IB SL MATHS SUMMARY NOTES

LOGS AND EXPONENTIALS

INDEX NOTATION

34
Exponent/ power/ index

Base

INDEX LAWS

FRACTIONAL INDICES
1
𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎
𝑚 1 𝑚 𝑚
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = (𝑎 )
𝑛 = ( √𝑎 )

EXPANSION AND FACTORISATION

- a(b+c) = ab + ac
- (a+b)(c+d) = ac+ad+bc+bd
- (a+b)(a-b) = a2-b2
- (a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b
- (a-b)2 = a2-2ab+b2
EXPONENTIAL GRAPHS

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH FUNCTION 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎− 𝑥 EXPONENTIAL DECAY FUNCTION

1 1
Graph passes through (−1, ) and (1, 𝑎) Graph passes through (1, ) and (−1, 𝑎)
𝑎 𝑎
Graph passes through (0,1)
• Domain is all real x
• Range is all real positive numbers
• Y intercept is 1
• No x intercepts

BASE e

Base e = irrational number (2.718 …)

LOGARITHMS

𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑥 then loga b = x
e.g. 8 = 23 then log28 = 3

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

Rule i.e.
Logaa = 1 𝑎1 = 𝑎
Loga1 = 0 𝑎0 = 1
Loga𝑎𝑛 = n 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛

WHEN ARE LOGS UNDEFINED?

Logab if b is negative
Loga0
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥
𝑦=𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔a𝑥

Properties of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔a𝑥
• Domain: all positive real numbers
• Range: all real numbers
• X intercept 1

LOG BASE 10 AND NATURAL LOGS

Log to the base 10 Log10x = logx

Log to the base e (natural logs) Logex = lnx

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

a logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function

If 𝑓(𝑥) = ⅇ 𝑥 then 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔ex

Loga𝑎 𝑥 = alogax = x
Lnex = elnx = x

Log of an exponential/ exponential of a log = x

LOG LAWS

**must learn by <3

Log x + log y = logxy

𝑥
Log x – log y = log
𝑦
Logxn = nlogx
CHANGE OF BASE

SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

- Take the ‘log’ of both sides

SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

1. Ensure that both side of the equation are logarithms with the same base and the equating
the argument (the expression inside the bracket) i.e. “cancelling” the logs
Or
2. By using an exponent

** For both of these methods you must check that the solution/ solutions are possible.
You cannot have the log of a negative number
Sub your solution back into what was in the brackets of the log and then check the result is
positive
 FUNCTIONS

TRANSFORMATIONS

• Reflection: every point of the image is the same distance from the mirror line
• Rotation: image rotated around a point
• Translation: moves every point of the image a fixed distance in the same direction
𝑥
(𝑦) x = horizontal y = vertical
• Enlargement: increases or decreases the size of an object by a scale factor (produces a
similar figure)

WHAT ARE FUNCTIONS?

Function: a mathematical relation where each x-value has exactly one y-value

• (-2,1), (-1,1) = function (same y values, fine)

• (3,8), (3,9) = not a function (same x values, not fine)

➔ Test with the vertical line test (if passes through twice, more than one y value for each x,
therefore not a function)

ASYMPTOTES

Asymptote: a line that a graph approaches but does not intersect

Set notation:

Domain: set of all the x values of the ordered pairs

Range: set of all the y values of the ordered pairs

FUNCTIONS

f(x) Basic function: function of ‘f’ at x

F(g(x))) / (f o g)(x) Composite function: f of g of x
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) Inverse function: reverses the action of f
A reflection of that function in the line y=x

➔ Test using horizontal line test (2 = not)

FINDING INVERSE FUNCTION ALGEBRAICALLY

1. Replace f(x) with y

2. Swap the x and y
3. Make y the subject
4. Replace y with 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

TRANSFORMATIONS

RELECTIONS

−𝑓(𝑥) Reflects in x axis

𝑓(−𝑥) Reflects in y axis

STRETCHES

𝑓(𝑞𝑥) Stretches/ compresses horizontally

1
scale factor 𝑞
𝑝𝑓(𝑥) Stretches/ compresses vertically
Scale factor 𝑝

TRANSLATIONS

𝑓(𝑥 + 1) Horizontal translation

𝑓(𝑥) + 1 Vertical translation

Outside = x/ horizontal
Inside = y/ vertical

𝑏 𝑏+𝑝
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫𝑎+𝑝 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑝)
 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

FACTORISATION

Null factor law: if (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) = 0, then if (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 0 or (𝑥 − 𝑏) = 0,

Cross method

COMPLETING THE SQUARE

1. Halve “ab”
2. Square ^
3. Add and subtract (ab/2)^2
4. Factorise
5. Square root both sides

QUADRATIC FORMULA (in the formula booklet)

THE DISCRIMINANT

The discriminant: gives information about the roots of the equation

𝛥̇ = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛥>0 2 distinct (different) real roots

𝛥=0 2 equal roots (or double root)

𝛥<0 No real roots

𝛥 is a square 2 rational roots

DIFFERENT FORMS OF QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Form Information When to use

STANDARD FORM 𝑦 intercept → c Don’t know vertex

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦-axis → (0, 𝑐) or intercepts → sub
−𝑏 values into standard
Axis of symmetry → 𝑥 = 2𝑎
form (simultaneous
equations)

TURNING POINT FORM Vertex → (h, k) Know vertex

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 Axis of symmetry → x=h

FACTORISED FORM 𝑥 intercepts (roots) → (p, 0) and (q, 0) Know x and y

𝑝+𝑞
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑝)(𝑥 − 𝑞) Axis of symmetry → 𝑥 = 2 intercepts
RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS
𝑘
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where k is a constant

• Hyperbola
• Undefined when x = 0
• Asymptotes: x -axis and y-axis

TRANSFORMATIONS
𝑘 K stretches the hyperbola (low value = more
𝑥 dip)
−𝑘 Reflection in the x axis
𝑥
𝑘 Reflection in y axis
−𝑥
𝑘 Vertical translation
+1
𝑥
𝑘 Horizontal translation
𝑥+1

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = when g(x) and h(x) are linear functions
ℎ(𝑥)

FORMS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Form Vertical asymptote Horizontal asymptote

𝑘 When denom = 0 𝑦=0
𝑦=
𝑥−𝑏

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
𝑦= 𝑦=
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑐
 LIMITS
Limit: the fixed value that terms in a sequence approach as the term number increases
(converge upon)
Convergent when -1 < r < 1 **note: when
solving algebraically,
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 continue to write the
lim until you have
𝑥→𝑐
subbed in the c value
• 𝑥 → 𝑐 : as the value of x approaches c (from either direction)
• 𝑓(𝑥) : the function becomes closer to a fixed value L

The limit does not exist when the function doesn’t approach a fixed value
TERMINOLOGY

THE SECANT LINE

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖ⅇ𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ⅇ𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛ⅇ =
ℎ
e.g. y = x2 + 1 → sub (x2 + 1) into x
**Use gradient of secant line to find
((𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 1) − (𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑚= Average rate of change
ℎ
(or just change / time)

THE TANGENT LINE

The gradient of a curve = gradient of the tangent line to the curve at that point
*lines have a constant gradient, curves do not
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖ⅇ𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔ⅇ𝑛𝑡 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

This gives you the derivative! (which you can just find the normal way instead)
 DERIVATIVES
Derivative: the gradient of the function f at any value of x

• 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑦′

RULES

• 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

• 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓ⅇ𝑟ⅇ𝑛𝑐ⅇ: 𝑑ⅇ𝑟𝑖𝑣ⅇ ⅇ𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ⅇ𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

EQUATIONS OF NORMALS AND TANGENTS

Tangent line:
1. Find derivative of f(x)
2. Sub in x value to find MT
3. Sub this into y1 – y = m(x – x1)
Normal line
1. Find MT
2. MN = negative reciprocal of MT
3. Sub into y1 – y = m(x – x1)

DERIVATIVES OF ex and lnx (in formula book)

Original Derivative
ⅇ𝑥 ⅇ𝑥
𝑙𝑛𝑥 1
𝑥

THE PRODUCT RULE

𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 → 𝑦 ′ = 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑣′𝑢

THE QUOTIENT RULE

𝑛𝑢𝑚ⅇ𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 ′ × 𝑑ⅇ𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝑑ⅇ𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 ′ × 𝑛𝑢𝑚ⅇ𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
(𝑑ⅇ𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)2
THE CHAIN RULE
1. Move power out the front
2. Subtract 1 from the power
3. Multiply by the derivative of inside the bracket
e.g. (2𝑥 + 3)4 → 4(2𝑥 + 3)3 × 2

THE CHAIN RULE WITH LN AND e

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑦 = ⅇ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑦′ = 𝑦 ′ = ⅇ 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = ln ( )
𝑔(𝑥)
𝑦 = ln(𝑛𝑢𝑚ⅇ𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟) − ln (𝑑ⅇ𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)
TRIG DERIVATES
sin′ (𝑥) = cos𝑥
cos′ (𝑥) = −sin (𝑥)
DERIVATIVE OF ANY LOG
𝑑 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑙𝑛𝑏)𝑥
𝑑𝑥

You can show this is true by rewriting it using the change of base law
HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

Words Notation Uses

First derivative 𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 • Gradient of tangent line
𝑑𝑥 • Instantaneous velocity
• 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) → velocity function
• Graph intervals (increasing or
decreasing)
• Relative extrema
Second 𝑓′′(𝑥) 2
𝑑 𝑦 • 𝑠 ′′ 𝑡(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑎(𝑡)
derivative 𝑑𝑥 2
Third 𝑓′′′(𝑥) 𝑑3𝑦
derivative 𝑑𝑥 3

MOTION IN A LINE: DISPLACEMENT

𝒔(𝒕) > 𝟎 : right/ above origin
- Has no direction
- Distance from origin 𝒔(𝒕) < 𝟎: left/ below origin
- Displacement function s(t)

VELOCITY:
𝒗(𝒕) > 𝟎 : move right/ upwards
𝒗(𝒕) < 𝟎: move left/downwards
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝟎: at rest

ACCELERATION:
𝑠 ′′ (𝑡) = 𝑎(𝑡)

𝒂(𝒕) > 𝟎 : velocity increasing

𝒂(𝒕) < 𝟎: velocity decreasing
𝒂(𝒕) = 𝟎: velocity is constant
SPEED:
𝑠𝑝ⅇⅇ𝑑 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡ⅇ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢ⅇ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣ⅇ𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑠𝑎𝑚ⅇ 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 (𝑣ⅇ𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑐ⅇ𝑙ⅇ𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 𝑠𝑝ⅇⅇ𝑑𝑠 𝑢𝑝

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 (𝑣ⅇ𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑐ⅇ𝑙ⅇ𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

INCREASING/ DECREASING FUNCTION

1. find f’(x)
2. Let f’(x) = 0
𝒇′(𝒙) > 𝟎 : f increasing
3. Values for x where f’(x) = 0 𝒇′(𝒙) < 𝟎: f decreasing
Are stationary points
4. Use sign diagram/ table 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟎: stationary point at x

RELATIVE EXTREMA

Relative max: + → - (increasing to decreasing)

Relative min - → + (decreasing to increasing)

**note: there may be a stationary point where f doesn’t change from sign ≠ relative
extremum

CONCAVITY
Point of inflexion:
1. F’’(x) = 0
2. F’’(x) changes sign → if it doesn’t change sign, it is called a horizontal point of
inflexion

𝒇′′(𝒙) > 𝟎 : concave up (+)

𝒇′′(𝒙) < 𝟎: concave down (-)
𝒇′′(𝒙) = 𝟎: point of inflexion
OPTIMISATION PROBLEMS
1. assign variables and draw a sketch
2. Write an equation to be optimised
3. Let f’(x)=0 → find the stationary points
4. Verify whether these are max or min using the second derivative test
5. Use the appropriate value to find the max or min

*Note: the max of min may occur at the endpoint of the domain
 INTEGRATION

How to integrate:

1. Add 1 to the power

2. Divide by the new power
3. + C

Rules: General solution

• Bring constants out the front of the integration sign

• Integral of constant is constant + C
• ∫ (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

For ln and e

𝒍𝒏 𝒆
1 ∫ ⅇ 𝑑𝑥 = ⅇ 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
1 1 1 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐥𝐧(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶 ∫ ⅇ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = ⅇ +𝐶
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎

Aka: ln(denominator), divide by a, + C Aka: keep e to power, divide by a, +C

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
∫ = 𝑙𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)] + 𝐶
𝑓(𝑥)

Power rule:
1 1
∫ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = ( (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛+1 ) + 𝐶
𝑎 𝑛+1
Aka: normal integration on brackets, divide by a

SUBSTIUTION: when you are integrating functions w/ × or ÷

1. Define part of function as pronumeral. Let u be:

o The most complex
o In brackets (only what’s inside the brackets, not the power)
o Highest power of x
2. Differentiate 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
3. Rearrange 𝑑𝑥 so that you have a value which you can sub into the equation
4. Optional: Separate the equation
5. Substitute values into the original function
6. Sub u’s value back in

If you use this, with definite integrals, you must adjust the domain by subbing the values in the
equation for 𝑢
DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Formula explanation
𝑏 Type into calc to evaluate
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 to 𝑎 is the opposite sign of 𝑎 to 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

VERTICAL TRANSLATIONS

• Think of the rectangle that will be added/ subtracted below x axis

• Rewrite, separate f(k) and k

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

𝑏

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

𝑎

AREA UNDER A CURVE

𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

• Take the absolute value:

o Check that 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) > 0
o If not, taking the absolute value requires you to multiply through with a negative

AREA BETWEEN 2 CURVES

𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥  where 𝑦1 is the one on the top

*can only be used when the function is continuous within the domain (no asymptotes)

If the curves cross over:

1. Find the intersection b/w the curves

2. Find the value for the start and end of the area contained (use as domain)
3. Calculate each area separately
4. Sum

*if you get the curves the wrong way around (say that the wrong one is on the top), then you will get
a negative value → fix by taking the absolute value

VOLUME OF A REVOLUTION
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

^ 𝜋 × integral of the (function2 )

 • If it is a full rotation, use 2𝜋
4
• Check answer w/ the volume of a sphere formula 3 𝜋𝑟 2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS WITH DISPLACEMENT & DISTANCE

𝑡2
Displacement (this is not total [𝑠]𝑡𝑡21
distance) ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
Distance 𝑡2 Need to split up into + and –
∫ |𝑣(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡 directions and then take the
𝑡1
absolute value of the -
directions

1. Find the velocity (to know whether it is moving left/ right)

2. Draw a motion diagram
3. Use definite integral (of whole domain) to find displacement
4. Use absolute values of definite integrals to find total distance travelled
 CALCULUS WITH TRIG FUNCTIONS

DERIVATIVES OF SIN, COS, AND TAN

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 1
Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = trig function (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (trig function′ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)) × derivative of ( )

Product rule 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥) × 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑣(𝑥) × 𝑢′ (𝑥) + 𝑢(𝑥) × 𝑣′

Quotient Rule 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥) × 𝑢′ (𝑥) − 𝑢(𝑥) × 𝑣′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑣(𝑥) [𝑣(𝑥)]2

Log Functions 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥)

INTEGRATION OF TRIG FUNCTIONS

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶 ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎 𝑎
 CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

EXACT VALUES

• (0,1)
• Tan is undefined because 1/0
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0
THE UNIT CIRCLE • 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1

• Anticlockwise +𝜃
• Clockwise -𝜃
• Sin𝜽= y-coordinate
• cos𝜽= x-coordinate
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
• tan𝜽 = • (-1,0) • (1,0)
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −1 • 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 • 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

In which quadrants is each ratio positive?

• (0, -1)
• Tan is undefined because -1/0
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −1

TRIG IDENTITIES (in data booklet)

• 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 **note: often rearrange for 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

*note: you can’t cancel 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 across the = of an equation because you will lose a solution
TRIG CURVES
Amplitude: height of the curve above the horizontal axis

sine curve
• Amplitude: 1
• Period: 2𝜋

Cosine curve
• Amplitude: 1
• Period: 2𝜋

Simply a horizontal
translation of the sine
curve

Tan curve
• Period: 𝜋
• Vertical
asymptotes at:
𝜋 3𝜋
, …
2 2

Finding 𝜃 graphically → plot another equation w/ desired value and find intersection(s)
 TRIG FUNCTION TRANSFORMATIONS

𝑦 = 𝒂 sin(𝒃(𝑥 − 𝒄)) + 𝒅

Translations

Vertical 𝑦 = sin(𝑥) + 𝒅
Positive d = up
Negative d = down
Horizontal 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 − 𝒄)
Positive c = to the left
Negative c = to the right

Stretches

Vertical 𝑦 = 𝐚sin(𝑥)
Amplitude = |𝒂|
−𝒂 = reflected over x-axis
Horizontal 𝑦 = sin(𝒃𝑥)
𝒃 repeats of the curve in the original period
2𝜋
Period (sin/cos) = 𝑏
𝜋
Period (tan) = 𝑏
−𝒃 = reflected over y-axis

MODELING WITH SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS

Amplitude max − min

2
Vertical translation Average of max and min
max + min
2
Period Difference b/w 2 max points
Horizontal translation Look for max point

Write a function that models the data

Or enter the data points into 2 VAR STAT → Fit

 TRIGONOMETRY
THE COSINE RULE

Finding a side → 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

𝑏 2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2
Finding an angle → 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑐

AREA OF A TRIANGLE
𝐴 = 0.5𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
RADIANS
Circumference = 2𝜋𝑟 or 2𝜋 radians (c)
2𝜋 = 360°
𝜋 𝑐 = 180°

DEGREE-RADIAN CONVERSIONS
𝜋
Degrees → Radians = x
180
180
Radians → Degrees = x
𝜋

ARC LENGTH
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙ⅇ𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑟𝜃 (𝑡ℎⅇ𝑡𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔)
AREA OF A SECTOR
𝜃𝑟 2
𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ⅇ𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (𝑡ℎⅇ𝑡𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔)
2
OBTUSE ANGLES

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = − cos(180° − 𝜃)
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = sin(180° − 𝜃)
EXACT VALUES

• 30 = in radians (pi/6)
• 45 = in radians (pi/4)
• 60 = in radians (pi/3)

THE UNIT CIRCLE

- Measure angles anticlockwise from the origin
- Centre: at origin
- Radius: 1 unit

Finding point P on a unit circle

Cosθ = x coordinate of P
Sinθ = y coordinate of P
Properties
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

THE SINE RULE

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
AMBIGUOUS TRIANGLES

• Two known sides + non-included angle = angle can be obtuse or acute

1. Find acute angle

2. Find obtuse angle
3. Check
a. Is the angle sum 180 degrees?
b. Is the longest side opposite the largest angle?
 SEQUENCES AND SERIES
Sequence example: 1,3,4,5,7,9

U1 (first term) = 1

U2 (second term) = 3

TYPES OF FORMULAE

Recursive formula: based on the previous term (previous term → term)

e.g. Un+1 = Un + 6
General formula: based on the term number (term number → term)

e.g. Un = 5n

TYPES OF SEQUENCES and FORMULAE

Arithmetic sequence: each successive term is created by adding a common difference (d)

* formula book

Geometric sequence: each term obtained by multiplying the previous value by a common ratio (r)

* formula book

𝑢2
𝑟=
𝑢1
** learn by heart

USING YOUR CALCULATOR

1. Function
2. Plot equation
3. Numeric view
4. Number setup → Num start: 1 (n)

SIGMA NOTATION
EQUATIING THE DIFFERENCE: ARITHMETIC

d = U2 – U1
U2 - U1 = U3 - U2
e.g. find k given that 3k+1, k, and -3 are consecutive terms in an arithmetic sequence
k – (3k + 1) = - 3 – k
k – 3k – 1 = - 3 – k
-1 + 3 = - k + 2k
k =2
EQUATING THE DIFFERENCE: GEOMETRIC
𝑢2 𝑢3
=
𝑢1 𝑢2
SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SERIES

Formula 1 Formula 2
𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑢 + 𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑢1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2 1 2

SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SERIES

When r > 1 When r < 1

𝑢1 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1) 𝑢1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1 1−𝑟

CONVERGENT SERIES (FINITE)

When -1 < r < 1

Find a term Sum
Use formula geometric formula 𝑢1
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1

CALCULATING COMPOUND INTEREST

1. Compound interest formula

(amount of money) x (interest)number of periods

 BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

CORRELATION

• Direction
• Strength
• Linearity
• Outliers
• Causation

LINE OF BEST FIT/ REGRESSION LINE

1. Calculate the mean point (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅)

2. Draw a mean point with a balanced number of points on each size

EXTRAPOLATION & INTERPOLATION

LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION LINE

Residual: vertical distance between a data point and the graph of the regression line

The least squares regression line: the line which makes the sum of the squares of the residuals as
small as possible

** use GDC

• 2 Variable Statistics
• C1 C2 Linear (symbolic view)
• Plot (if cannot see line of best fit: Menu, fit)
MEASURING CORRELATION

Very weak: 0 – 0.25

Weak: 0.26 – 0.5

Moderate: 0.51 – 0.75

Strong: 0.76 – 1

** use GDC

• 2 variable statistics
• Stats: r
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

STATISTICAL GRAPHS

• Bar charts
• Pie charts
• Pictograms
• Line graphs
• Stem and leaf diagrams

TYPES OF DATA

discrete data: only specific values

continuous data: any value

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Mean: average

• Population mean 𝜇

∑𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝜇=
∑𝑓𝑖
𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = score/class centre * frequency
• Sample mean 𝑥̅

Mode: data value that occurs most often

𝑛+1 th
Median: middle score ( )
2
13+1
( 2
) = 7 (median = 7th ordered data value)
14+1
( 2
) = 7.5 (median = average of 7th and 8th ordered data values)
1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4  for 𝑥

1. Find range/2
2. Add rang/2 to lower value

BENEFITS OF DIFFERENT MEASURES OF CENTRE

Mean = non-resistant (affected by extreme values)

Median = resistant (unaffected by extreme values)

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Range = highest – lowest score

Five number summary

- Minimum
𝑛+1
- Q1 ( 4
)
- Median (Qs)
- Q3
- maximum

IQR: shows how spread out the middle 50% of data is (Q3 – Q1)

OUTLIERS

1.5 x IQR below Q1 or above Q3

INTERPRETING A BOX PLOT

Skew = direction of longest line/ where the small boxes are

DRAWING A CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPH

Height 150 ≤ ℎ ≤ 155 155 ≤ ℎ ≤ 160 160 ≤ ℎ ≤ 165

Frequency 4 22 56
Cumulative Frequency 4 26 82
(add preceding frequencies to
current freq)

*note whether it is 𝑥 ≤ 155 or 𝑥 < 155 and adjust scale accordingly (i.e. make upper value 149.9)

USING THE GDC (FREQUENCY TABLES + STATS)

• 1 Var Statistics
• Enter 𝑥𝑖 in D1
• Enter 𝑓𝑖 in D2
• Go to symb view → select D2 as frequency column
• Use stats as normal

STANDARD DEVIATION

• 𝜎
• Non-resistant

**only expected to do with technology

 PROBABILITY

EXPERIMENTAL PROBABILITY

Relative Frequency/ Experimental Probability = frequency of an outcome

Total number of trials

INTERESECTION OF EVENTS

∩ = intersection

∪ = union

FORMULA BOOKLET FORMULAE

SAMPLE SPACE DIAGRAMS

• List
• Tables and grids
• Probability trees

TESTS FOR INDEPENDENT EVENTS

P(AIB) = P(A)

P(BIA) = P(B)

P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B)

 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

INTERPRETING COMBINATION NOTATION

Interpreting combinations on
nCr = Reference to Pascal’s triangle
calc.
• n = row number
1. tool box
• r = how many across (1st number is 0) 2. probability
𝑛 3. combination
Can also be written as 𝐶𝑟𝑛 or ( )
𝑟 4. Type (n,r)
FINDING COMBINATIONS
Typing factorials (!) on calc.
𝑛 𝑛!
( )= 1. tool box
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 2. probability
APPLYING COMBINATIONS 3. factorial

nCr = number of ‘combinations’

• n = no of choices/ possible n number of objects

• r = objects are chosen
**in combinations: order is not important (AB = BA)
BINOMIAL THEOREM Patterns
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 ( )=1
0
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟 𝑛
( )=𝑛
𝑟=0 1

• a = first term
• b = second term
• n = power Symmetry
• r = increasing from 0 until it = n
4 4
( )=( )
e.g. (2a – 5)4 0 4

When using binomial theorem to expand expressions with a negative: every second term is
subtracted rather than added (because it is do a neg power and therefore the neg remains)
1 1 1 1
e.g. (ⅇ − 4)4 = +ⅇ 4 − 4ⅇ 3 × 𝑒 + 6ⅇ 2 × 𝑒 2 − 4ⅇ × 𝑒 3

even terms: to the power of 0 and power of 2 = +

odd terms: to the power of 1 and power of 3 = −
TERMS OF A BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Sometimes we are asked to only find one particular term = don’t need whole expansion
1. find the constant term

• write the general term for the binomial expansion

• find the r value required for x0
• sub this r value into all parts of equation w/o an x

2. find the x3 term of (4x – 1)9

𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
• sub into formula ( )𝑎 𝑏
𝑟
• what does r need to be such that n-r = power of the term (in this case, 3)
in the case where there is an 𝑥 term out the front of the brackets, simply
include this 𝑥 term into your ‘𝑥 equation’
• sub r value into formula
• write full term including coefficient and x

3. Finding n (know the coefficient) In the expansion of (2x+1)n, the coefficient of the
term x3 is 80. Find the value of n.

𝑛
• sub into formula ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 **ignore br (because of symmetry)
𝑟
𝑛
• n-r = r e.g. ( ) (2𝑥)3 = 80x3
3
𝑛
• solve the equation for ( )
𝑟

𝑛
a. sub ( ) into the binomial coefficient
𝑟
plot on calculator and find intersection

b. or draw Pascal’s triangle

𝑛
what does n have to equal such that ( ) = 10?
3
5
10 = ( )
3
4. Finding the general term
• Write general expression, subbing in n and leaving r
• Simplify for xn-r
• Solve r for when n-r = 0
• Sub r value into equation (ignoring anything that has an x)
5. Finding the coefficient of a specific term
• Figure out term number required to get x and y raised to desired powers
• Find (n,r)
• Coefficient = (n, r) X any other coefficients in the equation e.g. (6x)3

6. Working when there are two brackets

1. Transform (2x+3)(x-2)6 → 2x(x-2)6 + 3(x-2)6

2. Decide what value of x you are trying to find within each of the separate
brackets (given that it may be multiplied by an x outside the brackets)
e.g. find the x3 term
2x(x-2)6
➔ There is an x outside the brackets and therefore, we actually need to
find the x2 term in the brackets
2𝑥(𝑥 2 term) + 3(𝑥 3 term)
3. Ignore the coefficients of the brackets briefly, and work out r (using the
term value you worked out before) for both brackets
4. Sub both r values back into their respective brackets = gives you the x
term that you want
5. Add together
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS OF DISCRETE VARIABLES
Example: H = no. of heads obtained when 2 coins are tossed. Tabulate the prob. Distribution
of H

X 0 1 2
P(H=x) ¼ ½ ¼

Sum of all the probabilities will always add up to 1

EXPECTATION
Expected value = mean 2. GDC METHOD
1. Manual method – finding the mean • Statistics 2Var
Multiply x score by P(X=x) score and add all of • Enter
these together X values → C1
Probability→C2
• STATS
• Look at 𝛴𝑋𝑌

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

• Only two possible outcomes Or use graphing calculator…

• 𝑋~𝑁(𝑛, 𝑝)
n = no. of trials • Toolbox
p = probability of success BINOMIAL (n, k, p)

BINOMIAL_CDF (n, p, k)
• And probability of success is
BINOMIAL_ICDF (n, p, q)
𝑛
( ) 𝑝𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟
𝑟 (k is the same as r = no. of
successes) **
 manually sub values into the equation

EXPECTATION FOR BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTIONS

𝐸 (𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝 when 𝑋~𝐵(𝑛, 𝑝)

VARIANCE OF BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTIONS

√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐ⅇ = 𝜎
𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝𝑞 when 𝑋~𝐵 (𝑛, 𝑝)
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

• symmetrical about the mean

• mean, mode and median are equal

𝑋~𝑁(𝜇, 𝜎 2 )
** where 𝜎 2 is the variance
Using the graphing
calculator
AREA UNDER A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE NORMAL_CDF (𝜇, 𝜎. 𝑍)
• area under curve =1
• partial areas = probabilities
• continuous date therefore (≤ = <)

STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

𝜇 = 0 and 𝜎 = 1

𝑍~𝑁(0,1)
**where z = no of standard deviations away from the mean

STANDARDISING NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Transforming 𝑋~𝑁(𝜇, 𝜎 2 ) → 𝑍~𝑁(0,1)

𝑥−𝜇
𝑧=
𝜎

INVERSE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Used when finding the value in the data which has a given cumulative probability
Standardised Distribution = NORMAL_ICDF (cumulative probability)
Non-standardised Distribution = NORMAL_ICDF (𝝁, 𝝈, cumulative probability)

FIND THE MEAN OR THE STANDARD DEVIATION

1. standardise the data (find the z score)
2. use the Inverse Normal Function
 VECTORS

Vector: quantity that has both magnitude and direction

Magnitude
(length) Direction
scalar

vector

Equal vectors: same magnitude and direction

Geometric Negative Vectors: same length, opposite direction

Column Vector Form Base/Unit Vector Form

𝒙 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌
(𝒚)
𝒛

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Position vector = 𝑂𝑋

MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR: like Pythagoras

Magnitude = absolute value of vector (no direction)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (𝑎) = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

|𝐴𝐵
𝑏
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (𝑏) = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
|𝐴𝐵
𝑐

FORMULAS

Relative Vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴

Scalar Product of Two Vectors 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 = 𝑣1 𝑤1 + 𝑣2 𝑤2 + 𝑣3 𝑤3

Algebraic Properties of the scalar product 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑣 = |𝑣|2

𝑣 ⋅ (𝑤 + 𝑥) = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 + 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑥
Angle

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (acute) = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 > 0

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (obtuse) = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 < 0
PARALLELISM

When one vector is a scalar multiple of the other (not zero vectors)
4
e.g. (10 ) = 2(25)  parallel vectors

If vectors are parallel 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 = ±|𝑣||𝑤|

𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are parallel if 𝑏1 = 𝑘𝑏2 1. If 𝑝‖𝑞 then p = kq where 𝑘 ≠ 0
𝑡 3
( ) = 𝑘( )
𝑡+2 4
𝑡
Let 𝒑 = (𝑡+2 ) and let 𝒒 = (34) Write vectors as column vectors
Find t given that p and q are parallel 2. Write 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 for x and y as separate
equations
𝑡 = 3𝑘 and 𝑡 + 2 = 4𝑘
a. Find 𝑘 and sub into other equation
b. Equate both to 𝑘 and then equate both
to one another

PERPENDICULAR

If vectors are perpendicular 𝑣⋅𝑤 =0

i.e.𝑏1 ⋅ 𝑏2 = 0
Show vectors are mutually perpendicular Each one is perpendicular to all the others
Show that:
𝑎⋅𝑏 =0
𝑏⋅𝑐 =0
𝑎⋅𝑐 =0
Check if triangle ABC is right angled Check one v.w
Only need to find one pair of perpendicular
vectors because a triangle cannot have more
than one right angle
Find the form of all vectors which are 1. Swap x and y of the column
𝑥 2. Do +/- of bottom based on working out
perpendicular to a given vector (𝑦)
v.w. for the top row
3. If it is a 3D vector, let one of the terms
= 0 and then swap the others as normal
4. Put 𝑘 out the front (because all scalar
multiples are parallel)

5 −2
e.g. ( ) → 𝑘 ( )
2 5

INTERSECTING LINES/ POINTS OF INTERSECTION

Find the point of intersection of two lines using 1. Write parametric equations for both
their vector equations vector equations
2. Equate the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components
respectively → rearrange into same
structure
3. Solve simultaneously for 𝑠 or 𝑡
 4. Sub 𝑠 or 𝑡 into the 𝑥 and 𝑦 parametric
equations of one of the lines → results
give you (𝑥, 𝑦)

UNIT VECTORS

Unit vector: any vector that has magnitude/ length of 1 unit

Vector length 1 in direction 𝒂 1

𝒂
|𝑎|
Vector length k in direction 𝒂 𝑘
𝒂
|𝑎|

1. Find the unit vector

2. Multiply by k

EQUATIONS

Vector Equation

𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝒕𝒃
𝒓: general position vector of a point on the line

𝑎: given position vector of a point on the line → specific point

𝑡: parameter

𝑏: direction vector
𝑏 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑦 𝑏
*note: if 𝑏 = ( 1 ) then the gradient of the line 𝑚 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 = 𝑥 = 𝑏2
𝑏2 1

If you’re only given 2 points: use AB = OB – OA to find b

Parametric equation: 𝑥 and 𝑦 components

𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑏2

Cartesian Equation

1. Rearrange parametric so that 𝑡 is the subject

𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑦 − 𝑎2
𝑡= 𝑡=
𝑏1 𝑏2

2. Equate the expressions for the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components

𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑦 − 𝑎2
=
𝑏1 𝑏2
Lines in 3D space

• Do not talk about a line’s “gradient”

• Do not look at the Cartesian equations
RELATIONSHIPS B/W LINES

2D 3D
Coplanar (same • Intersecting: 1 POI
plane → can • Parallel: no POI/solutions
connect a straight • Coincident: same line
sheet b/w them)
Non-coplanar Skew: neither parallel nor intersecting
If lines are skew: suppose one line is translated to
intersect w/ the other. Angle b/w lines = angle
b/w intersecting lines

Proving different relationships:

Not coincident Choose random point on one line and show it doesn’t exist on
the other
1. When 𝑠 =?, the point on line L1 is (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
2. L2: for the 𝑦 coordinate to be the coordinate above, 𝑡 =?
3. When 𝑡 =?, the point on L2 is (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
4. Since (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ≠ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), L1 and L2 are not coincident
Skew 1: Do not intersect
1. Do not intersect a. Parametric equations
2. Are not parallel b. Solve for 𝑡
c. Hence, solve for 𝑠
d. Sub 𝑡 value into a/the remaining parametric equation to
find 𝑠 according to this equation
e. If 𝑠 ≠ 𝑠 → there are not 𝑠 and 𝑡 values where all those
lines will all go through
∴ not coincident

2: not parallel → 𝑏1 ≠ 𝑘𝑏2

CLASSIFYING SHAPES

Given the vector equations of sides of a triangle AB and AC meet at A. Thus, to find A:
Find the points 1. Equate parametric equations of AB and
AC
2. Use simultaneous to solve for s/t
3. Sub into original vector AB for A

CONSTANT VELOCITY PROBLEMS

𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏

Initial position 𝑎 (given as coordinates)

Position at 𝑡 Parametric equations (given as coordinates)
Velocity 𝑏
Speed |𝑏|
 Find the position vector at a specific value of 𝑡 1. Write parametric equations
2. Sub 𝑡 values into equations
3. Use the answers as the x and y
components of the vector
Find new velocity if object continues in same New speed = 𝑡(𝑏)
direction but increases/decreases speed What must 𝑡 equal for the new velocity to
equal the speed?
Time when object is due east of (0,0) Position will have a 𝑦 value of 0
Parametric 𝑦 equation = 0
Find t

SHORTEST DISTANCE FROM A LINE TO A POINT

Shortest distance = PERPENDICULAR!!

Find the shortest distance from P to the line (given line’s vector equation and P’s coordinates)

1. Let N be the point on the line closest to P N

2. Write parametric equations for the line
3. Use above in coordinates for N (𝑥, 𝑦) line
4. Find vector of line (with shortest distance) - ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑁
5. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Let line ⋅ 𝑃𝑁 = 0 (find shortest length)
6. Solve ^ for 𝑡
7. Sub 𝑡 into 𝑃𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ to give you a direction vector P
8. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | to find its distance
Take |𝑃𝑁

*Note for Jasmine: this is a more general set of steps for P which accounts for situations where P is
not the origin but you would do the same thing if it was to find the shortest distance from the origin
by just using (0,0) as the point

OBJECTS RELEASED AT DIFFERENT TIMES (torpedos)

• Put 𝑡 in front of both position vectors where 𝑡 = time elapsed since first object released
• Thus, in front of the position vector which is released second, you put 𝑡 − 𝑥 with 𝑥 being
how many s/mins/hrs later it is released