Chapter 2

Energy, Energy Transfer, and General

Energy Analysis
• For closed systems (fixed mass systems) energy can cross
the boundaries of a closed system only in the form of heat or
work.
• For open systems or control volumes energy can cross the
control surface in the form of heat, work, and energy
transported by the mass streams crossing the control
surface.

Energy
Consider the system shown below moving with a velocity, at
an elevation Z relative to the reference plane.

CM 
General V
System

Reference Plane, Z=0 2

• The total energy E of a system is the sum of all forms of
energy that can exist within the system such as thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear.
• The total energy of the system is normally thought of as the
sum of the internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential
energy.
• The internal energy U is that energy associated with the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity
• The kinetic energy KE exists as a result of the system's
motion relative to an external reference frame. When the
system moves with velocity V the kinetic energy is expressed
as
2
V
KE  m ( kJ )
2 3
 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation
in a gravitational field relative to the external reference frame is
called potential energy PE and is expressed as

PE  mgZ ( kJ )
where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of
the center of gravity of a system relative to the reference frame.
The total energy of the system is expressed as

E  U  KE  PE ( kJ )

or, on a unit mass basis,

E U KE PE kJ
e    ( )
m m m m kg
2
V
 u  gZ
2
4
where e = E/m is the specific stored energy, and u = U/m is the
specific internal energy. The change in stored energy of a
system is given by
E  U  KE  PE ( kJ )
Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and,
thus, experience no change in their kinetic and potential
energies.
The change in the stored energy is identical to the change in
internal energy for stationary systems.

If KE = PE = 0,

E  U ( kJ )

5
Energy Transport by Heat and Work and the Classical Sign
Convention

Energy may cross the boundary of a closed system only by heat

or work.

Energy transfer across a system boundary due solely to the

temperature difference between a system and its surroundings
is called heat.

Energy transferred across a system boundary that can be

thought of as the energy expended to lift a weight is called
work.

Heat and work are energy transport mechanisms between a

system and its surroundings. The similarities between heat and
work are as follows 6
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. They are both boundary phenomena.

2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.

3.Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike

properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.

4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depends on

the path followed during a process as well as the end states.

7
 Work is coordinated flow of matter.
 Lowering of a weight can do work
 Motion of piston can do work
 Flow of electrons in conductor can do work.
 Heat involves random motion of matter (or the constituent entities of matter).
 Like gas molecules in a gas cylinder
 Water molecules in a cup of water
 Atoms vibrating in a block of Cu.

 Energy may enter the system as heat or work.

 Once inside the system:
 it does not matter how the energy entered the system* (i.e. work and heat are
terms associated with the surrounding and once inside the system there is no
‘memory’ of how the input was received and
 the energy is stored as potential energy (PE) and kinetic energy (KE).
 This energy can be withdrawn as work or heat from the system.

8
Since heat and work are path dependent functions, they have
inexact differentials designated by the symbol .
The differentials of heat and work are expressed as Q and W.
The integral of the differentials of heat and work over the
process path gives the amount of heat or work transfer that
occurred at the system boundary during a process.
2


1, along path
 Q  Q12 (not Q)


1, along path
 W  W12 (not W )

That is, the total heat transfer or work is obtained by following

the process path and adding the differential amounts of heat
(Q) or work (W) along the way.
9
The integrals of Q and W are not Q2 – Q1 and W2 – W1,
respectively, which are meaningless since both heat and work
are not properties and systems do not possess heat or work at
a state.
The properties (P, T, v, u, etc.) are point functions, that is, they
depend only on the states.
However, heat and work are path functions, that is, their
magnitudes depend on the path followed.

700 kPa

100 kPa

10
0.01 m3 0.03 m3
A sign convention is required for heat and work energy
transfers, and the classical thermodynamic sign convention is
selected for these notes.
According to the classical sign convention, heat transfer to a
system and work done by a system are positive; heat transfer
from a system and work a system are negative.

System
Boundary
11
 Energy Transport by Heat
heat is energy in transition across the system boundary solely
due to the temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings.
The net heat transferred to a system is defined as
Qnet   Qin   Qout

Here, Qin and Qout are the magnitudes of the heat transfer
values.
the quantity Q is meant to be the net heat transferred to the
system, Qnet

Since heat transfer is process dependent, the differential of

heat transfer Q is called inexact.
the heat transfer per unit mass of the system, q.
Q
q
m 12
Heat transfer has the units of energy measured in joules (we
will use kilojoules, kJ) or the units of energy per unit mass,
kJ/kg.

Since heat transfer is energy in transition across the system

boundary due to a temperature difference, there are three
modes of heat transfer at the boundary that depend on the
temperature difference between the boundary surface and the
surroundings.
These are conduction, convection, and radiation.
However, when solving problems in thermodynamics involving
heat transfer to a system, the heat transfer is usually given or is
calculated by applying the first law, or the conservation of
energy, to the system.

An adiabatic process is one in which the system is perfectly

insulated and the heat transfer is zero. 13
 Energy Transfer by Work

MOVING BOUNDARY WORK

Moving boundary work (P dV work): The expansion and compression work in
a piston-cylinder device.

Wb is positive  for expansion

Wb is negative  for compression

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called 14
boundary work.
 MOVING BOUNDARY WORK

Luas di bawah graf Pv ialah Kerja Sempadan

Area = Wb = P (V2-V1)

The area under the process

curve on a P-V diagram
represents the boundary work.

15
 BOUNDARY WORK at
CONSTANT VOLUME (ISOMETRIC)

P2=

P1=

v1=v2

16
 BOUNDARY WORK at
CONSTANT PRESSURE (ISOBARIC)

P1=P2

17
 BOUNDARY WORK at
POLYTROPIC PROCESS

Polytropic
process

Polytropic for ideal gas

18
 BOUNDARY WORK at
TEMPERATURE CONSTANT (isothermal)

Polytropic process, when n=1

Polytropic process

mRT ln (P1/P2) for ideal gas

19
 Electrical Work

The rate of electrical work done by electrons crossing a system

boundary is called electrical power and is given by the product
of the voltage drop in volts and the current in amps.

We  V I (W)
The amount of electrical work done in a time period is found by
integrating the rate of electrical work over the time period.

2
We   V I dt (kJ)
1

20
Mechanical Forms of Work

Work is energy expended by a force acting through a distance.

Thermodynamic work is defined as energy in transition across the system
boundary and is done by a system if the sole effect external to the
boundaries could have been the raising of a weight.

Mathematically, the differential of work is expressed as

 
 W  F  d s  F ds cos
here  is the angle between the force vector and the displacement vector.
As with the heat transfer, the Greek symbol  means that work is a path-dependent
function and has an inexact differential.
If the angle between the force and the displacement is zero, the work done between
two states is
2 2
W12   W   Fds
1 1 21
Work has the units of energy and is defined as force times
displacement or newton times meter or joule
Work per unit mass of a system is measured in kJ/kg.

Common Types of Mechanical Work Energy

•Shaft Work
•Spring Work
•Work done of Elastic Solid Bars
•Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film
•Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

22
 Shaft work
A force F acting through a moment
arm r generates a torque T of

This force acts through a distance s,

which is related to the radius r by Energy transmission through rotating shafts

The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per
unit time, which can be expressed as

23
Spring Work

Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

24
Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film

25
FLOW WORK

If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area of the fluid

element is A, the force applied on the fluid element by the
imaginary piston is F= PA
To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this
force must act through a distance L. Thus, the work done in
pushing the fluid element across the boundary (i.e., the flow
work) is
26
It is interesting that unlike other work quantities, flow work is
expressed in terms of properties, it is the product of two properties
of the fluid.
For that reason, some people view it as a combination property
(like enthalpy) and refer to it as flow energy, convected energy, or
transport energy instead of flow work.

27
Unresisted expansion
w=0

28
Net Work Done By A System

The net work done by a system may be in two forms other work
and boundary work.
First, work may cross a system boundary in the form of a
rotating shaft work, electrical work or other the work forms
listed above.
We will call these work forms “other” work, that is, work not
associated with a moving boundary.
In thermodynamics electrical energy is normally considered to
be work energy rather than heat energy; however, the
placement of the system boundary dictates whether to include
electrical energy as work or heat.
Second, the system may do work on its surroundings because
of moving boundaries due to expansion or compression
processes that a fluid may experience in a piston-cylinder
device. 29
 The net work done by a closed system is defined by

Wnet   Wout   Win other  Wb

Here, Wout and Win are the magnitudes of the other work forms crossing the
boundary.
Wb is the work due to the moving boundary as would occur when a gas
contained in a piston cylinder device expands and does work to move the
piston.
The boundary work will be positive or negative depending upon the process.

Wnet  Wnet other  Wb

Several types of “other” work (shaft work, electrical work, etc.)

30
Example 2-3

A fluid contained in a piston-cylinder device receives 500 kJ of electrical work as the

gas expands against the piston and does 600 kJ of boundary work on the piston.
What is the net work done by the fluid?

Wele =500 kJ Wb=600 kJ

Wnet  Wnet   Wb
other

Wnet  Wout  Win , ele   Wb

other

Wnet   0  500 kJ   600 kJ

Wnet  100 kJ

31