UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

_________________________________________________________________________

Program : Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Mechanical (EM220/EM221)

Course : Thermalfluids Lab
Code : MEC 554
Lecturer : NUR FARANINI ZAMRI
Group : EMD5M3A (GROUP 2)
_________________________________________________________________________

MEC 554 - LABORATORY REPORT

TITLE : DRAG FORCE IN FLOW OVER A BODY

No NAME STUDENT ID SIGNATURE

1 ISFAHAN BIN JULIAH 2020459442

2 KHAIRUNNISA BINTI SHARIPUDDIN 2020818978

3 MOHAMAD JAZLI NAJIY BIN MOHMAD 2020601962

NASIR

LABORATORY SESSION : 14/11/2022 (DATE)

REPORT SUBMISSION : 21/11/2022 (DATE)

*By signing above you attest that you have contributed to this submission and confirm that all work you have
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investigation of academic misconduct and may result in a “0” on the work, an “F” in the course, or possibly more severe
penalties.
Marking Scheme

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 TABLE OF CONTENT

No. Content Page

1. LIST OF TABLES i

2. LIST OF FIGURES ii

3. 1.0 INTRODUCTION 3-4

4. 2.0 PROCEDURE 5-7

5. 3.0 DATA & RESULT 8-12

6. 4.0 DISCUSSION 13-16

7. 5.0 CONCLUSION 16-17

8. 6.0 REFERENCES 18
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Tabulated data for experiment drag force in flow over a body 9

i
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Title Page

2.1 Apparatus and experimental setup for drag force in flow over a body 5-6

3.1 Results on experimental data of drag force in flow over a body 8

3.2 Graph of drag coefficient against Reynold numbers 10

3.3 Graph of drag coefficient against velocity 10

ii
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The drag force that is experienced by a body moving through a fluid is typically broken down
into two parts: frictional drag and pressure drag. The cause of frictional drag is friction between
the fluid and the surfaces it is flowing through. This friction scales with the Reynolds number
and is related to the formation of boundary layers. The nature of the fluids motion is what
causing the pressure drag to happen. The frictional drag is more sensitive to Reynolds number
than the drag caused by the creation of a wake, which is easily can be seen behind a passing
boat. Even though, both types of drag are technically caused by viscosity (because there
wouldn't be any drag if the body were travelling through an inviscid fluid), the difference is
helpful since the two types of drag are caused by various flow processes. Therefore, frictional
drag is important for attached flows (no separation) and it is related to the surface area of the
exposed object to the flow. While, pressure drag is important for separate flows, and it is related
to the cross – sectional area of the body to the flow.
OBJECTIVE

1. To measure the drag coefficient, CD of a bluff body over a range of velocities.

2. To compare the experiment results with the already published data.

THEORY
The drag force is a force in the form of a fluid motion that is applied to the surfaces of an object
while it is moving. If the fluid is air, the force is known as aerodynamic drag force. The motion
of an object through fluid is as simple as it normally can be. Fluids is also treated as materials
because it is having mass and density and volume. Therefore, we know that materials always
resist changes in their velocity and no two or more materials can exist in the same space at the
same time.

The drag force can be determined with Bernoulli’s equation for the pressure in a fluid. It is
stated in the equation that for an ideal liquid flow (a liquid with no viscosity), an increase in
the speed of the fluid happens simultaneously with a decrease in the pressure or a decrease in
the fluid’s potential energy. The common form of Bernoulli’s equation is.

3
  P, is pressure comes outside from the fluid which sometimes referred to as
atmospheric pressure.
 ρgh, is the gravitational contribution to the pressure.
 ½ ρv2, is the kinetic or dynamic contribution to the flow.

From there, substitute the pressure (P) with formula of force per area.

To ;

By substituting dynamic contribution to the pressure (P);

Or

C, is the coefficient of drag.

Therefore,
Drag coefficient.

4
2.0 PROCEDURE

2.1 APPARATUS

5
 3

Figure 2.1 Apparatus and experimental setup for drag force in flow over a body
List of Apparatus
1. Multi tube manometer
2. Air speed control/velocity motor control
3. Test section
4. Inclined manometer
5. Drag models
6. Sliding weight

6
2.2 PROCEDURE
1. The measurement profile of drag models is measured.
2. The drag models are then fitted to the balance arm to be tested in the test section.
3. The arm is then balanced by using the weight to make the drag models to stand in
upright position of 90°.
4. The blower fan is switched on to a velocity of air flow equal to 8m/s.
5. The arm is then balanced again, and the reading is recorded.
6. The velocity of air is increased for a few steps. The arm is then balanced, and the
reading is recorded again.
7. Step 6 is repeated again until the velocity of the air reaches 20 m/s and the arm is
balanced while the reading is recorded.

7
3.0 DATA AND RESULTS

Figure 3.1 Results on experimental data of drag force in flow over a body

8
 Table 3.1 Tabulated data for experiment drag force in flow over a body
No Velocity (m/s) Reynold Rigid rod drag Body base surface facing upstream Body base surface facing Net drag
no. force, (N) Body diameter: 0.0295m downstream coefficient,
Body diameter: 0.00325m
Drag Net drag Drag Drag Net drag Drag
force, force, coefficient, force, force, coefficient,
(N) (N) (N) (N)

1. 0(initial) 0.0 0.100 0.040 -0.060 Invalid 0.030 -0.070 Invalid Invalid
2. 8 23774.18 0.020 0.200 0.180 2.440 0.145 0.125 1.693 0.747
3. 10 29717.72 0.040 0.330 0.290 2.510 0.230 0.190 1.647 0.863
4. 12 35661.26 0.060 0.480 0.420 2.530 0.318 0.258 1.553 0.977
5. 14 41604.81 0.080 0.680 0.600 2.650 0.440 0.360 1.592 1.058
6. 16 47548.35 0.120 0.880 0.760 2.570 0.490 0.370 1.253 1.317
7. 18 53491.89 0.150 1.160 1.010 2.700 0.768 0.618 1.653 1.047
8. 20 59435.44 0.190 1.450 1.260 2.730 0.960 0.770 1.669 1.061

9
Graph

Figure : Graph of drag coefficient against Reynold Numbers

Figure 3.2 Graph of drag coefficient against Reynold numbers

Figure 3.3 Graph of drag coefficient against velocity

Figure : Graph of drag coefficient against velocity

10
Sample calculation
Given,
Height, h = 2.95 cm = 0.0295 m
Length, l = 8.19 cm = 0.0819 m
Assumption,
i) Density of air, = 1.225
ii) Dynamic viscosity of air, µ = 1.789

Using the second data tabulated,

V= 8 m/s
a) Diameter = , using hydraulic diameter from the formula.

D = 4(0.0295)(0.0819) / 2(0.0295+0.0819) = 0.0434 m

b) Reynolds number

Re = = = 23774.18

Body base surface facing upstream:

a) Net drag force,

= Drag force - Rigid rod drag force

= 0.2 - 0.02
= 0.18 N

b) Drag coefficient

= 0.18 / (1/2)(1.225)(8)2(0.0434)2 = 2.44 N

c) Percentage of error

%=| |×100%
= |(2-2.44)/2 |×100%
= 22%

Body base surface facing downstream:

a) Net drag force,

= Drag force - Rigid rod drag force

= 0.145 - 0.02
= 0.125 N

11
 b) Drag coefficient

= 0.125 / (1/2)(1.225)(8)2(0.0434)2 = 1.693 N

c) Percentage of error

%=| |×100%
= |(1.5-1.693)/1.5 |×100%
= 12.87%

Net drag coefficient,

= (Drag coefficient of Body base surface facing upstream) – (Drag coefficient of Body
base surface facing downstream)
= 2.44 - 1.693
= 0.747 N

12
4.0 DISCUSSION

4.1 DISCUSSION (ISFAHAN B JULIAH/2020459442)

Based on the experiment, we could see that the graph of coefficient of drag versus
Reynold numbers increased sharply from zero velocity to 8 m/s velocity of the air. After
that the trend in the graph becomes fluctuated. This trend also occurs in graph of
coefficient of drag versus velocity of the air. We could observe as there is no velocity
there is no drag acting on the body since drag force is a resistive force which reacts to
opposite direction of the fluid flow. Since this experiment is done by velocity of air in
the wind tunnel, the fluid is air and this is called aerodynamic drag. However, if the
motion of the body is in fluid-like water the drag is called hydrodynamic drag. Hence,
in both graph there is no movement or changes in the trendline of the graph and it stays
in the origin point. As the velocity of air is increased to 8 m/s, we could see the trend
of the graph increase sharply for both graph and same goes to drag coefficient upstream
and downstream for both graphs, however the drag coefficient for upstream has a lot
more higher value of coefficient of drag compared to the drag coefficient for
downstream. This fact goes to graph of graph of coefficient of drag versus velocity of
air as well. This is because in this experiment we used open-end facing upstream and
downstream prism shape. In open-end facing upstream, the stream velocity of air when
it hits the surface area of open-end facing upstream prism, it will produce more drag
force over the body while the drag force over open-end facing downstream will produce
less drag force over the body. This is because when the stream of air velocity hits the
open-end facing upstream prism, the stream of air will have a hard time to split as the
surface area of open-end facing upstream prism is a lot more higher than the surface
area of open-end facing downstream prism which has a lot more narrow surface area
which results in the stream velocity of air to be easily split and thus results in lower
drag coefficient. So, basically drag coefficient denotes how unsharpened and bulky
objects or body would result in higher drag coefficient while the object that has
streamlined or closed to streamlined shape will result in lower drag coefficient.
Next, based on this experiment we could see that all of the Reynold numbers responded
to variable of velocity of air from 0 m/s to 20 m/s is below critical Reynold numbers,
Recr which is 5 × 105 . Thus in this experiment where the air velocity moves through

13
 the drag models is in laminar, as the Reynold numbers is lower that Recr which means
there is no transition flow or turbulent flow happen during the experiment. Since the
fluid flow is in laminar, most of the drag force in this experiment is due to friction drag.

4.2 DISCUSSION (KHAIRUNNISA BINTI SHARIPUDDIN/2020818978)

In this experiment, we were measured the drag coefficient, CD on rigid rod, body base
surface facing upstream and downstream at velocity 0 m/s to 20 m/s. The experiment
has been started by placing and locked a rigid rod on a balance arm in order to calculate
the drag force, FD that exerted on it followed by body base surface upstream and
downstream.

From the data obtained, we were calculated the Net Drag Coefficient, CD by using
formula (Drag coefficient of Body base surface facing upstream) – (Drag coefficient of
Body base surface facing downstream). By observing the tabulated data table, the
highest Net Drag Coefficient is 1.317 N where it’s Drag Coefficient Upstream is 2.57
N and Drag Coefficient Downstream is 1.253 N at velocity 16 m/s with Reynolds
Number 47548.35. The lowest Net Drag Coefficient is 0.747 N where it’s Drag
Coefficient Upstream is 2.44 N and Drag Coefficient Downstream is 1.693 N at
velocity 8m/s with Reynolds Number 23774.18.

Next, the percentage error for body base surface upstream is 22% and 12.87% for the
downstream. The differences between the experimental and theoretical data are due to
the some errors during the experiments. To avoid that errors, there are some precautions
that can be take such as repeating the experimental reading 2-3 times and take the
average value of data to get an accurate data. Besides that, ensure that eyes are
perpendicular to the scale reading during the experiment to avoid parallax error. Next,
make sure the holes under the placing of rigid rod are being closed with the piece of
boxes properly to get the accurate reading of drag force. Other than that, ensure that the
wind tunnel is closed properly to ensure the drag force reading are accurate.

4.3 DISCUSSION (MOHAMAD JAZLI NAJIY B MOHMAD

NASIR/2020601962)

14
 The purpose of this experiment was to measure the drag coefficient, CD, of an
air flow over a range of velocities on a body of the base surface of a prism facing
upstream and downstream. The experiment was carried out in a controlled environment,
namely the wind tunnel, in order to measure the drag force produced by changing the
velocities. The velocities used in this experiment range from 8 m/s to 20 m/s with a 2
m/s increment. The drag force was then measured with the prism facing upstream first
until it reached 20 m/s, then with the prism facing downstream.

From the data obtained, the value for each drag coefficient, CD on upstream
reading is clearly higher than all the value for the drag coefficient, CD on downstream
reading. The net drag coefficient can be calculated by subtracting the drag coefficient
on upstream with the downstream drag coefficient. On 10 m/s, 12 m/s and 14 m/s, it
can be seen that the net drag coefficient value is decreasing and increasing again little
different. The Reynold’s number can be calculated using the velocity given, the higher
the velocity, the bigger the Reynold’s number obtain.

The drag coefficient, CD, for both upstream and downstream facing is plotted
in the drag coefficient, CD against the velocity, V graph obtained. The upstream plotted
line shows that starting at 8 m/s, the drag coefficient value begins to decrease lightly,
and starting at 12 m/s, the drag coefficient value begins to increase again in smooth
manners until the end of the line. For the downstream plotted line, the drag coefficient
value increased rapidly at 0 m/s and then begins to decrease until 12 m/s, when it begins
to rise again and then decreases again until 14 m/s, when it begins to rise again and then
decreases again until the end of the plot.

The plotted data in the drag coefficient, CD versus Reynold's number graph
appears to follow the same pattern as the drag coefficient, CD versus velocity, V graph.
The difference between the two graphs is that the starting point for both upstream and
downstream in the drag coefficient, CD versus Reynold's number graph is not zero, and
the value for Reynold's number for both upstream and downstream is the same
throughout the experiment. According to the data, the Reynold's number rises as the
velocity rises.

15
 The application that uses drag force over a flow body is from aeroplanes, where
the designer should know how to design the aeroplane wing to be streamlined and
aerodynamic so that it can help to reduce the drag force acting on the wings. Another
example is the body shape of a sports car; the shape of the car body should be
streamlined and have an aerodynamic element to it so that it can help with the
performance efficiency of the car.

5.0 CONCLUSION

5.1 CONCLUSION (ISFAHAN B JULIAH/2020459442)

Based on this experiment, we could conclude that this experiment is done in order to
study the relationship between the shape and size of the object and the flow over the
body of the object. Furthermore, we can understand as the shape and size of the object
is bulky and unsharpened, this would cause increased in the drag coefficient of the
object. Whereas a body of an object that is closed to or having a streamlined shaped
results in lower coefficient of drag. In this experiment, there might be certain errors that
could be reduce which are parallax error due to the orientation of the reader’s eye not
parallel to the reading scale when taking the reading. Next, the calibration of the
measurement such as inclined manometer and sliding weight must be adjusted or
calibrated to zero scale as this machinery is prone to vibration. Moreover, adjust the
drag models inside of the wind tunnel section to a 90° as there is need to balance this
drag models to not disrupt the reading of drag coefficient during the experiment. Some
examples of this experiment would be the implementation of streamlined shape on the
body of aeroplane which results in lower drag coefficient to make the airplane to have
higher efficiency of fuel consumption. Furthermore, the application of firearms where
the shape of the bullet effect the travel distance by the bullet. Streamlined bullet can
travel more distance than bulky and unsharpened bullets due to lower drag coefficient.

5.2 CONCLUSION (KHAIRUNNISA BINTI SHARIPUDDIN/2020818978)

16
 In conclusion, the objective of determining the drag coefficient and differences between
experimental and published data were considered successful. This experiment is
important in order to measure the effectiveness of a streamline aerodynamic body shape
such as rigid rod, body base surface upstream and downstream in this experiment in
reducing the air resistance to the forward motion of the system. Drag coefficient is
caused by the layers of air that separate away from the surface and begin to swirl.

5.3 CONCLUSION (MOHAMAD JAZLI NAJIY B MOHMAD

NASIR/2020601962)

In conclusion, this experiment demonstrated how to calculate the drag coefficient by

measuring the drag force on the body of a prism (facing upstream and downstream)
over a range of velocities. The experiment's objectives, which are to measure the drag
coefficient, CD, of a bluff body over a range of velocities and compare the experimental
data with published data, were met. The objectives are met, and the students understand
that as the velocity increased, the drag coefficient, CD, increased rapidly at first, then
slowly and steadily.

17
6.0 REFERENCES
[1] U.S. Department of Energy, THERMODYNAMICS, HEAT TRANSFER, AND
FLUID FLOW. DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Volume 1, 2 and 3. June 1992.
[2] White Frank M., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Education, 7th edition, February,
2010, ISBN: 978-0077422417
[3] Eiffel, Gustave (1913). The Resistance of The Air and Aviation. London: Constable
&Co Ltd.
[4] Kleinstreuer C. Modern Fluid Dynamics. Springer, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4020-8670-
0.
[5] G. Falkovich (2011). Fluid Mechanics (A short course for physicists). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00575-4.

18
 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI
MARA 40450 SHAH ALAM
SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN
Tel: 03-55435190 Fax: 03-55435160

REPORT ASSESSMENT FORM

Experiment’s Title:
_
DRAG FORCE IN FLOW OVER A BODY
Prepared by: GROUP 2

Bil Name Matrix No Signature

1 ISFAHAN BIN JULIAH 2020459442
2 KHAIRUNNISA BINTI SHARIPUDDIN 2020818978
3 MOHAMAD JAZLI NAJIY BIN MOHMAD 2020601962
NASIR

Course Outcome Full Mark Assessment Given Mark

No Technical Report
Full Mark Given Mark
1 Introduction CO2 10
Experimental
2 C02 10
Procedures
Data/result/sample of
3 CO2 20
calculation
Discussion and
4 CO2 20
Conclusion
TOTAL 60 /60
Course Outcome Full Mark Assessment Given Mark
No Writing Performance
Full Mark Given Mark
1 Structure CO3 5
2 Graphics/Figures/Tables C03 5
3 Mechanics CO3 5
Formatting and
4 CO3 5
references
TOTAL 20 /20
TOTAL MARKS 80 /80