Utkarsh Physics Ac Project 2.0OOO

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Alternating Current

- Phasors and Alternating Currents

- Resistance and Reactance

- Magnetic-Field Energy

- The L-R-C Series Circuit

- Power in Alternating-Current Circuits

- Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits

- Transformers
1. Phasors and Alternating Currents
Ex. source of ac: coil of wire rotating with
constant ω in a magnetic field  sinusoidal
alternating emf.

v  V cost i  I cost
v, i = instantaneous potential difference / current.
V, I = maximum potential difference / current 
voltage/current amplitude. ω = 2πf

Phasor Diagrams

- Represent sinusoidally varying voltages /


currents through the projection of a vector,
with length equal to the amplitude, onto a
horizontal axis.

- Phasor: vector that rotates counterclockwise


with constant ω.
- Diode (rectifier): device that conducts better in full wave rectifier circuit
one direction than in the other. If ideal, R = 0 in
one direction and R = ∞ in other.

Rectified average current (Irav): during any whole


number of cycles, the total charge that flows is same
as if current were constant (Irav).

2
irav  I


average value
of Іcos ωtІ or
Іsin ωtІ
Root-Mean Square (rms) values:

I V
irms  (i ) av
2
 Vrms 
2 2

i 2  I 2 cos2 t

cos2 t  0.5  (1 cos 2t)

i 2 0.5 I 2  0.5I 2 cos2t 


2. Resistance and Reactance


Resistor in an ac circuit

vR  iR  (IR) cost  VR cost (instantaneous


potential)

VR  IR (amplitude –max- of voltage across R)

- Current in phase with voltage  phasors rotate together


Inductor in an ac Circuit

- Current varies with time  self-induced emf 


di/dt > 0  ε < 0
di
  L
dt
Va > Vb  Vab = Va-Vb = VL = L di/dt > 0

di d
vL  L L (I cost)
dt dt

vL  IL sin t  IL cost  90 


vL has 90º “head start” with respect to i.


Inductor in an ac circuit

i  I cost
vL  IL cos(t  90∘ )
VL

v  V cos(t   )

φ = phase angle = phase of voltage relative to current

Pure resistor: φ=0


Pure inductor: φ = 90º
VL
I High ω  low I
Inductive reactance: X L  L L
Low ω  high I

Voltage amplitude: VL  IX L  IL Inductors used to block high ω


Capacitor in an ac circuit
As the capacitor charges and discharges  at each t,
there is “i” in each plate, and equal displacement current
between the plates, as though charge was conducted
through C.

dq
i  I cost   dq   I costdt C = q / vC
dt
I
q  sin t


q I
vc   sin t  I cos(t  90∘ )
C C C

I Pure capacitor: φ = 90º


VC 
C vc lags current by 90º.
1
Capacitive reactance: X C 
C

VC  IX C (amplitude of voltage across C)

I  VCC High ω  high I


Capacitor in an ac circuit
Low ω  low I

Capacitors used to block low ω (or low f)


 high-pass filter
Comparing ac circuit elements:

- R is independent of ω.
- XL and XC depend on ω.
- If ω = 0 (dc circuit)  Xc = 1/ωC  ∞
 ic = 0

XL = ωL = 0

- If ω  ∞, XL  ∞  iL = 0

XC = 0  VC = 0  current changes direction so rapidly that no


charge can build up on each plate.
Example: amplifier  C in tweeter branch blocks low-f components of sound
but passes high-f; L in woofer branch does the opposite.
3. The L-R-C Series Circuit
- Instantaneous v across L, C, R = vad = v source
- Total voltage phasor = vector sum of phasors of
individual voltages.

- C, R, L in series  same current, i = I cosωt 


only one phasor (I) for three circuit elements, amplitude I.

- The projections of I and V phasors onto


horizontal axis at t give rise to instantaneous
i and v.

VC  IR
(amplitudes = maximum
VL IX L values)
VC  IXC
-The instantaneous potential difference between terminals a,d =
= algebraic sum of vR, vC, vL (instantaneous voltages) =
= sum of projections of phasors VR, VC, VL
= projection of their vector sum (V) that represents the source voltage v and
instantaneous voltage vad across series of elements.

V  VR2  (VL Vc )2  (IR)2  (IX L  IX c )2  I R 2  ( X L  X c )2

Impedance: Z  R 2  ( X L  X c )2

V  IZ

Z  R 2 [L  (1/ C)]2

Impedance of R-L-C series circuit


VL VC I X L  X C  X L  X C Phase angle of the source
tan     voltage with respect to
VR IR R current

L 1/ C
tan  
R

i  I cost
v  V cost    

V I
Vrms  I Z  Z
rms 2 2
Example 31.5
4. Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
1
P  VI
2
V I V 2
Pav   V 2
rms rms  Irms R  rms
I
2 2 R

1
P  VI
2
Power in a General Circuit

P  vi  [V cos(t  )][I cost]  [V (cost cos sin t sin )][I cost]


 VI cos cos2 t VI sin  cost sin t

1
Pav  VI cos  Vrms Irms cos
2
5. Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits
1 1
X X  L  
0C
L C 0 0
LC
6. Transformers
d B d B
1 N1  2 N 2
dt dt

 2 N2

1 N1

V2 N2

V1 N1

V2  R

I1 (N 2 / N1 )

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