When the point S is on the conic, the axis of the parabola is parallel to the diameter of the auxiliary conic, which is conjugate to the tangent at S. When the point S is outside the conic, the asymptotes of the hyperbola are parallel to those diameters of the auxiliary conic which are conjugate to the straight lines through S touching the conic to be reciprocated. The following cases will serve to illustrate the theorem of this article. 231. The reciprocal polar of a parabola with regard to a point on the directrix is a rectangular hyperbola. For the two tangents from the point are at right angles to each other, and therefore the asymptotes are at right angles to each other. 232. The reciprocal polar of an ellipse or hyperbola, with regard to its centre, is a similar curve turned through a right angle about the centre. If CY is the perpendicular on the tangent at P , and Q the reciprocal of the tangent, CQ . CY is constant. But CY . CD is constant; CQ varies as CD, and the reciprocal curve is the same as the original curve, or similar to it.

EXAMPLES.

226

233. The chords of a conic which subtend a right angle at a xed point P of a conic all pass through a xed point in the normal at P . Reciprocating with regard to P , the reciprocal curve is a parabola, the axis of which is parallel to the normal to the conic, and the reciprocal of the chord is the point of intersection of tangents at right angles to each other. The locus of this point is the directrix of the parabola, and, being at right angles to the normal, it follows, on reciprocating backwards, that the chord passes through a xed point E in the normal. To nd the position of the point E, let C be the centre of the conic, CA, CB its semi-axes, and P N P the double ordinate, and let the normal meet the axes in G and g. Since CA and CB bisect the angle P CP and its supplement, C(BP AP ) is an harmonic pencil; P GEg is an harmonic range, so that P E is the harmonic mean between P G and P g. In the case of an hyperbola EGP g is an harmonic range. In the case of a parabola, E is the point of intersection of the normal with the diameter through P . 234. The chords of a conic which subtend a right angle at a xed point O not on the conic all touch a conic of which that point is a focus. Reciprocating with regard to O, the reciprocal of the envelope of the chords is the director circle of a conic, and therefore, reciprocating backwards, it follows that the envelope of the chords is a conic of which O is a focus. This of course includes the preceding theorem as a particular case, the fact being that when O is on the conic the envelope of the chords is a conic, with a vertex and focus at E, attened into a straight line. 235. If the sides of a triangle are tangents to a parabola, the orthocentre of the triangle is on the directrix of the parabola. This theorem is at once obtained by reciprocating, with regard to the orthocentre of the triangle, the theorem, proved in Art. 143, that, if a rectangular hyperbola passes through the angular points of a triangle, it also passes through the orthocentre of the triangle.

EXAMPLES. EXAMPLES.

227

1. If any triangle be reciprocated with regard to its orthocentre, the reciprocal triangle will be similar and similarly situated to the original one and will have the same orthocentre. 2. If two conics have the same focus and directrix, and a focal chord be drawn, the four tangents at the points where it meets the conics intersect in the same point of the directrix. 3. An ellipse and a parabola have a common focus; prove that the ellipse either intersects the parabola in two points, and has two common tangents with it, or else does not cut it. 4. Prove that the reciprocal polar of the circumscribed circle of a triangle with regard to the inscribed circle is an ellipse, the major axis of which is equal in length to the radius of the inscribed circle. 5. Reciprocate with respect to any point S the theorem that, if two points on a circle be given, the pole of P Q with respect to that circle lies on the line bisecting P Q at right angles. 6. If two parabolas whose axes are at right angles have a common focus, prove that the part of the common tangent intercepted between the points of contact subtends a right angle at the focus. 7. The tangent at a moving point P of a conic intersects a xed tangent in Q, and from S a straight line is drawn perpendicular to SQ and meeting in R the tangent at P ; prove that the locus of R is a straight line. 8. Four parabolas having a common focus can be described touching respectively the sides of the triangles formed by four given points. 9. A triangle ABC circumscribes a parabola, focus S; through ABC lines are drawn respectively perpendicular to SA, SB, SC; shew that these lines are concurrent. 10. Prove that the distances, from the centre of a circle, of any two poles are to one another as their distances from the alternate polars. 11. Reciprocate the theorems, (1) The opposite angles of any quadrilateral inscribed in a circle are equal to two right angles.

EXAMPLES.

228

(2) If a line be drawn from the focus of an ellipse making a constant angle with the tangent, the locus of its intersection with the tangent is a circle. 12. The locus of the intersection of two tangents to a parabola which include a constant angle is an hyperbola, having the same focus and directrix. 13. Two ellipses having a common focus cannot intersect in more than two real points, but two hyperbolas, or an ellipse and hyperbola, may do so. 14. ABC is any triangle and P any point: four conic sections are described with a given focus touching the sides of the triangles ABC, P BC, P CA, P AB respectively; shew that they all have a common tangent. 15. T P , T Q are tangents to a parabola cutting the directrix respectively in X and Y ; ESF is a straight line drawn through the focus S perpendicular to ST , cutting T P , T Q respectively in E, F ; prove that the lines EY , XF are tangents to the parabola. 16. With the orthocentre of a triangle as focus, two conics are described touching a side of the triangle and having the other two sides as directrices respectively; shew that their minor axes are equal. 17. Two parabolas have a common focus S; parallel tangents are drawn to them at P and Q intersecting the common tangent in P and Q ; prove that the angle P SQ is equal to the angle between the axes, and the angle P SQ is supplementary. 18. ABC is a given triangle, S a given point; on BC, CA, AB respectively, points A , B , C are taken, such that each of the angles ASA , BSB , CSC , is a right angle. Prove that A , B , C lie in the same straight line, and that the latera recta of the four conics, which have S for a common focus, and respectively touch the three sides of the triangles ABC, AB C , A BC , A B C are equal to one another. 19. A parabola and hyperbola have the same focus and directrix, and SP Q is a line drawn through the focus S to meet the parabola in P , and the nearer branch of the hyperbola in Q; prove that P Q varies as the rectangle contained by SP and SQ. 20. If two equal parabolas have the same focus, the tangents at points angularly equidistant from the vertices meet on the common tangent. 21. If an ellipse and a parabola have the same focus and directrix, and if tangents are drawn to the ellipse at the ends of its major axis, the diagonals of

EXAMPLES.

229

the quadrilateral formed by the four points where these tangents cut the parabola intersect in the focus. 22. Find the reciprocals of the theorems of Arts. 215 and 217. 23. If a conic be reciprocated with regard to a point, shew that there are only two positions of the point, such that the conic may be similar and similarly situated to the reciprocal. 24. Conics are described having a common focus and equal latera recta. Also the corresponding directrices envelope a xed confocal conic. Prove that these conics all touch two xed conics, and that the reciprocals of the latera recta of these xed conics are equal to the sum and dierence of the latera recta of the variable conics and of the xed confocal. 25. Given a point, a tangent, and a focus of a conic, prove that the envelope of the directrix is a conic passing through the given focus. 26. Two conics have a common focus: their corresponding directrices will intersect on their common chord, at a point whose focal distance is at right angles to that of the intersection of their common tangents. If the conics are parabolas, the inclination of their axes will be the angle subtended by the common tangent at the common focus. 27. If the intercept on a given straight line between two variable tangents to a conic subtends a right angle at the focus of the conic, the tangents intersect on a conic. 28. The tangent at P to an hyperbola meets the directrix in Q; another point R is taken on the directrix such that QR subtends at the focus an angle equal to that between the transverse axis and an asymptote; prove that RP envelopes a parabola. 29. S is the focus of a conic; P , Q two points on it such that the angle P SQ is constant; through S, SR, ST are drawn meeting the tangents at P , Q in R, T respectively, and so that the angles P SR, QST are constant; shew that RT always touches a conic having the same focus and directrix as the original conic. 30. OA, OB are common tangents to two conics having a common focus S, CA, CB are tangents at one of their points of intersection, BD, AE tangents intersecting CA, CB, in D, E. Prove that SDE is a straight line.

EXAMPLES.

230

31. An hyperbola, of which S is one focus, touches the sides of a triangle ABC; the lines SA, SB, SC are drawn, and also lines SD, SE, SF respectively perpendicular to the former three lines, and meeting any tangent to the curve in D, E, F ; shew that the lines AD, BE, CF are concurrent. 32. If a conic inscribed in a triangle has one focus at the centre of the circumscribed circle of the triangle, its transverse axis is equal to the radius of that circle. 33. If any two diameters of an ellipse at right angles to each other meet the tangent at a xed point P in Q and R, the other two tangents through Q and R intersect on a xed straight line which passes through a point T on the tangent at P , such that P CT is a right angle.

CHAPTER XIII.
The Construction of a Conic from Given Conditions.
236. It will be found that, in general, ve conditions are sucient to determine a conic, but it sometimes happens that two or more conics can be constructed which will satisfy the given conditions. We may have, as given conditions, points and tangents of the curve, the directions of axes or conjugate diameters, the position of the centre, or any characteristic or especial property of the curve. Prop. I. To construct a parabola, passing through three given points, and having the direction of its axis given. In this case the fact that the conic is a parabola is one of the conditions.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 232 Let P , Q, R be the given points, and let RE parallel to the given direction meet P Q in E. If E be the middle point of P Q, R is the vertex of the diameter RE; but, if not, bisecting P Q in V , draw the diameter through V and take A such that AV : RE :: QV 2 : QE . EP. Then A is the vertex of the diameter AV . If the point E do not fall between P and Q, A must be taken on the side of P Q which is opposite to R. The focus may then be found by taking AU such that QV 2 = 4AV . AU, and by then drawing U S parallel to QV and taking AS equal to AU . 237. Prop. II. To describe a parabola through four given points. First, let ABCD be four points in a given parabola, and let the diameter CF meet AD in F .

Draw the tangents P T , QT parallel to AD, BC, and the diameter QV meeting P T in V . Then ED . EA : EC . EB :: T P 2 : T Q2 :: T V 2 : T Q2 :: EF 2 : EC 2 .

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 233 Hence the construction; in EA take EF such that EF 2 : EC 2 :: ED . EA : EC . EB, then CF is the direction of the axis, and the problem is reduced to the preceding. If the point F be taken in AE produced, another parabola can be drawn, so that, in general, two parabolas can be drawn through four points. 238. This problem may be treated dierently by help of the theorem of Art. 52, viz.; If from a point O, outside a parabola, a tangent OM , and a chord OAB be drawn, and if the diameter M E meet the chord in E, OE 2 = OA . OB.

Let A, B, C, D be the given points, and let E, E , F , F , be so taken that and OE 2 = OE 2 = OA . OB, OF 2 = OF 2 = OC . OD.

Then EF and E F are diameters, and KL, the polar of O, will meet EF and E F in M , N , the points of contact of tangents from O. The second parabola is obtained by taking for diameters EF and E F .

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 234 239. Prop. III. Any conic passing through four points has a pair of conjugate diameters parallel to the axes of the two parabolas which can be drawn through the four points.

Let T P , T Q be the tangents parallel to OAB and OCD, and such that the angle P T Q is equal to AOC. Then, if OE 2 = OA . OB, and OF 2 = OC . OD, OE 2 : OF 2 :: OA . OB : OC . OD :: T P 2 : T Q2 ; EF is parallel to P Q. Hence, if R and V be the middle points of EF and P Q, OR is parallel to T V ; But, taking OF equal to OF , OR is parallel to EF , T V and P Q are parallel to EF and EF ; i.e. the conjugate diameters parallel to T V and P Q are parallel to the axes of the two parabolas. 240. Prop. IV. Having given a pair of conjugate diameters, P CP , DCD , it is required to construct the ellipse. In CP take E such that P E . P C = CD2 , draw P F perpendicular to CD, and take F C equal to F C. About CEC describe a circle, cutting P F in G and G ; then P G . P G = P E . P C = CD2 ,

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 235 and GCG is a right angle; therefore CG and CG are the directions of the axes and their lengths are given by the relations, P G . P F = BC 2 , P G . P F = AC 2 .

We may observe that, O being the centre of the circle, AC 2 + BC 2 = P F . P G + P F . P G = 2 . PF . PO = 2 . P C . P N, if N be the middle point of CE, = P C2 + P C . P E = CP 2 + CD2 . If P E be taken equal to P E in CP produced, and the same construction be made, we shall obtain the axes of an hyperbola having CP , CD for a pair of conjugate semi-diameters. 241. This problem may be treated also as follows. In P F , the perpendicular on CD, take P K = P K = CD; then P K2 = P G . P G ,

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 236 and therefore K GKG is an harmonic range; and GCG being a right angle, it follows (Art. 199), that CG and CG are the bisectors of the angles between CK and CK . Hence, knowing CP and CD, G and G are determined. 242. Prop. V. Having given the focus and three points of a conic, to nd the directrix. Let A, B, C, S be the three points and the focus. Produce BA to D so that BD : AD :: SB : SA, and CB to E, so that BE : CE :: SB : SC; then DE is the directrix. The lines BA, BC may be also divided internally in the same ratio, so that four solutions are generally possible. Conversely, if three points A, B, C and the directrix are given, let BA, BC meet the directrix in D and E; then S lies on a circle, the locus of a point, the distances of which from A and B are in the ratio of AD to DB. S lies also on a circle, similarly constructed with regard to BCE; the intersection of these circles gives two points, either of which may be the focus. 243. Prop. VI. Having given the centre, the directions of a pair of conjugate diameters, and two points of an ellipse, to describe the ellipse. If C be the centre, CA, CB the given directions, and P , Q the points, draw QM Q , P LP parallel to CB and CA, and make Q M = QM and P L = P L.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 237 Then the ellipse will evidently pass through P and Q , and if CA, CB be the conjugate radii, their ratio is given by the relation CA2 : CB 2 :: EP . EP : EQ . EQ , E being the point of intersection of P P and Q Q. Set up a straight line N D perpendicular to CA and such that N D2 : N P 2 :: EP . EP : EQ . EQ , and describe a circle, radius CD and centre C, cutting CA in A, and take CB : CA :: N P : N D. Then AN . N A = N D2 , and P N 2 : AN . N A :: CB 2 : CA2 . Hence CA, CB are determined, and the ellipse passes through P and Q. 244. Prop. VII. To describe a conic passing through a given point and touching two given straight lines in given points. Let OA, OB be the given tangents, A and B the points of contact, N the middle point of AB.

1st. Let the given point D be in ON ; then, if N D = OD, the curve is a parabola. But if N D < OD, the curve is an ellipse, and, taking C such that OC . CN = CD2 , the point C is the centre. If N D > OD, the curve is an hyperbola, and its centre is found in the same manner.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 238 2nd. If the given point be E, not in ON , draw GEF parallel to AB, and make F L equal to EL. Take K such that GK 2 = GE . GF ; then AK produced will meet ON in D, and the problem is reduced to the rst case. To justify this construction, observe that, if DM be the tangent at D, GE . GF : GA2 :: DM 2 : M A2 :: GK 2 : GA2 , so that GE . GF = GK 2 . 245. Prop. VIII. To draw a conic through ve given points. Let A, B, C, D, E be the ve points, and F the intersection of DE, AB.

Draw CG, CH, parallel respectively to AB and ED, and meeting ED, AB in G and H. If F and G fall between D and E, and F and H between A and B, take GP in CG produced and HQ in CH produced, such that CG . GP : DG . GE :: AF . F B : DF . F E, and CH . HQ : AH . HB :: DF . F E : AF . F B; Then (Arts. 92 and 134) P and Q are points in the conic.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 239 Also P C, AB being parallel chords, the line joining their middle points is a diameter, and another diameter is obtained from CQ and DE. If these diameters are parallel, the conic is a parabola, and we fall upon the case of Prop. II.; but if they intersect in a point O, this point is the centre of the conic, and, having the centre, the direction of a diameter, and two ordinates of that diameter, we fall upon the case of Prop. VI. The gure is drawn for the case in which the pentagon AEBCD is not re-entering, in which case the conic may be an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola. If any one point fall within the quadrilateral formed by the other four, the curve is an hyperbola. In all cases the points P , Q must be taken in accordance with the following rule. The points C, P , or C, Q must be on the same or dierent sides of the points G, or H, according as the points D, E, or B, A are on the same or dierent sides of the points G or H. Thus, if the point E be between D and F , and if G be between D and E, and H between A and B, the points P and C will be on the same side of G, and C, Q on the same side of H, but if H do not fall between A and B, C and Q will be on opposite sides of H. Remembering that if a straight line meet only one branch of an hyperbola, any parallel line will meet only one branch, and that if it meet both branches, any parallel will meet both branches, the rule may be established by an examination of the dierent cases. 246. The above construction depends only on the elementary properties of Conics, which are given in Chapters I., II., III., and IV. For some further constructions we shall adopt another method depending on harmonic properties. Prop. IX. Having given two pairs of lines OA, OA , and OB, OB , to nd a pair of lines OC, OC , which shall make with each of the given pairs an harmonic pencil. This is at once eected by help of Art. 203. For, if any transversal cut the lines in the points c, a, b, c , b , a , the points c, c are the foci of the involution, in which a, a are conjugate, and also b, b , the centre of the involution being the middle point of cc .

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 240 247. Prop. X. If two points and two tangents of a conic be given, the chord of contact intersects the given chord in one of two xed points . Let OP , OQ be the given tangents, A and B the given points, and C the intersection of AB and the chord of contact.

Let OC be the polar of C, and let AB meet OC in D. Then C is on the polar of D, and therefore DBCA is an harmonic range. Also, C being on the polar of C , C QCP is an harmonic range. Hence if two lines OC, OC be found, which are harmonic with OA, OB, and also with OP , OQ, these lines intersect AB in two points C and D, through one of which the chord of contact must pass. Or thus, if the tangents meet AB in a and b, nd the foci C and D of the involution AB, ab; the chord of contact passes through one of these points. 248. Prop. XI. Having given three points and two tangents, to nd the chord of contact. In the preceding gure let OP , OQ be the tangents, and A, B, E the points. Find OC, OC harmonic with OA, OB, and OP , OQ; also nd OF , OG harmonic with OA, OE and OP , OQ.
I am indebted to Mr Worthington for much valuable assistance in this chapter, and especially for the constructions of Articles 247, 249, 250, and 253.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 241 Then any one of the four lines joining C or D to F or G is a chord of contact, and the chord of contact and points of contact being known, the case reduces to that of Art. 244. Hence four such conics can in general be described. 249. Prop. XII. To describe a conic, passing through two given points, and touching three given straight lines. Let AB, the line joining the given points, meet the given tangents QR, RP , P Q, in N , M , L.

Find the foci C, D of the involution A, B and L, M ; Then Y Z, the polar of P , passes through C or D, Art. 247. Also nd the foci, E, F , of the involution A, B, and M , N ; then XY , the polar of R, passes through F or E. Let ZX meet P R in T ; then T is on the polar of Q, and QY is the polar of T . Hence therefore T XU Z is harmonic; M EV C is harmonic.

This determines V , and, joining QV , we obtain the point of contact Y . Then, joining Y C and Y E, Z and X are obtained, and X, Y , Z being points of contact, we have ve points, and can describe the conic by the construction of Art. 245, or by that of Art. 252. Since either C or D may be taken with E or F , there are in general four solutions of the problem.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 242 250. Prop. XIII. To describe a conic, having given four points and one tangent. Let A, B, C, D be the given points, and complete the quadrilateral.

Then E is the pole of F G, and if the given tangent KL meet F G in K, E is on the polar of K; therefore the other tangent through K forms an harmonic pencil with KF , KL, KE. Hence two tangents being known, and a point E in the chord of contact, if we nd two points P , P in A, B, such that KP , KP are harmonic with KA, KB, and also with KL, KL , we shall have two chords of contact EP , EP , and therefore two points of contact for KL and also for KL . Hence two conics can be described. We observe that if two conics pass through four points, their common tangents meet on one of the sides of the self-conjugate triangle EF G. 251. Prop. XIV. Given four tangents and one point, to construct the conic. Let ABCD be the given circumscribing quadrilateral, and E the given point. Completing the gure, draw LEF through E and F , and complete the harmonic range LEF E ; then, since F is the pole of HG (Art. 217), E is a point in the conic. Also, since K is the pole of F A (Art. 217), the chord of contact of the tangents AB, AD, passes through K. Hence the construction is the same as that of Art. 250, and there are two solutions of the problem.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 243

252. Prop. XV. Given ve points, to construct the conic. Let A, B, C, D, E be the ve points, and complete the quadrilateral ABCD. Then H is the pole of F G, and F G passes through the points of contact P , Q of the tangents from H. Join HE, cutting F G in K, and complete the harmonic range HEKE ; then E is a point in the conic. Also AE, BE will intersect F G in the same point F , and E A, EB will also intersect F G in the same point G .

CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 244 But GP F Q and G P F Q are both harmonic ranges, therefore P and Q are the foci of an involution of which F , G and F , G are pairs of conjugate points. Hence, nding these foci, P and Q, the tangents HP , HQ are known, and the case is reduced to that of Prop. VII. Hence only one conic can be drawn through ve points. 253. Prop. XVI. Given ve tangents, to nd the points of contact.

Let ABCDE be the circumscribing pentagon. Considering the quadrilateral F BCD, join F C, BD, meeting in K. Then (Art. 217) K is the pole of the line joining the intersections of F B, CD, and of F D, BC; that is, the chords of contact of BF , CD, and of BC, F D meet in K. Similarly if BG, AC meet in L, the chords of contact of AB, CG, and of BC, AG meet in L. Hence KL is the chord of contact of AB, CD, and therefore determines M , N the points of contact. Hence it will be seen that only one conic can be drawn touching ve lines.

CHAPTER XIV.
The Oblique Cylinder, the Oblique Cone, and the Conoids.
254. Def. If a straight line, which is not perpendicular to the plane of a given circle, move parallel to itself, and always pass through the circumference of the circle, the surface generated is called an oblique cylinder. The line through the centre of the circular base, parallel to the generating lines, is the axis of the cylinder. It is evident that any section by a plane parallel to the axis consists of two parallel lines, and that any section by a plane parallel to the base is a circle. The plane through the axis perpendicular to the base is the principal section. The section of the cylinder by a plane perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined to the axis at the same angle as the base, is called a subcontrary section. 255. Prop. I. The subcontrary section of an oblique cylinder is a circle. The plane of the paper being the principal plane and AP B the circular base, a subcontrary section is DP E, the angles BAE, DEA being equal.

OBLIQUE CYLINDER. Let P Q be the line of intersection of the two sections; then P N . N Q or P N 2 = BN . N A. But N B = N D, and N A = N E; P N . N Q = DN . N E, and DP E is a circle.

246

256. Prop. II. The section of an oblique cylinder by a plane which is not parallel to the base or to a subcontrary section is an ellipse.

Let the plane of the section, DP E, meet any circular section in the line P Q, and let AB be that diameter of the circular section which is perpendicular to P Q, and bisect P Q in the point F . Let the plane through the axis and the line AB cut the section DP E in the line DP E. Then P F 2 = AF . F B. But if DE be bisected in C, and GKC be the circular section through C parallel to AP B, AF : F D :: CG : CD, and F B : F E :: CG : CD; AF . F B : DF . F E :: CG2 : CD2; hence, observing that CG = CK, P F 2 : DF . F E :: CK 2 : CD2 . But, if a series of parallel circular sections be drawn, P Q is always parallel to itself and bisected by DE;

OBLIQUE CONE.

247

Therefore the curve DP E is an ellipse, of which CD, CK are conjugate semi-diameters. 257. Def. If a straight line pass always through a xed point and the circumference of a xed circle, and if the xed point be not in the straight line through the centre of the circle at right angles to its plane, the surface generated is called an oblique cone. The plane containing the vertex and the centre of the base, and also perpendicular to the base, is called the principal section. The section made by a plane not parallel to the base, but perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined to the generating lines in that section at the same angle as the base, is called a subcontrary section. 258. Prop. III. The subcontrary section of an oblique cone is a circle.

OBLIQUE CONE.

248

The plane of the paper being the principal section, let AP B be parallel to the base and DP E a subcontrary section, so that the angle ODE = OAB, and OED = OBA. The angles DBA, DEA being equal to each other, a circle can be drawn through BDAE. Hence, if P N Q be the line of intersection of the two planes AP B and EP D, DN . N E = BN . N A, = P N . N Q; therefore DP E is a circle. And all sections by planes parallel to DP E are circles. Planes parallel to the base, or to a subcontrary section, are called also Cyclic Planes. 259. Prop. IV. The section of a cone by a plane not parallel to a cyclic plane is an Ellipse, Parabola, or Hyperbola. (1) Let the section, DP E, meet all the generating lines on one side of the vertex.

Let any circular section cut DP E in P Q, and take AB the diameter of the circle which bisects P Q.

OBLIQUE CONE.

249

The plane OAB will cut the plane of the section in a line DN E. Draw OK parallel to DE and meeting in K the plane of the circular section through D parallel to AP B, and join DK, meeting OE in F . Then AN : N D :: KD : OK, and BN : N E :: KF : OK; therefore AN . N B : DN . N E :: KD . KF : OK 2 , or P N 2 : DN . N E :: KD . KF : OK 2 . But if a series of circular sections be drawn the lines P Q will always be parallel, and bisected by DE; Therefore the curve DP E is an ellipse, having DE for a diameter, and the conjugate diameter parallel to P Q, and the squares on these diameters are in the ratio of KD . KF to OK 2 . (2) Let the section be parallel to a tangent plane of the cone.

If OB be the generating line along which the tangent plane touches the cone, and BT the tangent line at B to a circular section through B, the line of intersection P Q will be parallel to BT , and therefore perpendicular to the diameter BA through B. Let the plane BOA cut the plane of the section in DN . Then, drawing DK parallel to AB, BN = KD, and AN : N D :: KD : OK; therefore AN . N B : N D . KD :: KD : OK, or P N 2 : N D . KD :: KD : OK,

CONOIDS.

250

and KD, OK being constant, the curve is a parabola having the tangent at D parallel to P Q. If the plane of the section meet both branches of the cone, make the same construction as before, and we shall obtain, in the same manner as for the ellipse, P N 2 : DN . N E :: DK . KF : OK 2 , OK being parallel to DE.

Therefore, since the point N is not between the points D and E, the curve DP is an hyperbola.

Conoids. 260. Def. If a conic revolve about one of its principal axes, the surface generated is called a conoid. If the conic be a circle, the conoid is a sphere. If the conic be an ellipse, the conoid is an oblate or a prolate spheroid according as the revolution takes place about the conjugate or the transverse axis. If it be an hyperbola the surface is an hyperboloid of one or two sheets, according as the revolution takes place about the conjugate or transverse axis, and the surface generated by the asymptotes is called the asymptotic cone.

CONOIDS.

251

If the conic consist of two intersecting straight lines, the limiting form of an hyperbola, the revolution will be about one of the lines bisecting the angles between them, and the conoid will then be a right circular cone. 261. Prop. V. A section of a paraboloid by a plane parallel to the axis is a parabola equal to the generating parabola, and any other section not perpendicular to the axis is an ellipse.

Let P V N be a section parallel to the axis, and take the plane of the paper perpendicular to the section and cutting it in V N . Take any circular section DP E, cutting the section P V N in P N P . Then P N is perpendicular to DE, and P N 2 = DN . N E = DC 2 N C 2 = 4AS . AC 4AS . An = 4AS . V N ; therefore the curve V P is a parabola equal to EAD. Again, let BP F be a section not parallel or perpendicular to the axis, but perpendicular to the plane of the paper; Then, BN . N F = 4SG . V N , OG being the diameter bisecting BF (Art. 51); therefore P N 2 : BN . N F :: AS : SG, and the curve BP N is an ellipse.

CONOIDS.

252

Moreover if the plane BF move parallel to itself, SG is unaltered, and the sections by parallel planes are similar ellipses. In exactly the same manner, it may be shewn that the oblique sections of spheroids are ellipses, and those of hyperboloids either ellipses or hyperbolas. 262. Prop. VI. The sections of an hyperboloid and its asymptotic cone by a plane are similar curves. Taking the case of an hyperboloid of two sheets, let DP F , dP f , be the sections of the hyperboloid and cone, P P N the line in which their plane is cut by a circular section GP K or gP k.

Through D draw LDl perpendicular to the axis; then, since P N 2 = GN . N K, and P N 2 = gN . N k, P N 2 : dN . N f :: gN . N k : dN . N f, :: LD . lD : Dd . Df, :: BC 2 : CE 2 if CE be the semi-diameter parallel to DF ; and P N 2 : DN . N F :: GN . N K : DN . N F :: BC 2 : CE 2 (Art. 134); therefore the curves DP F , dP f have their axes in the same ratio, and are similar ellipses.

CONOIDS.

253

In the same manner the theorem can be established if the sections be hyperbolic, or if the hyperboloid be of one sheet. 263. Prop. VII. If an hyperboloid of one sheet be cut by a tangent plane of the asymptotic cone, the section will consist of two parallel straight lines.

Let AQ, A Q be a section through the axis, CN the generating line, in the plane CAQ, along which the tangent plane touches the cone; and P N P the section with this tangent plane of a circular section QP Q . Then P N 2 = QN . N Q = AC 2 (Art. 106) = BC 2 , therefore, if BCB be the diameter, perpendicular to the plane CAQ, of the principal circular section, P N = BC and P N = B C; therefore P B and P B are each parallel to CN ; that is, the section consists of two parallel straight lines. 264. Prop. VIII. The section of an hyperboloid of one sheet by a plane parallel to its axis, and touching the central circular section, consists of two straight lines. Let the plane pass through A, and be perpendicular to the radius CA of the central section (g. Art. 263). The plane will cut the circular section QP Q in a line RLR , and RL2 = QL . LQ = QM 2 AC 2 , if M be the middle point of QQ . But QM 2 AC 2 : CM 2 :: AC 2 : BC 2 ; therefore RL : AL :: AC : BC;

CONOIDS.

254

hence it follows that AR is a xed line; and similarly AR is also a xed line. It will be seen that these lines are parallel to the section of the cone by the plane through the axis perpendicular to CA. 265. Prop. IX. If a conoid be cut by a plane, and if spheres be inscribed in the conoid touching the plane, the points of contact of the spheres with the plane will be the foci of the section, and the lines of intersection of the planes of contact with the plane of section will be the directrices. In order to establish this statement, we shall rst demonstrate the following theorem; If a circle touch a conic in two points, the tangent from any point of the conic to the circle bears a constant ratio to its distance from the chord of contact. Take the case of an ellipse, the chord of contact being perpendicular to the transverse axis. If EM E be this chord, the normal EG is the radius of the circle, and if P T be a tangent from a point P of the ellipse, P T 2 = P G2 GE 2 = P N 2 + N G2 EM 2 M G2 . EM 2 P N 2 : CN 2 CM 2 :: BC 2 : AC 2 , CN 2 CM 2 = M N (CM + CN ). N G : CN :: BC 2 : AC 2 , M G : CM :: BC 2 : AC 2 ; N G + M G : CN + CM :: BC 2 : AC 2 . EM 2 P N 2 = M N (N G + M G). N G2 M G2 = M N (N G + M G); P T 2 = M N (N G + M G) M N (N G + M G) = M N . GG . CG : CM :: SC 2 : AC 2 , CG : CN :: SC 2 : AC 2 ; GG : M N :: SC 2 : AC 2 . P T 2 : P L2 :: SC 2 : AC 2 , P L being equal to M N.

But and then and therefore Hence Also therefore But and therefore Hence

Let the normal at P meet the axis in G ;

CONOIDS.

255

This being established let the gure revolve round the axis AC, and let a plane section ap of the conoid, perpendicular to the plane of the paper, touch the sphere at S and cut the plane of contact EE in lk. From a point p of the section let fall the perpendicular pm on the plane EE , draw mk perpendicular to lk, and join pk. Then pm : pk is a constant ratio. Also taking the meridian section through p, pS is equal to the tangent from p to the circular section of the sphere, and is therefore in a constant ratio to pm; Hence Sp is to pk in a constant ratio, and therefore S is the focus and kl the directrix of the section ap. 266. If the curve be a parabola focus S , the proof is as follows: P T 2 = P G2 EG2 = P N 2 + N G2 EM 2 M G2 = M N (N G + M G) 4AS . M N = M N (N G + M G) 2M G . M N = M N 2. It will be found that the theorem is also true for an hyperboloid of two sheets, and for an hyperboloid of one sheet, but that in the latter case the constant ratio of P T to P L is not that of SC to AC.

CONOIDS.

256

267. The geometrical enunciation of the theorem also requires modication in several cases. To illustrate the diculty, take the paraboloid, and observe that if the normal at E cuts the axis in G, and if O be the centre of curvature at A, AG > AO, and the radius of the circle is never less than AO. This shews that a circle the radius of which is less than AO cannot be drawn so as to touch the conic in two points. We may mention one exceptional case in which the theorem takes a simple form. In general EG2 = EM 2 + M G2 = 4AS (AM + AS ) = 4AS . S G. Taking the point g between S and O, describe a circle centre g and such that the square on its radius = 4AS . S g. Also take a point F in the axis produced such that AF = Og; it will then be found that the tangent from P to the circle will be equal to NF . When g coincides with S , the circle becomes a point, and AF = AS ; we thus fall back on the fundamental denition of a parabola. It will be found that if the plane section of the conoid pass through S , the point S is a focus of the section.

CHAPTER XV.
Conical Projection.
268. If from any xed point straight lines are drawn to all the points of a gure, the section by any plane of the lines thus drawn is the conical projection of the gure upon that plane. The xed point is called the vertex of projection, and the plane is called the plane of projection. Taking the eye as the vertex of projection, the conical projection of any gure upon a plane is a perspective drawing of that gure as seen by the eye. A straight line is projected into a straight line, for the plane through the vertex and the straight line intersects the plane of projection in a straight line. A tangent to a curve is projected into a tangent to the projection of the curve, for two consecutive points of a curve project into two consecutive points. Hence it follows that a pole and polar project into a pole and polar. Again, the degree of a curve is unaltered by projection, for any number of collinear points project into the same number of collinear points. In particular, the projection of a conic on any plane is a conic. 269. Any straight line in a gure can be projected to an innite distance. This is eected by taking the plane of projection parallel to the plane through the vertex of projection and the straight line. 270. A system of concurrent straight lines in a plane can be projected into a system of parallel straight lines, and a system of parallel straight lines can be projected into a system of concurrent straight lines. The rst of these is eected by taking for plane of projection any plane parallel to the straight line joining the vertex of projection and the point of concurrence.

CONICAL PROJECTION.

258

The second is eected by taking for plane of projection any plane not parallel to the direction of the parallel straight lines. 271. Any angle in a plane can be projected, on any other plane, into any other angle. Let ACB be the angle to be projected, and let DEF be the plane upon which it is to be projected. Take any plane parallel to DEF , intersecting in A and B the lines forming the angle ACB, and take any point O in the plane.

Then, if CA, CB, CO, meet the plane of projection in a, b, c, the angle acb is the projection of the angle ACB from the vertex O upon the plane DEF . Now OA, OB are parallel to ca, cb; therefore the angle acb is equal to the angle AOB. If then we describe on AB an arc of a circle containing an angle equal to any given angle, and take any point O on the arc as vertex of projection, the angle ACB will be projected into the given angle.

CONICAL PROJECTION.

259

It will be seen that the arc of a circle may be described on the other side of the plane CAB, so that the locus of O on the plane OAB consists of two equal arcs on the same base. If the plane of projection be assigned, it follows, since the plane OAB may be taken at any distance from C, that the locus of O consists of portions of two oblique cones having their common vertex at C. If the plane of projection be not assigned, but if the line AB be assigned, the locus of O will be the surface generated by the revolution, about AB, of the arc of the circle. If the angle ACB is to be projected into a right angle, the locus of O will be the sphere described upon AB as diameter. If the assigned plane, DEF , be parallel to CA, the locus of O on the plane OBA will be the straight line BO making with BA the angle OBA equal to the supplement of the angle into which ACB is to be projected. In the particular case in which this angle is a right angle the locus of O will be the straight line BO perpendicular to BA. If it be required to project two given angles in a plane into two other given angles in any other plane, we can construct two arcs of circles in a plane parallel to this other plane, and, if these arcs intersect, the position of O is determined. 272. To project a given quadrilateral into a square. Let ABCD the quadrilateral, and let AC, BD intersect in E, AD, BC in F , and BA, CD in G. Then if O is the vertex of projection, taken anywhere, the quadrilateral will be projected into a parallelogram on any plane parallel to OF G. If O be taken on the sphere of which F G is diameter, the projection on any plane parallel to OF G will be a rectangle, for the angles subtended by F G at A, B, C, D project into right angles. If AC and BD meet F G in L and M , and if O be taken on the circle which is the intersection of the spheres on F G and LM as diameters, the angle LEM will be projected into a right angle, so that the projection of ABCD will be a rectangle, the diagonals of which are at right angles, and therefore will be a square. 273. The projection of an harmonic range is an harmonic range. This is proved in Art. 198. The projection of a circle is a conic. This is proved in Art. 259.

CONICAL PROJECTION.

260

As an illustration it is easily shown for a circle that, if a diameter pP passes through an external point T and intersects in V the polar of T , pV P T is an harmonic range. By projection we at once obtain the theorems of Art. 78 and of Art. 117. 274. To project a conic into a circle, so that the projection of a given point inside the conic shall be the centre of the projection. Let E be the given point, AEB the chord bisected at E and P Ep the diameter passing through E. Then, if we project the polar of E to an innite distance, and the angles AEP , AP B into right angles, the projection of the conic will be a circle, the centre of which is the projection of the point E. For the centre is the pole of a line at an innite distance, and, the projection of AEP being a right angle, the projections of AB and P p are the principal axes of the projection. Also, the projection of AP B being a right angle, it follows that the projection of the conic is a circle. Another method will be to take points C, C , D, D on the polar of E, such that CED, C ED are self-conjugate triangles, and then to project CD to an innite distance and the angles CED, C ED into right angles. The projection will be a conic, having the projection of E for its centre, and also having two pairs of conjugate diameters at right angles to each other; that is, it will be a circle. In a subsequent article this question will be treated in a dierent manner. If the point E is outside the conic, we can project the conic into a rectangular hyperbola, of which the projection of E is the centre. For, if P Q is the chord of contact of tangents from E, all we have to do is to project P Q to an innite distance, and P EQ into a right angle. We can also project the conic into an hyperbola of any given eccentricity. For, if the eccentricity is given, the angle between the asymptotes is given, and we can project P Q to an innite distance and P EQ into the given angle. 275. To project a conic on a given plane so that the projection of a point S inside the conic shall be a focus of the projection. Let the tangent at any point P and any straight line through S meet the polar of S in F and X. Then, if we project the angles SXF , F SP into right angles, the projections of S and F X are the focus and directrix of the projection.

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If at the same time we project to an innite distance the polar of any point E on XS, the projection of E will be the centre of the projection of the conic. 276. If two conics in dierent planes have two points in common, two cones of the second order can be drawn passing through them, or, in other words, each can be projected into the other. Let AB be the common chord, F and D its poles with regard to the conics. Take any point E in AB, and let the plane F ED meet the conics in the points P , p, Q, q, and let pq intersect DF in O.

If from O the conic BP Ap be projected on to the plane of the other conic, the projection will be a conic touching the conic BQAq at A and B, so that it will have four points in common with BQAq, and will also have the point q in common with BQAq. Now it is proved in Art. 252, that only one conic can be drawn through ve points.

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Hence the projection, having ve points in common with BQAq, coincides with it entirely. It will be observed that OP Q is a straight line, P p being projected into Qq. The point O is therefore the vertex of a quadric cone which passes through the two conics. The vertex of another such cone is obtained by producing qP or pQ to meet DF . 277. A conic can be projected into a circle so that the projection of any point inside the conic shall be the centre of the circle.

Let E be the point inside the conic and let AB be the chord of which E is the middle point.
I am indebted to Mr H. F. Baker, Fellow and Lecturer of St Johns College, for having called my attention to this theorem and to the mode of proof which is here given. The theorem is given in Poncelets Treatise, and also in the article on Projections in the last edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

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Describe a circle on AB as diameter in any plane passing through AB. Observing that the pole of AEB with regard to the circle is at an innite distance, draw through F , the pole of AB with regard to the conic, the line F L parallel to that diameter, QEq, of the circle which is perpendicular to AB. The plane EF L will cut the conic in the diameter P p, and the circle in the diameter Qq. If pq, qP intersect F L in O and O , these two points will be vertices from which the conic can be projected into a circle, the centre of which is the projection of the point E. Since F O : F p :: Eq : Ep :: EA : Ep, it follows that, for dierent positions of the plane through AB, F O is constant, so that O may be taken anywhere on the circle, centre F , in the plane through F perpendicular to the chord AEB. Further, F O : F P :: EQ : EP :: EA : EP, F O2 : F P . F p :: EA2 : EP . Ep :: CD2 : CP 2 , DCd being the semi-diameter of the conic which is conjugate to CP . The length F O is thus determined when the position of the point E, inside the conic, is given, and, if we take as the vertex of projection any point O on the circle, centre F , as described above, the projection of the conic on any plane parallel to AEB and F O will be a circle. If the conic is an ellipse, it follows that F O is equal to the ordinate F R, conjugate to P p, of the hyperbola in the plane of the ellipse which has the same conjugate diameters P Cp and DCd.

If the conic is an hyperbola, F O is equal to the ordinate F R of an ellipse in the plane of the hyperbola which has the same conjugate diameters P Cp and DCd.

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This hyperbola or this ellipse constructed outside the given conic may be called the associated conic. If the conic is a parabola, the points O and O are obtained by drawing lines through q and Q parallel to the axis of the parabola. In this case, F O2 = Eq 2 = EA2 = 4SP . P E = 4SP . P F, so that the associated conic is a parabola. If the conic is a circle, the associated conic is a rectangular hyperbola. If the conic is an ellipse, the axes of which are indenitely small, that is, if it is reduced to a point, the associated conic lapses into two straight lines, which are at right angles to each other if the point is the limit of a circle. 278. If the point E be outside the conic, or, in other words, if the polar of E intersect the conic, it is not possible to project the conic into a circle, so that the projection of E shall be the centre of the circle. In this case the conic can be projected into a rectangular hyperbola, having the projection of the point E for its centre. Let RU be the chord of contact of the tangents from E, and take any point O on the surface of the sphere of which RU is a diameter. Then the projection of the conic from the vertex O on any plane parallel to ROU will be an hyperbola, and, since ROU is a right angle, it will be a rectangular hyperbola. 279. If two conics in a plane are entirely exterior to each other, they can in general be projected, from the same vertex, into circles on the same plane. Draw four parallel tangents to the conics, and let F be the point of intersection of the diameters, P Cp and QGq, joining the points of contact. Also, let F R, F R be the ordinates through F , parallel to the tangents, of the associated conics. If F is so situated that these ordinates are equal, the locus of the vertices from which the two conics can be projected into circles will be the same, that is, it will be the circle of which F is the centre, and F R the length of the radius, in the plane through F perpendicular to F R. In this case, taking any point O on the circle as the vertex, the two conics will be projected into circles on any plane parallel to the plane OF R, and the centres of the circles will be the projections of E and E , the respective poles of F R with regard to the conics.

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280. For dierent directions of the tangents, the points, F , R, R , will take up dierent positions, and for all directions of the tangents the loci of these points will be continuous curves. The loci of R and R will, in general, intersect each other; that is to say, there will be, in general, positions of F such that F R and F R are equal. Taking a particular case, let F be so situated that F R is greater than F R; then taking F at the point where its locus meets the conic G, F R vanishes, and therefore, between these two positions of F , there must be some position such that F R is equal to F R. We may observe that the locus of F passes through C and G, the centres of the two conics. For, if CG is conjugate to the parallel tangents of the conic G, the point F is at C, and, if CG is conjugate to the parallel tangents of the conic C, the point F is at G. When F R is equal to F R, the line thus obtained is called by Poncelet the Ideal Secant of the two conics. 281. In a similar manner if one conic is entirely inside another they can, in general, be projected into circles, one of which will be inside the other.

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Also two conics intersecting in two points may be projected into two intersecting circles. Two conics intersecting in four points, or having contact at two points, cannot be projected into circles, but they can be projected into rectangular hyperbolas. 282. The method of projections enables us to extend to conics theorems which have been proved for a circle, and which involve, amongst other ideas, harmonic ranges, poles and polars, systems of collinear points, and systems of concurrent lines. For instance, the theorems of Arts. 208 and 210 are easily proved for a circle, and by this method are at once extended to conics. Take as another instance Pascals theorem, that the opposite sides of any hexagon inscribed in a conic intersect in three collinear points. If this be proved for a circle, the method of conical projection at once shews that it is true for any conic. The following very elementary proof of the theorem for a circle is given in Catalans Thor`mes et Probl`mes de Gomtrie Elmentaire. e e e e e e Let ABCDEF be the hexagon, and let AB and ED meet in G, BC and F E in H, F A and DC in K. Also let ED meet BC in M and AF in N , and let BC meet AF in L. Then we have the relations, LA . LF = LB . LC, M C . M B = M D . M E, N E . N D = N F . N A. Also, the triangle LM N being cut by the three transversals AG, DK, F H, we have the relations, LB . M G . N A = LA . M B . N G LC . M D . N K = LK . M C . N D LH . M E . N F = LF . M H . N E. Multiplying together these six equalities, taking account of the relations previously stated, and cutting out the factors common to the two products, we obtain LH . M G . N K = LK . M H . N G; G, H, K are collinear. Brianchons theorem that, if a hexagon circumscribe a conic, the three opposite diagonals are concurrent is proved at once by observing that it is the reciprocal polar of Pascals theorem.

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283. Stereographic and Gnomonic Projections. If a point on the surface of a sphere be taken as the vertex of projection, and if the plane of projection be parallel to the tangent plane at the point, the projection of any gure drawn on the surface of the sphere is called its stereographic projection. If however the centre of the sphere be taken as the vertex of projection, and any plane be taken as the plane of projection, the projection of any gure drawn on the surface of the sphere is called its gnomonic projection. The stereographic projection of a circle drawn on the surface of the sphere is a circle; for it can be easily shewn that it is a subcontrary section of the oblique cone formed by the vertex of projection and the circle on the sphere. The gnomonic projection of a circle on the sphere is obviously a conic. These projections are sometimes described in treatises on Astronomy, and in these treatises the vertex for stereographic projection is taken at the south pole of the earth, and, for gnomonic projection, at the centre of the earth; and, in both cases, the plane of projection is taken parallel to the plane of the equator. 284. It will be seen that the discussions which are given in this chapter are conned entirely to cases of real projection. The chapter is intended to be simply an introduction to a large and important subject. The method of conical projections is due to Poncelet, and is worked out with great fulness and elaboration in his work entitled, Trait des Proprits e ee Projectives des Figures (Second edition, 1865, in two quarto volumes). In this work Poncelet extends the domain of pure geometry by the interpretation and use of the law of continuity, and, as one of its applications, by the introduction of the imaginary chord of intersection, or, as it is called by Poncelet, the ideal secant of two conics. Amongst English writers, the student will nd valuable chapters on projections in Salmons Conics, and in the large work on the Geometry of Conics, by Dr C. Taylor, the Master of St Johns College, Cambridge. There is also an important work by Cremona, on Projective Geometry, which has been translated by Leudesdorf (Second edition, 1893).

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MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

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1. If two conics have the same directrix, their common points are concyclic. 2. If a focal chord of a parabola is bisected in V and the line perpendicular to it through V meets the axis in G, SG is half the chord. 3. If the perpendicular to CP from a point P of an ellipse meets the auxiliary circle in Q, P Q varies as P N . 4. AA and BB are the axes, and S is one of the foci of an ellipse; if a parabola is described with S as focus and passing through B and B , its vertex bisects SA or SA . 5. Tangents to an ellipse at P , p intersect on an axis; if the perpendicular from p on the tangent at P intersects CP in L, the locus of L is a similar ellipse. 6. The normal to a hyperbola at P meets the axes in G and g respectively. Prove that the circle circumscribing SP G is touched Sg. 7. If a tangent to an ellipse meets a pair of conjugate diameters in points equidistant from the centre, the locus of the points is a circle. 8. If ellipses are described on AB as diameter, touching BC, the points of contact of tangents from C are on a straight line. 9. If P l, P m be drawn perpendicular to CL, CM respectively, shew that the centre of the circle P lm lies on a xed hyperbola. 10. P SQ, P HR are focal chords of an ellipse, QT , RT the tangents at Q and R. Shew that P T is the normal at P . 11. A, B are two xed points. Through them a system of circles is drawn. Through A draw any two lines meeting the circles in the points C1 D1 , C2 D2 , &c. Shew that the lines CD all touch a parabola, focus B, which also touches the lines AC, AD. 12. From any two points A, B on an ellipse four lines are drawn to the foci S, H. Shew that SA . HB and SB . HA are to one another as the squares of the perpendiculars from a focus on the tangents at A and B.

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13. If two points of a conic and the angle subtended by these points at the focus are given, the line joining the focus with the intersection of the tangents always passes through a xed point. 14. If normals to an ellipse are drawn at the extremities of chords parallel to one of the equi-conjugate diameters, pairs of such normals intersect on the line through the centre perpendicular to the other diameter. 15. From the point in which the tangent at any point P of a hyperbola cuts either asymptote perpendiculars are dropped upon the axes. Prove that the line joining the feet of these perpendiculars passes through P . 16. Tangents are drawn to an ellipse parallel to conjugate diameters of a second given ellipse. Shew that the locus of their intersection is an ellipse similar and similarly situated to the second ellipse. 17. A focus of a conic inscribed in a triangle being given, nd the points of contact. 18. The normals at P and Q, the ends of a focal chord P SQ, intersect in K, and KN is perpendicular to P Q; prove that N P and SQ are equal. 19. If CR, SY , HZ be perpendiculars upon the tangent at a point P such that CR = CS, prove that R lies on the tangent at B, and that the perpendicular from R on SH will divide it into two parts equal to SY , HZ respectively. 20. If a parabola, having its focus coincident with one of the foci of an ellipse, touches the conjugate axis of the ellipse, a common tangent to the ellipse and parabola will subtend a right angle at the focus. 21. Two tangents T P and T Q are drawn to an ellipse, and any chord T RS is drawn, V being the middle point of the intercepted part; QV meets the ellipse in P ; prove that P P is parallel to ST . 22. If S, S are the foci of an ellipse and SY , S Y the perpendiculars on any tangent, XY , X Y meet on the minor axis, and, if P N is the ordinate of P , N Y and N Y are perpendicular to XY and X Y respectively. 23. A circle through the centre of a rectangular hyperbola cuts the curve in the points A, B, C, D. Prove that the circle circumscribing the triangle formed by the tangents at A, B, C passes through the centre of the hyperbola. 24. If the tangent at a point P of an ellipse meets any pair of parallel tangents in M , N , and if the circle on M N as diameter meets the normal at P in K, L,

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then KL is equal to DCD , and CK, CL are equal to the sum and dierence of the semi-axes. 25. From a point O two tangents OA, OB are drawn to a parabola meeting any diameter in P , Q. Prove that the lines OP , OQ are similarly divided by the points of contact, but one internally, the other externally. 26. If S, H be the foci of an ellipse, and SP , HQ be parallel radii vectores drawn towards the same parts, prove that the tangents to the ellipse at P , Q intersect on a xed circle. 27. If an ellipse be inscribed in a quadrilateral so that one focus S is equidistant from the four vertices, the other focus must be at the intersection H of the diagonals. 28. P is a point on a circle whose centre is Q; through P a series of rectangular hyperbolas are described having Q for their centre of curvature at P . Prove that the locus of their centres is a circle with diameter of length P Q. 29. Two cones which have a common vertex, their axes at right angles, and their vertical angles supplementary, are intersected by a plane at right angles to the plane of their axes. Prove that the distances of either focus of the elliptic section from the foci of the hyperbolic section are equal respectively to the distance from the vertex of the ends of the transverse axis of each, and that the sum of the squares on the semi-conjugate axes is equal to the rectangle contained by those distances. 30. Two plane sections of a cone which are not parallel are such that a focus of each and the vertex of the cone lie on a straight line. Shew that the angle included by any pair of focal chords of one section is equal to that contained by the corresponding focal chords of the other section, corresponding chords being the projections of each other with respect to the vertex. 31. If P P , QQ be chords normal to a conic at P and Q, and also at right angles to each other, then will P Q be parallel to P Q . 32. A system of conics have a common focus S and a common directrix corresponding to S. A xed straight line through S intersects the conics, and at the points of intersection normals are drawn. Prove that these normals are all tangents to a parabola. 33. If two confocal conics intersect, prove that the centre of curvature of either curve at a point of intersection is the pole of the tangent at that point with regard to the other curve.

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34. A chord of a conic whose pole is O meets the directrices in R and R ; if SR and HR meet in O , prove that the minor axis bisects OO . 35. T Q and T R, tangents to a parabola, meet the tangent at P in X and Y , and T U is drawn parallel to the axis, meeting the parabola in U . Prove that the tangent at U passes through the middle point of XY , and that, if S is the focus, XY 2 = 4SP . T U. 36. The foot of the directrix which corresponds to S is X, and XY meets the minor axis in T ; CV is the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent at P . Prove that, if CP = CS, then CV = V T . 37. A is a given point in the plane of a given circle, and ABC a given angle. If B moves round the circumference of the circle, prove that, for dierent values of the angle ABC, the envelopes of BC are similar conics, and that all their directrices pass through one or other of two xed points. 38. If AA is the transverse axis of an ellipse, and if Y , Y are the feet of the perpendiculars let fall from the foci on the tangent at any point of the curve, prove that the locus of the point of intersection of AY and A Y is an ellipse. 39. The tangent at a point P of an hyperbola cuts the asymptotes in L and L , and another hyperbola having the same asymptotes bisects P L and P L . Prove that it intersects CP in a point p such that Cp2 : CP 2 :: 3 : 4. The chord QR, joining a point R on an asymptote with a point Q on the corresponding branch of the rst hyperbola, intersects the second hyperbola in E; if QR move o parallel to itself to innity, prove that, ultimately RE : EQ :: 3 : 1. 40. Tangents are drawn to a rectangular hyperbola from a point T in the transverse axis, meeting the tangents at the vertices in Q and Q. Prove that QQ touches the auxiliary circle at a point R such that RT bisects the angle QT Q . 41. Tangents from a point T touch the curve at P and Q; if P Q meet the directrices in R and R , P R and QR subtend equal angles at T . 42. The straight lines joining any point to the intersections of its polar with the directrices touch a conic confocal with the given one.

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43. If a point moves in a plane so that the sum or dierence of its distances from two xed points, one in the given plane and the other external to it, is constant, it will describe a conic, the section of a right cone whose vertex is the given external point. 44. In the construction of Art. 241 prove that CK and CK are respectively equal to the sum and dierence of the semi-axes. 45. Given a tangent to an ellipse, its point of contact, and the director circle, construct the ellipse. 46. If the tangent at any point P of an ellipse meet the auxiliary circle in Q , R , and if Q, R be the corresponding points on the ellipse, the tangents at Q and R pass through the point P on the auxiliary circle corresponding to P . 47. In the ellipse P DP D , P HCSP X and DCD are conjugate diameters; CH is equal to CS, and the polar of S passes through a point X on P P produced. If DX is drawn cutting the ellipse in Q, prove that HD is parallel to SQ. 48. If T is the pole of a chord of a conic, and F the intersection of the chord with the directrix, T SF is a right angle. 49. The polar of the middle point of a normal chord of a parabola meets the focal vector to the point of intersection of the chord with the directrix on the normal at the further end of the chord. 50. OP , OQ touch a parabola at P , Q; the tangent at R meets OP , OQ in S, T ; if V is the intersection of P T , SQ, O, R, V are collinear. 51. If from any point A a straight line AEK be drawn parallel to an asymptote of an hyperbola, and meeting the polar of A in K and the curve in E, shew that AE = EK. 52. If a chord P Q of a parabola, whose pole is T , cut the directrix in F , the tangents from F bisect the angle P F T and its supplement. 53. A parabola, focus S, touches the three sides of a triangle ABC, bisecting the base BC in D; prove that AS is a fourth proportional to AD, AB, and AC. 54. A focal chord P SQ is drawn to a conic of which C is the centre; the tangents and normals at P and Q intersect in T and K respectively; shew that ST , SP , SK, SC form an harmonic pencil.

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55. P CP is any diameter of an ellipse. The tangents at any two points D and E intersect in F . P E, P D intersect in G. Shew that F G is parallel to the diameter conjugate to P CP . 56. A conic section is circumscribed by a quadrilateral ABCD: A is joined to the points of contact of CB, CD; and C to the points of contact of AB, AD; prove that BD is a diagonal of the interior quadrilateral thus formed. 57. A parabola touches the three lines CB, CA, AB in P , Q, R, and through R a line parallel to the axis meets RQ in E; shew that ABEC is a parallelogram. 58. If a series of conics be inscribed in a given quadrilateral, shew that their centres lie on a xed straight line. Shew also that this line passes through the middle points of the diagonals. 59. Four points A, B, C, D are taken, no three of which lie in a straight line, and joined in every possible way; and with another point as focus four conics are described touching respectively the sides of the triangles BCD, CDA, DAB, ABC; prove that the four conics have a common tangent. 60. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral circumscribing a conic intersect in a focus, they are at right angles to one another, and the third diagonal is the corresponding directrix. 61. An ellipse and parabola have the same focus and directrix; tangents are drawn to the ellipse at the extremities of the major axis; shew that the diagonals of the quadrilateral formed by the four points where these tangents cut the parabola intersect in the common focus, and pass through the extremities of the minor axis of the ellipse. 62. Three chords of a circle pass through a point on the circumference; with this point as focus and the chords as axes three parabolas are described whose parameters are inversely proportional to the chords; prove that the common tangents to the parabolas, taken two and two, meet in a point. 63. A circle is described touching the asymptotes of an hyperbola and having its centre at the focus. A tangent to this circle cuts the directrix in F , and has its pole with regard to the hyperbola at T . Prove that T F touches the circle. 64. Two conics have a common focus: their corresponding directrices will intersect on their common chord, at a point whose focal distance is at right angles to that of the intersection of their common tangents. Also the parts into which either

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common tangent is divided by their common chord will subtend equal angles at the common focus. If the conics are parabolas, the inclination of their axes will be the angle subtended by the common tangent at the common focus. 65. The tangent at the point P of an hyperbola meets the directrix in Q; another point R is taken on the directrix such that QR subtends at the focus an angle equal to that between the transverse axis and an asymptote; prove that the envelope of RP is a parabola. 66. If an hyperbola passes through the angular points of an equilateral triangle and has the centre of the circumscribing circle as focus, its eccentricity is the ratio of 4 to 3, and its latus rectum is one-third of the diameter of the circle. 67. An isosceles triangle is circumscribed to a parabola; prove that the three sides and the three chords of contact intersect the directrix in ve points, such that the distance between any two successive points subtends the same angle at the focus. 68. Tangents are drawn at two points P , P on an ellipse. If any tangent be drawn meeting those at P, P in R, R , shew that the line bisecting the angle RSR intersects RR on a xed tangent to the ellipse. 69. The chords of a conic which subtend the same angle at the focus all touch another conic having the same focus and directrix. 70. Two conics have a common focus S and a common directrix, and tangents T P , T P are drawn to one from any point on the other and meet the directrix in F and F . Prove that the angles P SF , P SF are equal and constant. 71. A rectangular hyperbola circumscribes a triangle ABC; if D, E, F are the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B, C on the opposite sides, the loci of the poles of the sides of the triangle ABC are the lines EF , F D, DE. 72. If two of the sides of a triangle, inscribed in a conic, pass through xed points, the envelope of the third side is a conic. 73. If two circles be inscribed in a conic, and tangents be drawn to the circles from any point in the conic, the sum or dierence of these tangents is constant, according as the point does or does not lie between the two chords of contact. 74. The four common tangents of two conics intersect two and two on the sides of the common self-conjugate triangle of the conics.

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75. Prove that a right cylinder, upon a given elliptic base, can be cut in two ways so that the curve of section may be a circle; and that a sphere can always be drawn through any two circular sections of opposite systems. 76. An ellipse revolves about its major axis, and planes are drawn through a focus cutting the surface thus formed. Prove that the locus of the centres of the dierent sections is a surface formed by the revolution of an ellipse about CS where C or S are respectively the centre and focus of the original ellipse. 77. Given ve tangents to a conic, nd, by aid of Brianchons theorem, the points of contact. 78. The alternate angular points of any pentagon ABCDE are joined, thus forming another pentagon whose corresponding angular points are a, b, c, d, e; Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee are joined and produced to meet the opposite sides of ABCDE in , , , ; shew that if A be joined with the middle point of , B with the middle point of , &c., these ve lines meet in a point. 79. If a conic be inscribed in a triangle, the lines joining the angular points to the points of contact of the opposite sides are concurrent. 80. If a quadrilateral circumscribe a conic, the intersection of the lines joining opposite points of contact is the same as the intersection of the diagonals. 81. ABC is a triangle, and D, E, F the middle points of the sides. Shew that any two similar and similarly situated ellipses one circumscribing DEF and the other inscribed in ABC will touch each other. 82. AB is a chord of a conic. The tangents at A and B meet in T . Through B a straight line is drawn meeting the conic in C and AT in P . The tangent to the conic at C meets AT in Q. Prove that T P QA is a harmonic range. 83. P p, Qq, Rr, Ss are four concurrent chords of a conic; shew that a conic can be drawn touching SR, RQ, QP , sr, rq, qp. 84. If two sections of a right cone have a common directrix, the latera recta are in the ratio of the eccentricities. 85. ABCD is a parallelogram and a conic is described to touch its four sides. If S is a focus of this conic and if with S as focus a parabola is described to touch AB and BC, the axis of the parabola passes through D. 86. If from a point O tangents be drawn to two conics S and S , and if the tangents to S be conjugate with respect to S , prove that the tangents to S are conjugate with respect to S.

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87. If a triangle is self-conjugate with respect to each of a series of parabolas, the lines joining the middle points of its sides will be tangents; all the directrices will pass through O, the centre of the circumscribing circle; and the focal chords, which are the polars of O, will all touch an ellipse inscribed in the given triangle which has the nine-point circle for its auxiliary circle. 88. If a triangle can be drawn so as to be inscribed in one given conic and circumscribed about another given conic, an innite number of such triangles can be drawn. 89. Prove that the stereographic projection of a series of parallel circles on a sphere is a series of coaxal circles, the limiting points of which are the projections of the poles of the circles. 90. Through the six points of intersection of a conic with the sides of a triangle straight lines are drawn to the opposite angular points; if three of these lines are concurrent the other three are also concurrent. 91. Prove that the asymptotes of an hyperbola, and a pair of conjugate diameters form an harmonic range, and that the system of pairs of conjugate diameters is a pencil in involution. 92. If two concentric conics have the directions of two pairs of conjugate diameters the same, then the directions are the same for every pair. 93. If two concentric conics have all pairs of conjugate diameters in the same directions, and have a common point, they coincide entirely. 94. If two conics have two common self-conjugate triangles with the same vertex, which is interior to both, they cannot intersect in any point without entirely coinciding. 95. If two conics in space whose planes intersect in a line which does not cut either conic, and if on this line there are four points, P , P , Q, Q , such that the polars of P with regard to the conics both pass through P , and that the polars of Q both pass through Q , then either conic can be projected into the other in two ways.

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SHAW (S. J. D.). Arithmetic Papers. Set in the Cambridge Higher Local Examination, from June, 1869, to June, 1887, inclusive, reprinted by permission of the Syndicate. By S. J. D. SHAW, Mathematical Lecturer of Newnham College. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.; Key, 4s. 6d. net. TAIT (T. S.). See Pendlebury. WATSON (J.) and GOUDIE (W. P.). Arithmetic. A Progressive Course of Examples With Answers. By J. WATSON, M.A., Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, formerly Senior Mathematical Master of the Ordnance School, Carshalton. 7th edition, revised and enlarged. By W. P. GOUDIE, B.A. Lond. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. [Camb. S. and C. Texts. WHITWORTH (W. A.). Algebra. Choice and Chance. An Elementary Treatise on Permutations, Combinations, and Probability, with 640 Exercises and Answers. By W. A. WHITWORTH, M.A., Fellow of St. Johns College, Cambridge. 4th edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo, 6s. [Camb. Math. Ser. WRIGLEY (A.) Arithmetic. By A. WRIGLEY, M.A., St. Johns College. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. [Camb. S. and C. Texts.

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SMALLEY (G. R.). A Compendium of Facts and Formulae in Pure Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. By G. R. SMALLEY, F.R.A.S. New edition, revised and enlarged. By J. McDOWELL, M.A., F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. WRIGLEY (A.). Collection of Examples and Problems in Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Logarithms, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Mechanics, &c., with Answers and Occasional Hints. By the REV. A. WRIGLEY. 10th edition, 20th thousand. Demy 8vo, 8s. 6d. A Key. By J. C. PLATTS, M.A. and the REV. A. WRIGLEY. 2nd edition. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

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BELLS GEOGRAPHICAL READERS. By M. J. BARRINGTON-WARD, M.A. (Worcester College, Oxford). The Childs Geography. The Round World. (Standard II.) Illustrated. Sti paper cover, 6d. Illustrated. Cloth, 10d. The Map and the Compass. About England. (Standard III.) (Standard I.) Illustrated. Cloth, 8d. With Illustrations and Coloured Map. Cloth, 1s. 4d. EDWARDS (F.). Examples for Analysis in Verse and Prose from well-known sources, selected and arranged by F. EDWARDS. New edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. GOLDSMITH. The Deserted Village. Edited, with Notes and Life, by C. P. MASON, B.A., F.C.P. 4th edition. Crown 8vo, 1s. HANDBOOKS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Edited by J. W. HALES, M.A., formerly Clark Lecturer in English Literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, Professor of English Literature at Kings College, London. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. The Age of Pope. By JOHN DENNIS. [Ready. In preparation. The The The The The Age Age Age Age Age of of of of of Chaucer. By PROFESSOR HALES. Shakespeare. By PROFESSOR HALES. Milton. By J. BASS MULLINGER, M.A. Dryden. By W. GARNETT, LL.D. Wordsworth. By PROFESSOR C. H. HERFORD, LITT.D. Other volumes to follow.

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HAZLITT (W.). Lectures on the Literature of the Age of Elizabeth. Small post 8vo, sewed, 1s. Lectures on the English Poets. Small post 8vo, sewed, 1s. Lectures on the English Comic Writers. Small post 8vo, sewed, 1s. LAMB (C.). Specimens of English Dramatic Poets of the Time of Elizabeth. With Notes together with the Extracts from the Garrick Plays. MASON (C. P.). Grammars by C. P. MASON, B.A., F.C.P., Fellow of University College, London. First Notions of Grammar for Young Learners. Fcap. 8vo. 85th thousand. Cloth, 1s. First Steps in English Grammar, for Junior Classes. Demy 18mo. 54th thousand. 1s. Outlines of English Grammar, for the Use of Junior Classes. 17th edition. 97th thousand. Crown 8vo, 2s. English Grammar; including the principles of Grammatical Analysis. 35th edition, revised. 148th thousand. Crown 8vo, green cloth, 3s. 6d. A Shorter English Grammar, with copious and carefully graduated Exercises, based upon the authors English Grammar. 9th edition. 49th thousand. Crown 8vo, brown cloth, 3s. 6d. Practice and Help in the Analysis of Sentences. Price 2s. Cloth. English Grammar Practice, consisting of the Exercises of the Shorter English Grammar published in a separate form. 3rd edition. Crown 8vo, 1s. Remarks on the Subjunctive and the so-called Potential Mood. 6d., sewn. Blank Sheets Ruled and headed for Analysis, 1s. per dozen. MILTON: Paradise Lost. Books I., II., and III. Edited, with Notes on the Analysis and Parsing, and Explanatory Remarks, by C. P. MASON, B.A., F.C.P. Crown 8vo. Book I. With Life. 5th edition. 1s. Book II. With Life. 3rd edition. 1s. Book III. With Life. 2nd edition. 1s. Paradise Lost. Books V.VIII. With Notes for the Use of Schools. By C. M. LUMBY. 2s. 6d. PRICE (A. C.). Elements of Comparative Grammar and Philology. For Use in Schools. By A. C. PRICE, M.A., Assistant Master at Leeds Grammar School; late Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. SHAKESPEARE. Notes on Shakespeares Plays. With Introduction, Summary, Notes (Etymological and Explanatory), Prosody, Grammatical Peculiarities, etc. By T. DUFF BARNETT, B.A. Lond., late Second Master in the

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Brighton Grammar School. Specially adapted for the Local and Preliminary Examinations. Crown 8vo, 1s. each. Midsummer Nights Dream. Julius Csar. The Tempest. Macbeth. Henry V. Hamlet. Merchant of Venice. King Richard II. King John. King Lear. Coriolanus. The Notes are comprehensive and concise.Educational Times. Comprehensive, practical, and reliable.Schoolmaster. Hints for Shakespeare-Study. Exemplied in an Analytical Study of Julius Csar. By MARY GRAFTON MOBERLY. 2nd edition. Crown 8vo, sewed, 1s. Coleridges Lectures and Notes on Shakespeare and other English Poets. Edited by T. ASHE, B.A. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. Shakespeares Dramatic Art. The History and Character of Shakespeares Plays. By DR. HERMANN ULRICI. Translated by L. DORA SCHMITZ. 2 vols. small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. William Shakespeare. A Literary Biography. By KARL ELZE, PH.D., LL.D. Translated by L. DORA SCHMITZ. Small post 8vo, 5s. Hazlitts Lectures on the Characters of Shakespeares Plays. Small post 8vo, 1s. See BELLS ENGLISH CLASSICS. SKEAT (W. W.). Questions for Examinations in English Literature. With a Preface containing brief hints on the study of English. Arranged by the REV. W. W. SKEAT, LITT. D., Elrington and Bosworth Professor of AngloSaxon in the University of Cambridge, 3rd edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. SMITH (C. J.). Synonyms and Antonyms of the English Language. Collected and Contrasted by the VEN. C. J. SMITH, M.A. 2nd edition, revised. Small post 8vo, 5s. Synonyms Discriminated. A Dictionary of Synonymous Words in the English Language. Illustrated with Quotations from Standard Writers. By the late VEN. C. J. SMITH, M.A. With the Authors latest Corrections and Additions, edited by the REV. H. PERCY SMITH, M.A., of Balliol College, Oxford, Vicar of Great Barton, Suolk. 4th edition. Demy 8vo, 14s. TEN BRINKS History of English Literature. Vol. I. Early English Literature (to Wiclif). Translated into English by HORACE M. KENNEDY, Professor of German Literature in the Brooklyn Collegiate Institute. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. Vol. II (Wiclif, Chaucer, Earliest Drama, Renaissance). Translated by W. CLARKE ROBINSON, PH.D. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. THOMSON: Spring. Edited by C. P. MASON, B.A., F.C.P. With Life. 2nd edition. Crown 8vo, 1s. Winter. Edited by C. P. MASON, B.A., F.C.P. With Life. Crown 8vo, 1s.

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WEBSTERS INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY of the English Language. Including Scientic, Technical, and Biblical Words and Terms, with their Signications, Pronunciations, Alternative Spellings, Derivations, Synonyms, and numerous illustrative Quotations, with various valuable literary Appendices, with 83 extra pages of Illustrations grouped and classied, rendering the work a Complete Literary and Scientific Reference-book. New edition (1890). Thoroughly revised and enlarged under the supervision of NOAH PORTER, D.D., LL.D. 1 vol. (2,118 pages, 3,500 woodcuts), 4to, cloth, 31s. 6d.; half calf, 2 2s.; half russia, 2 5s.; calf, 2 8s.; or in 2 vols. cloth, 1 14s. Prospectuses, with specimen pages, sent post free on application. WEBSTERS BRIEF INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY. A Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language, abridged from Websters International Dictionary. With a Treatise on Pronunciation, List of Prexes and Suxes, Rules for Spelling, a Pronouncing Vocabulary of Proper Names in History, Geography, and Mythology, and Tables of English and Indian Money, Weights, and Measures. With 564 pages and 800 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 3s. WRIGHT (T.). Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English. Containing Words from the English Writers previous to the 19th century, which are no longer in use, or are not used in the same sense, and Words which are now used only in the Provincial Dialects. Compiled by THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A., etc. 2 vols. 5s. each.

FRENCH CLASS BOOKS.

BOWER (A. M.). The Public Examination French Reader. With a Vocabulary to every extract, suitable for all Students who are preparing for a French Examination. By A. M. BOWER, F.R.G.S., late Master in University College School, etc. Cloth, 3s. 6d. BARBIER (PAUL). A Graduated French Examination Course. By PAUL BARBIER, Lecturer in the South Wales University College, etc. Crown 8vo, 3s. ` BARRERE (A.). Junior Graduated French Course. Aording Materials ` for Translation, Grammar, and Conversation. By A. BARRERE, Professor R.M.A., Woolwich, 1s. 6d. Elements of French Grammar and First Steps in Idioms. With numerous Exercises and a Vocabulary. Being an Introduction to the Prcis of e Comparative French Grammar. Crown 8vo, 2s.

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Prcis of Comparative French Grammar and Idioms and Guide to e Examinations. 4th edition. 3s. 6d. Rcits Militaires. From Valmy (1792) to the Siege of Paris (1870). With e English Notes and Biographical Notices. 2nd edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. CLAPIN (A. C.). French Grammar for Public Schools. By the REV. A. C. CLAPIN, M.A., St. Johns College, Cambridge, and Bachelier`s-lettres of e the University of France. Fcap. 8vo. 13th edition. 2s. 6d. Key to the Exercises. 3s. 6d. net. French Primer. Elementary French Grammar and Exercises for Junior Forms in Public and Preparatory Schools. Fcap. 8vo. 10th edition. 1s. Primer of French Philology. With Exercises for Public Schools. 6th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. English Passages for Translation into French. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. Key (for Tutors only), 4s. net. DAVIS (J. F.). Army Examination Papers in French. Questions set at the Preliminary Examinations for Sandhurst and Woolwich, from Nov., 1876, to June, 1890, with Vocabulary. By J. F. DAVIS, D.LIT., M.A., Lond. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. DAVIS (J. F.) and THOMAS (F.). An Elementary French Reader. Compiled, with a Vocabulary, by J. F. DAVIS, M.A., D.LIT., and FERDINAND THOMAS, Assistant Examiners in the University of London. Crown 8vo, 2s. DELILLES GRADUATED FRENCH COURSE. The Beginners own French Repertoire des Prosateurs. 3s. 6d. Book. 2s. Key, 2s. Mod`les de Poesie. 3s. 6d. e Easy French Poetry for Manuel Etymologique. 2s. 6d. Beginners. 2s. Synoptical Table of French French Grammar. 3s. Key, 3s. Verbs. 6d. GASC (F. E. A.). First French Book; being a New, Practical, and Easy Method of Learning the Elements of the French Language. Reset and thoroughly revised. 116th thousand. Crown 8vo, 1s. Second French Book; being a Grammar and Exercise Book, on a new and practical plan, and intended as a sequel to the First French Book. 52nd thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. Key to First and Second French Books, 5th edition, Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. net. French Fables, for Beginners, in Prose, with an Index of all the Words at the end of the work. 16th thousand. 12mo, 1s. 6d. Select Fables of La Fontaine. 19th thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. Histoires Amusantes et Instructives; or, Selections of Complete Stories from the best French modern authors, who have written for the young. With English notes, 17th thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 2s.

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Practical Guide to Modern French Conversation, containing:I. The most current and useful Phrases in Everyday Talk. II. Everybodys necessary Questions and Answers in Travel-Talk. 19th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. French Poetry for the Young. With Notes, and preceded by a few plain Rules of French Prosody. 5th edition, revised. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. French Prose Composition, Materials for. With copious footnotes, and hints for idiomatic renderings. 21st thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. Key. 2nd edition. 6s. net. Prosateurs Contemporains; or, Selections in Prose chiey from contemporary French literature. With notes. 11th edition. 12mo, 3s. 6d. Le Petit Compagnon; a French Talk-Book for Little Children, 14th edition. 16mo, 1s. 6d. French and English Dictionary, with upwards of Fifteen Thousand new words, senses, &c., hitherto unpublished. 5th edition, with numerous additions and corrections. In one vol. 8vo, cloth, 10s. 6d. In use at Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, &c. Pocket Dictionary of the French and English Languages; for the everyday purposes of Travellers and Students. Containing more than Five Thousand modern and current words, senses, and idiomatic phrases and renderings, not found in any other dictionary of the two languages. New edition. 51st thousand. 16mo, cloth, 2s. 6d. GOSSET (A.). Manual of French Prosody for the use of English Students. By ARTHUR GOSSET, M.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford. Crown 8vo, 3s. This is the very book we have been looking for. We hailed the title with delight, and were not disappointed by the perusal. The reader who has mastered the contents will know, what not one in a thousand of Englishmen who read French knows, the rules of French poetry.Journal of Education. LE NOUVEAU TRESOR; designed to facilitate the Translation of English into French at Sight. By M. E. S. 18th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. STEDMAN (A. M. M.). French Examination Papers in Miscellaneous Grammar and Idioms. Compiled by A. M. M. STEDMAN, M.A. 5th edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. A Key. By G. A. SCHRUMPF. For Tutors only. 6s. net. Easy French Passages for Unseen Translation. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. Easy French Exercises on Elementary Syntax. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. First French Lessons. Crown 8vo, 1s. French Vocabularies for Repetition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. Steps to French. 12mo, 8d.

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FRENCH ANNOTATED EDITIONS.

BALZAC. Ursule Mirout. By HONORE DE BALZAC. Edited, with Introduce tion and Notes, by JAMES BOIELLE, B.-`s-L., Senior French Master, Dulwich e College. 3s. CLARETIE. Pierrille. By JULES CLARETIE. With 27 Illustrations. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by JAMES BO IELLE, B.-`s-L. 2s. 6d. e DAUDET. La Belle Nivernaise. Histoire dun vieux bateau et de son quipage. By ALPHONSE DAUDET. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by e JAMES BO IELLE, B.-`s-L. With Six Illustrations. 2s. e FENELON. Aventures de Tlmaque. Edited by C. J. DELILLE. 4th edition. ee Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. GOMBERTS FRENCH DRAMA. Re-edited, with Notes, by F. E. A. GASC. Sewed, 6d. each. ` MOLIERE Le Misanthrope. Les Fourberies de Scapin. Les Prcieuses Ridicules. e LAvare. LEcole des Femmes. Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. LEcole des Maris. Le Tartue. Le Mdecin Malgr Lui. e e Le Malade Imaginaire. Les Femmes Savantes.

La Thba e de, ou Les Fr`res e Ennemis. Andromaque. Les Plaideurs. Iphignie. e Le Cid. Horace.

RACINE Britannicus. Ph`dre. e Esther. Athalie. CORNEILLE. Cinna. Polyeucte.

VOLTAIRE.Za re.
GREVILLE. Le Moulin Frappier. By HENRY GREVILLE. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by JAMES BO IELLE, B.-`s-L. 3s. e HUGO. Bug Jargal. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by JAMES BO IELLE, B.-`s-L. 3s. e LA FONTAINE. Select Fables. Edited by F. E. A. GASC. 19th thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d.

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LAMARTINE. Le Tailleur de Pierres de Saint-Point. Edited with Notes by JAMES BO IELLE, B.-`s-L. 6th thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. e SAINTINE. Picciola. Edited by DR. DUBUC. 16th thousand. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. VOLTAIRE. Charles XII. Edited by L. DIREY. 7th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d.

GERMAN CLASS BOOKS.

BUCHHEIM (DR. C. A.). German Prose Composition. Consisting of Selections from Modern English Writers. With grammatical notes, idiomatic renderings, and general introduction. By C. A. BUCHHEIM, PH.D., Professor of the German Language and Literature in Kings College, and Examiner in German to the London University. 14th edition, enlarged and revised. With a list of subjects for original composition. Fcap. 8vo, 4s. 6d. A Key to the 1st and 2nd parts. 3rd edition. 3s. net. To the 3rd and 4th parts. 4s. net. First Book of German Prose. Being Parts I. and II. of the above. With Vocabulary. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. CLAPIN (A. C.). A German Grammar for Public Schools. By the REV. A. C. CLAPIN, and F. HOLL-MULLER, Assistant Master at the Bruton Grammar School. 6th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. A German Primer. With Exercises. 2nd edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. German. The Candidates Vade Mecum. Five Hundred Easy Sentences and Idioms. By an Army Tutor. Cloth, 1s. For Army Prelim. Exam. LANGE (F.). A Complete German Course for Use in Public Schools. By F. LANGE, PH.D., Professor R.M.A. Woolwich, Examiner in German to the College of Preceptors, London; Examiner in German at the Victoria University, Manchester. Crown 8vo.
Concise German Grammar. With special reference to Phonology, Comparative Philology, English and German Equivalents and Idioms. Comprising Materials for Translation, Grammar, and Conversation. Elementary, 2s.; Intermediate, 2s.; Advanced, 3s. 6d. Progressive German Examination Course. Comprising the Elements of German Grammar, an Historic Sketch of the Teutonic Languages, English and German Equivalents, Materials for Translation, Dictation, Extempore Conversation, and Complete Vocabularies. I. Elementary Course, 2s. II. Intermediate Course, 2s. III. Advanced Course. Second revised edition. 1s. 6d. Elementary German Reader. A Graduated Collection of Readings in Prose and Poetry. With English Notes and a Vocabulary. 4th edition. 1s. 6d. Advanced German Reader. A Graduated Collection of Readings in Prose and Poetry. With English Notes by F. LANGE, PH.D.; and J. F. DAVIS, D.LIT. 2nd edition. 3s.

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MORICH (R. J.). German Examination Papers in Miscellaneous Grammar and Idioms. By R. J. MORICH, Manchester Grammar School. 2nd edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. A Key, for Tutors only. 5s. net. STOCK (DR.). Wortfolge, or Rules and Exercises on the order of Words in German Sentences. With a Vocabulary. By the late FREDERICK STOCK, D.LIT., M.A. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. KLUGES Etymological Dictionary of the German Language. Translated by J. F. DAVIS, D.LIT. (Lond.). Crown 4to, 18s.

GERMAN ANNOTATED EDITIONS.

AUERBACH (B.). Auf Wache. Novelle von BERTHOLD AUERBACH. Der Gefrorene Kuss. Novelle von OTTO ROQUETTE. Edited by A. A. MACDONELL, M.A., PH.D. 2nd edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. BENEDIX (J. R.). Doktor Wespe. Lustspiel in fnf Aufzgen von JULIUS u u RODERICH BENEDIX. Edited by PROFESSOR F. LANGE, PH.D. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. EBERS (G.). Eine Frage. Idyll von GEORG EBERS. Edited by F. STORR, B.A., Chief Master of Modern Subjects in Merchant Taylors School. Crown 8vo, 2s. FREYTAG (G.). Die Journalisten. Lustspiel von GUSTAV FREYTAG. Edited by PROFESSOR F. LANGE, PH.D. 4th revised edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. SOLL UND HABEN. Roman von GUSTAV FREYTAG. Edited by W. HANBY CRUMP, M.A. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. GERMAN BALLADS from Uhland, Goethe, and Schiller. With Introductions, Copious and Biographical Notices. Edited by C. L. BIELEFELD. 4th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. GERMAN EPIC TALES IN PROSE. I. Die Nibelungen, von A. F. C. VILMAR. II. Walther und Hildegund, von ALBERT RICHTER. Edited by KARL NEUHAUS, PH.D., the International College, Isleworth. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. GOETHE. Hermann und Dorothea. With Introduction, Notes, and Argu ments. By E. BELL, M.A., and E. WOLFEL. 2nd edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. GOETHE. FAUST. Part I. German Text with Haywards Prose Translation and Notes. Revised, With Introduction by C. A. BUCHHEIM, PH.D., Professor of German Language and Literature at Kings College, London. Small post 8vo, 5s.

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GUTZKOW (K.). Zopf und Schwert. Lustspiel von KARL GUTZKOW. Edited by PROFESSOR F. LANGE, PH.D. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. HEYS FABELN FUR KINDER. Illustrated by O. SPECKTER. Edited, with an Introduction, Grammatical Summary, Words, and a complete Vocabulary, by PROFESSOR F. LANGE, PH.D. Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d. The same. With a Phonetic Introduction, and Phonetic Transcription of the Text. By PROFESSOR F. LANGE, PH.D. Crown 8vo, 2s. HEYSE (P.). Hans Lange. Schauspiel von PAUL HEYSE. Edited by A. A. MACDONELL, M.A., PH.D., Taylorian Teacher, Oxford University. Crown 8vo, 2s. HOFFMANN. (E. T. A.). Meister Martin, der Kfner. Erzhlung von u a E. T. A. HOFFMANN. Edited by F. LANGE, PH.D. 2nd edition. Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d. MOSER (G. VON). Der Bibliothekar. Lustspiel von G. VON MOSER. Edited by F. LANGE, PH.D. 4th edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. ROQUETTE (O.). See Auerbach. SCHEFFEL (V. VON). Ekkehard. Erzhlung des zehnten Jahrhunderts, von a VICTOR VON SCHEFFEL. Abridged edition, with Introduction and Notes by HERMAN HAGER, PH.D., Lecturer in the German Language and Literature in The Owens College, Victoria University, Manchester. Crown 8vo, 3s. SCHILLERS Wallenstein. Complete Text, comprising the Weimar Prologue, Lager, Piccolomini, and Wallensteins Tod. Edited by DR. BUCHHEIM, Professor of German in Kings College, London. 6th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. Or the Lager and Piccolomini, 2s. 6d. Wallensteins Tod, 2s. 6d. Maid of Orleans. With English Notes by DR. WILHELM WAGNER. 3rd edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d. Maria Stuart. Edited by V. KASTNER, B.-`s-L., Lecturer on French Lane guage and Literature at Victoria University, Manchester. 3rd edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. 6d.

ITALIAN.
CLAPIN (A. C.). Italian Primer. With Exercises. By the REV. A. C. CLAPIN, M.A., B.-`s-L. 3rd edition. Fcap. 8vo, 1s. e DANTE. The Inferno. A Literal Prose Translation, with the Text of the Original collated with the best editions, printed on the same page, and Explanatory Notes. By JOHN A. CARLYLE, M.D. With Portrait. 2nd edition. Small post 8vo, 5s.

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The Purgatorio. A Literal Prose Translation, with the Text of Bianchi printed on the same page, and Explanatory Notes. By W. S. DUGDALE. Small post 8vo, 5s.

BELLS MODERN TRANSLATIONS. A Series of Translations from Modern Languages, with Memoirs, Introductions, etc. Crown 8vo, 1s. each.
GOETHE. Egmont. Translated by ANNA SWANWICK. With Memoir. Iphigenia in Tauris. Translated by ANNA SWANWICK. With Memoir. HAUFF. The Caravan. Translated by S. MENDEL. With Memoir. LESSING. Laokoon. Translated by E. C. BEASLEY. With Memoir. Nathan the Wise. Translated by R. DILLON BOYLAN. With Memoir. Minna von Barnhelm. Translated by ERNEST BELL, M.A. With Memoir. ` MOLIERE. The Misanthrope. Translated by C. HERON WALL. With Memoir. The Doctor in Spite of Himself. (Le Mdecin malgr lui). Translated by e e C. HERON WALL. With Memoir. Tartue; or, The Impostor. Memoir. Translated by C. HERON WALL. With

The Miser. (LAvare). Translated by C. HERON WALL. With Memoir. The Shopkeeper turned Gentleman. (Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme). Translated by C. HERON WALL. With Memoir. RACINE. Athalie. Translated by R. BRUCE BOSWELL, M.A. With Memoir. Esther. Translated by R. BRUCE BOSWELL, M.A. With Memoir. SCHILLER. William Tell. Translated by SIR THEODORE MARTIN, K.C.B., LL.D. New edition, entirely revised. With Memoir. The Maid of Orleans. Translated by ANNA SWANWICK. With Memoir. Mary Stuart. Translated by J. MELLISH. With Memoir.

For other Translations of Modern Languages, see the Catalogue of Bohns Libraries, which will be forwarded on application.

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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND ART.

CHEMISTRY.
STOCKHARDT (J. A.). Experimental Chemistry. Founded on the work of J. A. STOCKHARDT. A Handbook for the Study of Science by Simple Experiments. By C. W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer in Chemistry in the Medical School of Charing Cross Hospital, Examiner in Chemistry to the Royal College of Physicians, etc. New revised edition. 5s. WILLIAMS (W. M.). The Framework of Chemistry. Part I. Typical Facts and Elementary Theory. By W. M. WILLIAMS, M.A., St. Johns College, Oxford; Science Master, King Henry VIII.s School, Coventry. Crown 8vo, paper boards, 9d. net.

BOTANY.
EGERTON-WARBURTON (G.). Names and Synonyms of British Plants. By the REV. G. EGERTON-WARBURTON. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. (Uniform with Haywards Botanists Pocket Book.) HAYWARD (W. R.). The Botanists Pocket-Book. Containing in a tabulated form, the chief characteristics of British Plants, with the botanical names, soil, or situation, colour, growth, and time of owering of every plant, arranged under its own order; with a copious Index. By W. R. HAYWARD. 6th edition, revised. Fcap. 8vo, cloth limp, 4s. 6d. MASSEE (G.). British Fungus-Flora. A Classied Text-Book of Mycology. By GEORGE MASSEE, Author of The Plant World. With numerous Illustrations. 3 vols. post 8vo. Vols. I., II., and III. ready, 7s. 6d. each. Vol. IV. in the Press. SOWERBYS English Botany. Containing a Description and Life-size Drawing of every British Plant. Edited and brought up to the present standard of scientic knowledge, by T. BOSWELL (late SYME), LL.D., F.L.S., etc. 3rd edition, entirely revised. With Descriptions of all the Species by the Editor, assisted by N. E. BROWN. 12 vols., with 1,937 coloured plates, 24 3s. in cloth, 26 11s. in half-morocco, and 30 9s. in whole morocco. Also in 89 parts, 5s., except Part 89, containing an Index to the whole work, 7s. 6d.

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Supplement, to be completed in 8 or 9 parts, is now publishing. Parts I., II., and III. ready, 5s. each, or bound together, making Vol. XIII. of the complete work, 17s. TURNBULL (R.). Index of British Plants, according to the London Catalogue (Eighth Edition), including the Synonyms used by the principal authors, an Alphabetical List of English Names, etc. By ROBERT TURNBULL. Paper cover, 2s. 6d., cloth, 3s.

GEOLOGY.
JUKES-BROWNE (A. J.). Students Handbook of Physical Geology. By A. J. JUKES-BROWNE, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. With numerous Diagrams and Illustrations. 2nd edition, much enlarged, 7s. 6d. Should be in the hands of every teacher of geology.Journal of Education. A very useful book dealing with geology from its physical side.Athenum. Students Handbook of Historical Geology. With numerous Diagrams and Illustrations. 6s. An admirably planned and well executed Handbook of Historical Geology. Journal of Education. The Building of the British Isles. A Study in Geographical Evolution. With Maps. 2nd edition revised. 7s. 6d.

MEDICINE.
CARRINGTON (R. E.), and LANE (W. A.). A Manual of Dissections of the Human Body. For the use of Students, and particularly for those preparing for the Higher Examinations in Anatomy. By the late R. E. CARRINGTON, M.D. (Lond.), F.R.C.P., Senior Assistant Physician, Guys Hospital. 2nd edition. Revised and enlarged by W. ARBUTHNOT LANE, M.S., F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to Guys Hospital, and the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, etc. Crown 8vo, 9s. As solid a piece of work as ever was put into a book; accurate from beginning to end, and unique of its kind.British Medical Journal. HILTONS Rest and Pain. Lectures on the Inuence of Mechanical and Physiological Rest in the Treatment of Accidents and Surgical Diseases, and the Diagnostic Value of Pain. By the late JOHN HILTON, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., etc. Edited by W. H. A. JACOBSON, M.A., M.CH. (Oxon.), F.R.C.S. 5th edition. 9s.

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Mr. Hiltons work is facile princeps of its kind in our own or any other language.Lancet. HOBLYNS Dictionary of Terms used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences. 12th edition. Revised and enlarged by J. A. P. PRICE, B.A., M.D. (Oxon.). 10s. 6d. LANE (W. A.). Manual of Operative Surgery. For Practitioners and Students. By W. ARBUTHNOT LANE, M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to Guys Hospital, and to the Hospital for Sick Children. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d. SHARP (W.) Therapeutics founded on Antipraxy. By WILLIAM SHARP, M.D., F.R.S. Demy 8vo, 6s.

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CHEAL (J.). Fruit Culture. A Treatise on Planting, Growing, Storage of Hardy Fruits for Market and Private Growers. By J. CHEAL, F.R.H.S., Member of Fruit Committee, Royal Hort. Society, etc. FREAM (DR.). Soils and their Properties. By DR. WILLIAM FREAM, B.SC. (Lond.)., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.S., Associate of the Surveyors Institution, Consulting Botanist to the British Dairy Farmers Association and the Royal Counties Agricultural Society; Prof. of Nat. Hist. in Downton College, and formerly in the Royal Agric. Coll., Cirencester. GRIFFITHS (DR.). Manures and their Uses. By DR. A. B. GRIFFITHS, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., late Principal of the School of Science, Lincoln; Membre de la Socit Chimique de Paris; Author of A Treatise on Manures, etc., etc. In ee use at Downton College. The Diseases of Crops and their Remedies. MALDEN (W. J.). Tillage and Implements. By W. J. MALDEN, Prof. of Agriculture in the College, Downton. SHELDON (PROF.). The Farm and the Dairy. By PROFESSOR J. P. SHELDON, formerly of the Royal Agricultural College, and of the Downton College of Agriculture, late Special Commissioner of the Canadian Government; Author of Dairy Farming, etc. In use at Downton College.

Specially adapted for Agricultural Classes. Crown 8vo. Illustrated, 1s. each. Practical Dairy Farming. By PROFESSOR SHELDON. Reprinted from the Authors larger work entitled The Farm and the Dairy.

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Practical Fruit Growing. By J. CHEAL, F.R.H.S. Reprinted from the Authors larger work entitled Fruit Culture.

TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS. Edited by Sir H. Trueman Wood.

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MARSDEN (R.). Cotton Spinning: Its Development, Principles, and Practice, with Appendix on Steam Boilers and Engines. By R. MARSDEN, Editor of the Textile Manufacturer. 4th edition. 6s. 6d. Cotton Weaving. With numerous Illustrations. [In the press. POWELL (H.), CHANCE (H.), and HARRIS (H. G.). Glass Manufacture. Introductory Essay, by H. POWELL, B.A. (Whitefriars Glass Works); Sheet Glass, by HENRY CHANCE, M.A. (Chance Bros., Birmingham); Plate Glass, by H. G. HARRIS, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E. 3s. 6d. ZAEHNSDORF (J. W.). Bookbinding. By J. W. ZAEHNSDORF, Examiner in Bookbinding to the City and Guilds of London Institute. With 8 Coloured Plates and numerous Diagrams. 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. 5s.

Complete List of Technical Books on Application.

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BANISTER (H. C.). A Text Book of Music: By H. C. BANISTER, Professor of Harmony and Composition at the R.A. of Music, at the Guildhall School of Music, and at the Royal Normal Coll. and Acad. of Music for the Blind. 15th edition. Fcap. 8vo. 5s. This Manual contains chapters on Notation, Harmony, and Counterpoint; Modulation, Rhythm, Canon, Fugue, Voices, and Instruments; together with exercises on Harmony, an Appendix of Examination Papers, and a copious Index and Glossary of Musical Terms. Lectures on Musical Analysis. Embracing Sonata Form, Fugue, etc., Illustrated by the Works of the Classical Masters. 2nd edition, revised. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. It is beyond comparison the best book on the subject in our language. Athenum. Musical Art and Study: Papers for Musicians. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. CHATER (THOMAS). Scientic Voice, Artistic Singing, and Eective Speaking. A Treatise on the Organs of the Voice, their Natural Functions, Scientic Development, Proper Training, and Artistic Use. By THOMAS CHATER. With Diagrams. Wide fcap. 2s. 6d. HUNT (H. G. BONAVIA). A Concise History of Music, from the Commencement of the Christian era to the present time. For the use of Students. By REV. H. G. BONAVIA HUNT, Mus. Doc. Dublin; Warden of Trinity College, London; and Lecturer on Musical History in the same College. 12th edition, revised to date (1893). Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

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ART.
BARTER (S.). Manual InstructionWoodwork. By S. BARTER Organizer and Instructor for the London School Board, and to the Joint Committee on Manual Training of the School Board for London, the City and Guilds of London Institute, and the Worshipful Company of Drapers. With over 300 Illustrations. Fcap. 4to, cloth. 7s. 6d. BELL (SIR CHARLES). The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression, as connected with the Fine Arts. By SIR CHARLES BELL, K.H. 7th edition, revised. 5s. BRYANS Biographical and Critical Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. With a List of Ciphers, Monograms, and Marks. A new Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. By R. E. GRAVES, British Museum, and WALTER ARMSTRONG. 2 volumes. Imp. 8vo, buckram, 3l. 3s. CHEVREUL on Colour. Containing the Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colours, and their Application to the Arts. 3rd edition, with Introduction. Index and several Plates. 5s.With an additional series of 16 Plates in Colours, 7s. 6d. DELAMOTTE (P. H.). The Art of Sketching from Nature. By P. H. DELAMOTTE, Professor of Drawing at Kings College, London. Illustrated by Twenty-four Woodcuts and Twenty Coloured Plates, arranged progressively, from Water-colour Drawings by PROUT, E. W. COOKE, R.A., GIRTIN, VARLEY, DE WINT, and the Author. New edition. Imperial 4to, 21s. FLAXMANS CLASSICAL COMPOSITIONS, reprinted in a cheap form for the use of Art Students. Oblong paper covers, 2s. 6d. each.
The Iliad of Homer. 39 Designs. The Odyssey of Homer. 34 Designs. The Tragedies of schylus. 36 Designs. The Works and Days and Theogony of Hesiod. 37 Designs. Select Compositions from Dantes Divine Drama. 37 Designs.

FLAXMANS Lectures on Sculpture, as delivered before the President and Members of the Royal Academy. With Portrait and 53 plates. 6s. HEATON (MRS.). A Concise History of Painting. By the late MRS. CHARLES HEATON. New edition. Revised by COSMO MONKHOUSE. 5s. LELAND (C. G.). Drawing and Designing. In a series of Lessons for School use and Self Instruction. By CHARLES G. LELAND, M.A., F.R.L.S. Paper cover, 1s.; or in cloth, 1s. 6d. Leather Work: Stamped, Moulded, and Cut, Cuir-Bouill, Sewn, etc. With e numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 4to, 5s.

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Manual of Wood Carving. By CHARLES G. LELAND, M.A., F.R.L.S. Revised by J. J. HOLTZAPFFEL, A.M. INST. C.E. With numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 4to, 5s. Metal Work. With numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 4to, 5s. LEONARDO DA VINCIS Treatise on Painting. Translated from the Italian by J. F. RIGAUD, R.A. With a Life of Leonardo and an Account of his Works, by J. W. BROWN. New edition. With numerous Plates. 5s. MOODY (F. W.). Lectures and Lessons on Art. By the late F. W. MOODY, Instructor in Decorative Art at South Kensington Museum. With Diagrams to illustrate Composition and other matters. A new and cheaper edition. Demy 8vo, sewed, 4s. 6d. There are few books that we can more thoroughly recommend to every student and thinker on Art than these Lectures.Art Journal. WHITE (GLEESON). Practical Designing: A Handbook on the Preparation of Working Drawings, showing the Technical Methods employed in preparing them for the Manufacturer and the Limits imposed on the Design by the Mechanism of Reproduction and the Materials employed. Edited by GLEESON WHITE. Freely Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s. net. Contents:Bookbinding, by H. ORRINSMITHCarpets, by ALEXANDER MILLARDrawing for Reproduction, by the EditorPottery, by W. P. RIX Metal Work, by R. LL. RATHBONEStained Glass, by SELWYN IMAGE Tiles, by OWEN CARTERWoven Fabrics, Printed Fabrics, and Floorcloths, by ARTHUR SILVERWall Papers, by G. C. HAITE.

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EPICTETUS. The Discourses of. With the Encheiridion and Fragments. Translated with Notes, a Life of Epictetus, a View of his Philosophy, and Index, by GEORGE LONG, M.A. Small post 8vo, 5s., or new edition on Handmade paper, 2 vols., buckram, 10s. 6d. KANTS Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, Professor of Education at St. Andrews University. Small post 8vo, 5s. Prolegomena and Metaphysical Foundations of Science. With Life. Translated by E. BELFORT BAX. Small post 8vo, 5s. LOCKES Philosophical Works, containing Essay on the Human Understanding, Controversy with Bishop of Worcester, Examination of Malebranches Opinions, Elements of Natural Philosophy, Thoughts concerning Reading and Study. Edited by J. A. ST. JOHN. 2 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. RYLAND (F.). The Students Manual of Psychology and Ethics, designed chiey for the London B.A. and B.Sc. By F. RYLAND, M.A., late Scholar of St. Johns College, Cambridge. Cloth, red edges. 5th edition, revised and enlarged. With lists of books for Students, and Examination Papers set at London University. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. Ethics: An Introductory Manual for the use of University Students. With an Appendix containing List of Books recommended, and Examination Questions. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. SCHOPENHAUER on the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sucient Reason, and On the Will in Nature. Translated by MADAME HILLEBRAND. Small post 8vo, 5s. Essays. Selected and Translated. With a Biographical Introduction and Sketch of his Philosophy, by E. BELFORT BAX. Small post 8vo, 5s. SMITH (Adam). Theory of Moral Sentiments. With Memoir of the Author by DUGALD STEWART. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. SPINOZAS Chief Works. Translated with Introduction, by R. H. M. ELWES. 2 vols. Small post 8vo, 5s. each. Vol. I.Tractatus Theologico-PoliticusPolitical Treatise. II.Improvement of the UnderstandingEthicsLetters.

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LAW AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.

KENTS Commentary on International Law. Edited by J. T. ABDY, LL.D., Judge of County Courts and Law Professor at Gresham College, late Regius Professor of Laws in the University of Cambridge. 2nd edition, revised and brought down to a recent date. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. LAWRENCE (T. J.). Essays on some Disputed Questions in Modern International Law. By T. J. LAWRENCE, M.A., LL.M. 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo, 6s. Handbook of Public International Law. 2nd edition. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. MONTESQUIEUS Spirit of Laws. A New Edition, revised and corrected, with DAlemberts Analysis, Additional Notes, and a Memoir, by J. V. PRITCHARD, A.M. 2 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. RICARDO on the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Edited by E. C. K. GONNER, M.A., Lecturer in University College, Liverpool. Small post 8vo, 5s. SMITH (Adam). The Wealth of Nations. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of. Reprinted from the Sixth Edition, with an Introduction by ERNEST BELFORT BAX. 2 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each.

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GIBBONS Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Complete and Unabridged, with Variorum Notes. Edited by an English Churchman. With 2 Maps. 7 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. GUIZOTS History of the English Revolution of 1640. Translated by WILLIAM HAZLITT. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. History of Civilization, from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the French Revolution. Translated by WILLIAM HAZLITT. 3 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. HENDERSON (E. F.). Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. Including the most famous Charters relating to England, the Empire, the Church, etc., from the sixth to the fourteenth centuries. Translated and edited, with Introductions, by ERNEST F. HENDERSON, A.B., A.M., PH.D. Small post 8vo, 5s. A History of Germany in the Middle Ages. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. net. HOOPER (George). The Campaign of Sedan: The Downfall of the Second Empire, August-September, 1870. By GEORGE HOOPER. With General Map and Six Plans of Battle. Demy 8vo, 14s. Waterloo: The Downfall of the First Napoleon: a History of the Campaign of 1815. With Maps and Plans. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. LAMARTINES History of the Girondists. Translated by H. T. RYDE. 3 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. History of the Restoration of Monarchy in France (a Sequel to his History of the Girondists). 4 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. History of the French Revolution of 1848. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. LAPPENBERGS History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings. Translated by the late B. THORPE, F.S.A. New edition, revised by E. C. OTTE. 2 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. LONG (G.). The Decline of the Roman Republic: From the Destruction of Carthage to the Death of Csar. By the late GEORGE LONG, M.A. Demy 8vo. In 5 vols. 5s. each. MACHIAVELLIS History of Florence, and of the Aairs of Italy from the Earliest Times to the Death of Lorenzo the Magnicent: together with the Prince, Savonarola, various Historical Tracts, and a Memoir of Machiavelli. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. MARTINEAU (H.). History of England from 180015. By HARRIET MARTINEAU. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. History of the Thirty Years Peace, 181546. 4 vols. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each.

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BUTLER (BP.). Analogy of Religion. With Analytical Introduction and copious Index, by the late RT. REV. DR. STEERE, Bishop in Central Africa. Fcap. New edition, 3s. 6d. EUSEBIUS. Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Csarea. Translated from the Greek by REV. C. F. CRUSE, M.A. With Notes, a Life of Eusebius, a Chronological Table of Persons and Events mentioned in the History, and an Index. Small post 8vo, 5s. GREGORY (DR.). Letters on the Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian Religion. By DR. OLINTHUS GREGORY, F.R.A.S. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. HUMPHRY (W. G.). Book of Common Prayer. An Historical and Explanatory Treatise on the. By W. G. HUMPHRY, B.D., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Prebendary of St. Pauls, and Vicar of St. Martins-inthe-Fields, Westminster. 6th edition. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. Cheap Edition, for Sunday School Teachers. 1s. JOSEPHUS (FLAVIUS). The Works of. WHISTONS Translation. Revised by REV. A. R. SHILLETO, M.A. With Topographical and Geographical Notes by COLONEL SIR C. W. WILSON, K.C.B. 5 vols. 3s. 6d. each. LUMBY (DR.). The History of the Creeds. I. Ante-Nicene. II. Nicene and Constantinopolitan. III. The Apostolic Creed. IV. The Quicunque, commonly called the Creed of St. Athanasius. By J. RAWSON LUMBY, D.D., Norrisian Professor of Divinity, Fellow of St. Catherines College, and late Fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge. 3rd edition, revised. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. Compendium of English Church History, from 16881830. With a Preface by J. RAWSON LUMBY, D.D., Norrisian Professor of Divinity. Crown 8vo, 6s. MACMICHAEL (J. F.). The New Testament: In Greek. With English Notes and Preface, Synopsis, and Chronological Tables. By the late REV. J. F. MACMICHAEL. Fcap. 8vo (730 pp.), 4s. 6d. Also the Four Gospels, and the Acts of the Apostles, separately. In paper wrappers, 6d. each. MILLER (E.). Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. By REV. E. MILLER, M.A., Oxon, Rector of Bucknell, Bicester. Crown 8vo, 4s. NEANDER (DR. A.). History of the Christian Religion and Church. Translated by J. TORREY. 10 vols. small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each. Life of Jesus Christ. Translated by J. MCCLINTOCK and C. BLUMENTHAL. Small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church by the Apostles. Translated by J. E. RYLAND. 2 vols. small post 8vo, 3s. 6d. each.

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Transcribers Notes
Spelling has been made consistent for the words encyclopaedia and hypotenuse. Hyphenation has been made consistent for the words co-axial, equi-conjugate, semiaxes, semi-axis, semi-diameter, semi-diameters, sub-tangent and book-keeping. Hyphenation and capitalisation have been made consistent for the words latus rectum and semi-latus rectum, retaining capitals only where the term is dened. Table of contents entries have been altered to match chapter and section headings. The ligature and ae as separate letters have been retained as found in the catalogue. Minor inconsistencies in punctuation, particularly in the catalogue, have been silently corrected. In the original, gures are sometimes repeated during long articles; these duplicates have been retained. Article 36: Original text reads If from a point Q tangents QP , QP be drawn. . . The second QP has been changed to QP . Catalogue: MMahon and MDevitte (p.14) have been changed to McMahon and McDevitte for consistency. Note that the author refers to coaxal circles and co-axial parabolasthese are intentionally dierent. Also radii vectores is used for the plural of radius vector, and latera recta for the plural of latus rectum.

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